Book ,JQ 8, *7 



1* 

THE 



PRINCIPLES 



OF 



GREEK GRAMMAR; 



COMPRISING THE SUBSTANCE OF THE MOST APPROVED 
GREEK GRAMMARS EXTANT. 



FOE THE 

USB OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 
BT REV. PETER BULLIONS, D. D., 

late pbofessob of languages in the albany academy ; authob op tl 
of geammaes, geeek, latin, and english, on the same 
plan; a gbeek beader, etc. etc. 

THXBTY-SIXTH EDITION, EEVI8ED AND IMPEOVED. 



NEW YORK: 

PRATT, OAKLEY & COMPANY, 

NO. 4 CORTLANDT STREET. 

1858. 



#r\ ΙΑ §** 



,r 



««η 






' 



Entebbe», according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand cignt hundred and 
fifty-three, by Petek Bullions, in the Clerk's office of the District Court 
of the United States for the Northern District of New- York. 



PREFACE. 



This work lias now been so long before the public-, and is so 
well known, that a detailed account of it is unnecessary. It is 
sufficient to say, that the object intended to be accomplished was, 
to provide a comprehensive manual of Greek Grammar, adapted 
to the use of younger as well as of more advanced students in 
our schools and colleges. 

Time and experience have only strengthened the conviction, 
long entertained, that no system of Grammar will answer a good 
purpose, for those who pursue this study at an early age, which 
does not present the leading facts and principles in such a way 
as to be easihj committed to memory, and so to be always ready 
for immediate application when necessary. This principle has 
been steadily kept in view in preparing the following work, as 
well as the others belonging to this series. The leading and fun- 
damental principles have been reduced to definitions and rules, 
brief, and easy to be committed to memory, and are rendered 
comprehensive by being printed in large type ; while, at the 
same time, copious illustrations of these principles, and of the ex- 
ceptions and varieties of usage under them, with every thing im- 
portant to aid the advanced student, have been inserted in their 
place in smaller type, in the form of Observations and Notes, 
all of which are numbered for the sake of easy reference. 

When the leading parts of Grammar are first actually com- 
mitted to memory, and then constantly applied in the inflection 
of words, and in analyzing their forms, they soon become so 
thoroughly understood and fixed in the memory as hardly ever 
to be effaced, and to be always ready afterwards to account for 
every form which words, in their numerous changes, assume, and 
to solve every difficulty caused by these changes almost without 
an effort of thought. A student, though young, if thus exercised 
but for one year or two, has an immense advantage, in the future 
prosecution of his studies, over those who have not laid the foun- 
dation of their success ϊρ a thorough course of drilling. 

In the preface to the first edition, a fall statement was given 
of the principal sources from which the materials here collected 
were drawn, and which need not here be reoeated. Suffice it to 



IV PREFACE. 

say, the author has not hesitated to avail himself of every assist- 
ance within his reach, and to gather from every quarter, espe- 
cially from the ample stores of German Philologists, whatever 
appeared suited to his design. The labor of condensing and 
arranging, and, to borrow a term from the printers' vocabulary, 
justifying the several parts with due regard to harmony and pro- 
portion, into one compact whole, has been very great. 

I would beg leave, in this place, to call the attention of stu- 
dents and of teachers, who have not yet examined the subject, to 
the method of analyzing and forming the tenses of the verb 
which is here exhibited. No part of Greek Grammar has hither- 
to proved so puzzling and harassing to the pupil as this. For 
want of understanding the few simple principles, on which the 
numerous changes in the form of the verb depend, they appear 
to him intricate, arbitrary, and incomprehensible, to such a de- 
gree as to render his prospect of fully mastering them almost 
hopeless. That this is owing, in a great measure, to the method 
of forming the different tenses by deriving one tense from 
another to which it has some real or fancied resemblance, ap- 
pears to me beyond a doubt. As there is no foundation in truth 
for this mode of formation, so almost every writer, following 
imagination as his guide, has proposed a different theory upon 
the subject. One, for example, forms the perfect passive from its 
own future. Another, with equal ingenuity, forms the future 
from its own perfect, through the medium of the first aorist pas- 
sive ! Another supposes he has simplified the whole matter by 
deriving every tense in the passive voice from its corresponding 
tense in the active voice, by making the simple and natural 
change of --Φω into -φΰ•ήσο.μαι, -ξω into -χ&ψαμαι, -ψα into 
-cpd -ην, -ξα into -χ&ψ, -(pa into -μμαι, -χα into -γιιαι, and -κα 
into -μαι, sometimes into -σμαι. Another still, in order to arrive, 
for example, at the first aorist passive, starts with the present 
active, and, by a succession of stages, arrives at the end of his 
journey, thus, σζρεφω, έστρεψα, έστρεφα, εστραμμαι ζστραπχαι, 
εστράφ&ην ; and when he gets there, he finds he has missed 
his way after all, for the first aorist of the verb is not εσζράφϋην 
but εστρέφ&ψ ; and to bring him thither, another rule has to be 
invented nearly as dark as the road he has already travelled ; 
viz., " Verbs which change ε of the future into ο of the rjerfect 
active, and into a of the perfect passive, take ε again in the first 
aorist ; as, εστρατζται, εστρε'φϋ-ψ" What can be more perplex- 
ing and arbitrary than such a process ? It is fortunate for the 
rising generation that such a system is beginning to pass away, 



PREFACE. V 

and to Professor Theirseh, of Germany, must we regard ourselves 
as chiefly indebted for the deliverance. Throwing aside the 
complicated systems of rules and exceptions which such theories 
had rendered necessary, he directs to the more simple and philo- 
sophical method of observing and stating the fact, that the root 
or stem runs unchanged, or but slightly so, through the whole 
verb ; and that one part differs from another in form, only in the 
part prefixed and added to the stem, and that in all verbs these 
parts are nearly the same. Instead, therefore, of forming one, 
tense from another by a tedious and complicated process, even- 
tense is formed at once immediately from its root by simply an- 
nexing the proper tense-ending, and prefixing the augment in the 
tenses that require it. Thus, for the sake of comparison, instead 
of the laborious and clumsy process above ; in order to form the 
1 aor. passive of στρέφω, all that is necessary is to annex the 
aorist tense-ending -&ψ to the root στρε'φ, prefixing the aug- 
ment, and it is done, — you have εστρεφϋ'ην at once ; and so it is 
with every other tense. 

The whole system of forming the tenses from the root, accord- 
ing to this method, is given in a brief space (§ 93) ; and all its 
modifications, as applied to the different classes ' of mute, pure, 
and liquid verbs, occupy only about three pages. By forming 
the tenses in this way, the Greek verb will be found a simple, 
regular, and beautiful structure, as all that belongs to the lan- 
guage is. And I hesitate not again to say, after many years' 
further experience, and after repeated examinations of other the- 
ories, that in my opinion " this method, for beauty, simplicity, and 
philosophical accuracy, greatly surpasses every other system of 
analysis; and that a more minute, familiar, and certain know- 
ledge of the Greek verb can be obtained, with much more ease, 
and in a shorter time, by studying it in this way than in any 
other." 



REVISED EDITION. 

New plates for this work having become necessary, the oppor- 
tunity thus offered has been embraced, to correct such errors and 
inaccuracies as had been observed, — to make such additions and 
improvements as were deemed important, to add to the value and 
completeness of the work, and to render it still more worthy of 
the public favor. In a few instances, the mode of expression has 
been slightly changed, partly to render it more accurate, and 
partly to make the Series of Grammars still more uniform. For 



VI PREFACE. 

this reason, also, a few changes have been made in the arrange- 
ment of the matter ; but none of these are of such a nature or 
extent as to alter the character of the book, or prevent its being 
used in the same class with the former editions. These changes 
are chiefly the following : The general rules for the accents have 
been added to § 5-1, and the special rules for each declension, 
and for verbs, have been transferred from § 209 to their respec- 
tive declensions, &c, in order to be studied in their place ; and 
the rules for contractions, in the first and second declensions, 
have been transferred to these declensions respectively ; so that 
all that belongs to each declension will be found in its proper 
place under that declension. The analysis of the terminations 
of verbs, formerly in the Appendix, has been added to § 91 ; and 
the table of contract verbs, also in the Appendix, has been placed 
after the Paradigm of the Verb, pp. 136, 137. The sections on 
Numerals have been placed before the sections on the Compari- 
son of Adjectives, in accordance with the arrangement in the 
English and the Latin Grammar. And lastly, the section on 
the Analysis of Sentences has been enlarged, and transferred from 
the Appendix to its place immediately after the Syntax. By 
these changes of arrangement, the several articles affected by 
them have been rendered more compact and complete ; and the 
matter belonging to them, being brought together, is less scat- 
tered than before. As a consequence of this, however, the pages 
in this edition do not correspond to those in former editions ; and 
also the section numbers from § 18 to §41 of the former edition, 
and from § 51 to § 59, have been changed, while the matter in 
each section remains the same as before. In order to obviate any 
difficulty from this cause in the way of reference, a list of these 
sections, indicating the change of number, is given on p. xii. 

Thus have the Grammars belonging to this series, viz., the 
Analytical and Practical Grammar of the English Language, the 
Principles of Latin Grammar, and the Principles of Greek Gram- 
mar, been thoroughly revised, and, it is hoped, greatly improved ; 
greater similarity and uniformity have been effected both in ex- 
pression and arrangement, — the references from one work to 
another, for explanation and comparison, have been greatly in- 
creased in number, and in all, a running series of numbers, from 
beginning to end, for the convenience of reference, has been in- 
troduced. No labor or expense has been spared to render this 
whole series of elementary books unique, practical, accurate, and 
comprehensive. Each work, though connected with the others 
as a series, is complete in itself, and being equally remote from 



PREFACE. Vll 

a meagre skeleton, or outline, on• the one hand, and a diffuse, ex- 
tended treatise on the other, is convenient in size, pleasing to the 
eve, and carefully adapted to the purposes of instruction. 

The author takes this opportunity of acknowledging grate- 
fully the favor with which his works have been received by 
teachers and others, and begs leave to assure them, that while no 
change will hereafter be made in those now completed, no effort 
will be wanting to render those he may yet publish, worthy of 
their notice. 

New- York, July, 1853. 



HINTS RESPECTING- THE METHOD OF STUDYING THIS 
GRAMMAR. 

Those who have had experience in teaching the Greek language, will 
need no instructions from rue how to study this, or any other Grammar 
which they may think fit to use; but still a few hints as to the way in 
which it is intended to be used may not be useless to the young teacher, 
or to the student who may be under the necessity of prosecuting his 
studies without a teacher. 

It is by no means intended that the new beginner should study, and 
much less commit to memory, every thing in the book. It is presumed 
that he comes to the study of Greek with some knowledge of the Eng- 
lish and Latin Grammars, and he will therefore throughout meet with 
much with which he is already acquainted, and which will require no 
new labour. In general, definitions and rules printed in large type, to- 
gether with the paradigms of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs, are 
about all that should be attended to at first, but these should be com- 
mitted very accurately to memory, and repeated so often in daily re- 
visals, as to become easy and familiar. If this is not done, the student's 
progress will be slow and embarrassed at every step, which otherwise 
would be rapid, easy, and pleasant. By youth of ordinary capacity, 
this will generally be effected in the course of six or seven weeks. It 
is then time to begin to read easy sentences, simply with a view to fur- 
nish a praxis on the rules and paradigms previously committed. In this 
exercise, every word should be declined, and every rule belonging to its 
inflection should be repeated, till it can be done not only correctly and 
easily, but almost without an effort. Two or three lines a day will be 
sufficient at first — increasing the quantity no faster than the pupil is 
able thoroughly to analyze every word. Simultaneously with this, as a 
part of each recitation, the part of the Grammar already committed 
should be reviewed repeatedly, first, in shorter, and then in longer 
portions, till the pupil is able to run over the whole in a recitation of 
fifteen or twenty minutes. All this may be effected in the space of 
three or four months. Longer lessons will then be proper, and along 
with this, the study of the Grammar, taking up the more important 
parts of what was omitted before, not to commit to memory, but to 
study them so as to become familiar with them, and be able to refer to 
them at once when they may be needed. By going over the Gram- 



7111 PREFACE. 

mar two or three times, in this manner, in the course of a year, every 
part will become connected in the mind with the rules to which these 
parts* belong, so as to be readily recalled by them. 

There are two or three points to which it is necessary for the pupil 
to pay special attention. First, The Rules of Euphony, § 6. To the eu» 
phony of their language the Greeks paid the greatest attention. In or- 
der to avoid the harsh sound which would be the result of certain con- 
sonants coming together, they often exchanged a consonant in certain 
situations for another of more pleasing sound ; sometimes they changed 
their order, sometimes dropped one of them, or inserted another. To 
this is owing, in part, the apparent irregularity in the flection of nouns 
and verbs, which has led to form so many perplexing rules for cases and 
tenses. The rules of euphony extend, not to the flection of nouns only, 
but to the whole structure of the language — to the composition and* 
derivation of words, — and even to the collocation of them in a sen- 
tence. Those principles are few, thoroughly systematized, and very 
easy to be comprehended. This part, and, as fundamental to it, the 
fourth section, should be thoroughly mastered before proceeding to the 
third declension, where these rules will be needed. 

Another thing requiring special attention, and of almost equal im- 
portance, is, the rules for contraction. These should be studied in their 
place after each declension, or they may be omitted till the first re- 
visal. A perfect readiness in the rules of contraction renders a para- 
digm of contract verbs entirely unnecessary. Still, as some may wish 
to have such a paradigm, it is furnished in § 100. 

The last thing to which I would invite special attention, is the mode 
of teaching the Greek verb, which, on account of its numerous changes, 
and these effected differently in different verbs by the rules of euphony, 
according to the consonants of which it consists, or which concur in the 
course of inflection, has been regarded as so intricate and difficult. First 
of all, it is necessary to ascertain, in every verb, the boot, or stem, which, 
in certain cases, undergoes changes peculiar to itself. These, however, 
are few, and under a very few short and plain rules, §§ 82 — 85. On 
these the pupil should be drilled till he can, with perfect readiness and 
certainty, tell the root of any regular verb as soon as the verb is named ; 
and also its second and third forms, when they differ from the first. 
This may be the work of one or two days. To the root is prefixed the 
augment in certain tenses, the rules for which will be found in § 88, 
and require no special notice. The next step is to commit the tables of 
terminations, § 92, very accurately to memory, beginning at the top of 
each column and proceeding down the page ; this will be much more 
easily accomplished than to commit the paradigm of the verb, and will 
answer a better purpose. All that then remains is to learn the method 
of forming each tense by annexing the tense-endings, § 93, to the pro- 
per root, according to the rules for mute, pure, and liquid verbs in 
§§ 94, 96, 97. This is an important exercise, and should be persevered 
in, till the utmost accuracy, ease, and readiness is attained. 

The syntax of the Greek language is a highly important part of the 
subject, and should be diligently and carefully studied ; but this maybe 
postponed to the second year, as the rules of syntax common to the 
Latin and Greek will be sufficient for the earlier stages. The subject of 
analysis and translation, at the end of Syntax, deserves special attention, 



INDEX 



FAGS 

Accents 5 

first declension ... 21 
second declension . . 2j6 
thirl declension . . 29 

verbs 97 

Accusative of 3d decl. . ... 34 
construction of . 250 
governed by an in- 
transitive verb . 252 

Adjectives, of 52 

of the 1st and 2d 

decl 53 

of the 1st and 3d 

decl. . _. . . 55 

of two terminations 59 

irregular .... 61 

comparison of . 67, 68 

by -ίων -ιστός 69 

comparison of irre 

gular .... 70 

defective . . 70 

dialects of .71 

concord of, with a 

substantive . . 206 
other words used as 206 
used adverbially . 268 
obs. on the con 

cord of . . 
pronouns, construe 
tion and use of 
words related, con 
struction of . 
Adverbs, signification of 
formation and 

vation of . . 
comparison of . . 
construction of 
Adverbial particles (insepara 

ble) 

Alphabet 

Anacolutha 

Analysis . 



deri 



206 

210 

221 
186 

188 
189 

267 

190 

1 

284 

294 



P>6B 

Apostrophe ... 8 

Apposition ... . 205 

Article .... . . 51 

dialects of . ... 52 

construction and use of 214 
as a demonstrative pro- 
noun 52, 76 

as a relative and per- 
sonal pronoun 52, 78, 118 

Augment, of 106 

rules for 107 

place of, in compound 

words 109 

observations on . . 109 
Auxiliary verbs 95 

Csesural pause 312 

Case, of 19 

Characteristic of the verb, of . 99 

Circumstances, construction of 259 

of cause or origin . 260 

of limitation . .261 

of cause, manner, 

and instrument . 263 
of place .... 264 
of time .... 265 
of measure . . . 265 
of price .... 266 
of exclamation . . 266 
Comparative deg., construc- 

4 tion and use of 209 

Comparison of adjectives . 67,68 
general rule for . 68 
in -io)v and -ιστός . 69 
irregular. ... 70 
defective .... 70 
dialects of . . . 71 
government of . . 235 

Conjunctions, of 196 

construction of . 292 

signif. and use of 196 

Consonants, of 4 



V 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Contractions, of 24 

of the 1st decl. . 25 

of the 2d decl. . 28 

of the 3d decl. . 41 

general rules for 41 

exercises on . . 42 

special rules for . 43 
examples of . 44-47 

Dative plural, 3d decl. of . . 36 
construction of . . . 241 
after substantives . . 241 
governed by adjectives 242 
by verbals in -τός and 

-τέος 243 

by verbs 244 

by impersonal verbs . 248 
Declension, general rules for . 20 

first 21 

second .... 25 
do. Attic form of 27 

third 29 

gen. of . ... 31 
do. of adj. . . 33 
accusative of . 34 
vocative of . . 35 
dative plural of 36 
dialects of . . 38 
gendera of . . 39 

Deponent verbs 167 

Dialects of the 1st decl. ... 23 
of the 2d .... 27 
of the 3d . . . . . 38 
of the article ... . 52 
of comparison ... 71 
of the pronoun . . 81 
of the verb .... 144 

of Είμί 162 

Diseresis 9 

Diastole 9 

Digamma 8 

Diphthongs 2 

Enclitics 6 

Etymology 15 

Euphony, rules of .... 10 

Figures affecting syllables . 9 

Final letters of the active voice 111 

Final letters of the mid. and 

pas*, voices .... .111 

of verbs in μ» .150 



PAGR 

Gender, of 18 

Genders of the 3d decl. . . 39 

Genitive of do 31 

of adjectives of do. . 33 
obs. on construction 

of 228 

governed by substan- 
tives 229 

by adj. in the 

neut. gender . 231 

by adjectives . 232 

by comp. degree 235 

by verbs . . .236 

Government, of 227 

Imperative mood, syntax of . 276 

Impersonal verbs 168 

construction of . 248 

Indicative, construction of . . 274 

Infinitive, construction of . . 280 

as a verbal noun . .281 

without a subject . 281 

with a subject . .283 

used absolutely . . 285 

Metre, of 307 

Iambic 309 

Trochaic 309 

Anapaestic 309 

Dactylic 310 

Choriambic . . . .310 
Antispastic . . . .311 
Ionic a majore . . .311 
Ionic a minore . . .312 
. Paaonic 312 

Metres compound, of . . .313 
tables of 314 

Mood vowels, of Ill 

Moods, subjunctive and opta- 
tive, construction of . . .276 

Mutes 4 



New present, formation of 


. 170 


Negatives, of . . . . . 


. 269 


double . . . 


. 270 


Nom. case, construction of 


. 223 


concord of ... . 


. 225 


Nouns, of 


. 16 


accidents of . . . 


. 17 


person of ... . 


17 


gender of ... . 


18 


number of . . . 


18 



INDEX. 



XI 



Nouns, case of ... . 
declension of . . 
irregular, of . . . 
defective, of . . . 
of peculiar signific 

tion 

Number, of 

Numbers, cardinal . . . 

ordinal . . . 

notation of . . 

table of . . . 

Numerals, classes of . . . 



PAGE 

, 19 
, 19 
• 48 
. 50 

. 50 
. 18 
. 63 
. 64 
. 65 
. 66 
. 62 



Orthography 



Paradigm of the active voice . 130 
of the middle . .132 
of the passive . .134 
of contract verbs . 136 
of verbs in -μ* . .154 

Participles, of 96 

declension of . . . 5*7 
the construction of . 286 
for the infinitive . . 288 
with λαν&άνο), &c. . 290 
with ιίμί, γίνομαι,, &c. 290 
in the case absolute . 291 
Particles, conjunctive and ad- 
verbial 190, 196 

signification of . .197 

Parts of speech 16 

indeclinable, of the 15 
Passive voice, construction of 

cases with 25*7 

Prepositions, of 191 

alphabetical list of 191 
construction of .272 
in compo- 
sition . 274 
Pronouns, personal .... 72 
possessive . . . 74 
construction of 213 
in apposition . 205 
definite . . . . 74 
construction of 210 
reflexive .... 75 
reciprocal ... 76 
demonstrative . . 76 
construction of 210 
relative .... 77 
concord of . .218 
attraction of 220 



PAGH 

Pronouns, relat, other words 

used as .219 

in the sense of 

other words 220 

interrogative . . 78 

construction of 213 

indefinite .... 79 

construction of 212 

correlative ... 80 

dialects of ... 81 

Prosody 299 

Punctuation 14 

Root of nouns and adj. ... 13 
of the verb, of .... 99 
of finding and changing 99 
second of the . . . .102 

third 103 

verbs wanting 2d and 3d 104 
of the tenses . . . .105 

Sentences, simple and com- 
plex 203, 294 

Spiritus, of the 7 

Superlative degree, construc- 
tion and use of 209 

Syllables δ 

Syntax 203 

parts of 204 

general principles of . 204 
of the verb .... 274 

Table of vowel sounds . . 3 

Tense-root 105 

Tense-signs 105 

Tense-endings 105 

table of 117 

Tenses, of 90 

obs. on the use of . . 93 
of mute and pure verbs, 
formation of . . .117 
examples of . .119 
of liquid verbs, forma- 
tion of .... . 125 
formation, examples of 126 
of verbs in μι,, of . .149 
formation of. . 150 
of verbs formed from 

the primitive . 159, 160 

terminations of . . .111 

table of . . .114 

of verbs in μι, .149 



Xll 



INDEX. 



Verbs, of 82 

different kinds of . .84 

inflection of . . . .85 

auxiliary ... .95 

conjugation of . . .98 

analysis of . . . .99 

root of 99 

characteristic of . . . 99 

augment of 106 

termination of . . . .111 
mute, special rules for . 118 
pure, do. do. .122 
liquid, do. do. . 125 

contract, of 128 

paradigm of . .136 

dialects of 144 

of the 2d conjugation . 147 

Verbs in μι,, tenses of . 150, 160 

root of 149 

final letters 149 

combination of ... 150 
paradigm of . . . .154 

obs. on ...... 158 

irreg. and defective 160, 169 
inflection of . . .161 



ΡΛ6Β 

Verbs, alphabetical list of . .172 

deponent 167 

impersonal 168 

of peculiar signification 168 

concord of 224 

rules and obs. 225 
governing the genitive . 236 
dative . 244 
accus. . 250 
ace. & gen. 253 
ace. & dat. 254 
two accus. 255 

syntax of 274 

Voice, of 85 

active, table of ... 130 
obs. on ... . 138 

nuddle, of 86 

tenses of ... 87 

table of . . . 132 

passive, table of . . .134 

middle and passive, 2d 

conj., obs. on . . . 158 

Vowels, of 2 

pronunciation of . . 3 
"Words 15 



The following is a list of the Sections whose numbers have 
been altered in the present edition.. The first column contains 
the number of the sections in former editions ; the second gives 
the number of the same sections in this edition. All the other 
sections are the same as in former editions. 



18 is 


now § 20 


§ 30 is now 


§33 


§ 51 is now 


§54 


19 


21 


31 


39 


52 


55 


20 


23 


32 


40 


53 


56 


21 


24 


33 


41 


54 


57 


22 


25 


34 


18 


55 


58 


23 


26 


35 


19 


56 


59 


24 


27 


36 


22 


57 


51 


25 


28 


37 


34 


58 


52 


26 


29 


38 


35 


59 


53 


27 


30 


39 


36 


60 


60 


28 


31 


40 


37 


100 


99 


29 


32 


41 


38 


218 


100 



M©ATOIRIH© (IDjR 


AmMmviLimmw® . 


vL&eunt Greefc.MS.S. ScEditims. 




\'<έθ', Ήοωτφ, 


Iw, 


7?- 


Qcvu, 


<Γ^ 7y ιΓ« , 


aj, α•ν, 


'&£ 


Ha) , 


Λ 


«θ, 


ty, ου\, 


Φ 


MOyTOs, 


cry), σ^(,<τθ'α,ο, 


<%, aXX 


«&< 


X8<pcu)\co(X?V 


(Γκ), 


rf mo, 


<γΛ CUV, 


p%. 


/US?/), 


(7ZJ, 


σΆ, 


"θ\:?Ό, CbttO* 


pS, 


μεθ, - 


σ^ϊ 


cf<f, 


a,irv&, rtvX 8, 




/s-e v, 


si 


rfX, 


OirCI^/ ^ CtsVTrCp, 


pJyo, 


μεν, 


Χ> 


*χ> 


; μ) ydp, 


fa* 


[Λ8Του , 


J/3. 


XctsL•, 


tfv, ysv, 


{aJmj, 


μην, 


€ 


*G-Cb 0$ t 


r^ rf, 


f&. 


μΜΐ , 


->J, 


Tj Vl 


J4, ΎοαφεΌσ,ι 


°%Ί>• 


οΐον,ον, 


*Λ> 


rfs, 


'4\ t 


Θ^ 


oS, 


δ%, 


TO, 


&,6Ί^, 


ον, ο ν, 


®Λ, 


to ν, 


ty? tfyr^S'ccC, 


iok, 


ύκ, 


r?fr£ Tor, 


h fy. 




» ■'TTTC/y Ο , 


όΤΚ 


r ors, 




rto l?^ 


rfciG tx. , 


«Γ,/?» 


■Too, 






■ΓΤ; , Ο), 


c-V, £j<j f 


'©V, r^rf, 


*f* 


•ι}κ?. 


Των, 


&.%. e\'U>\. 


**£%;. 


■π ο α, , 


S, 


ν. 




^y t 


-Too, 


? /. 


VI , 


^Ύϋ*, 


■Χ Ο OJ, 


JW, <-»~ρ 


νν, 


™{ y > έ-πε ν, 

'0UU,UOl\ £.-7CO, 
<φ>Ρ* 60, 

X ' 




OOfs, 

ft. 




ί<:7Τθ % 


ey> 


go, 


pCC, 


χα?', 
ω, 


6 ic, 6&τν, 

<C. εν, 

ι — — 




(fcvV , 


Χ*? 



GREEK GRAMMAR. 



PART I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

1. — Oethogeaphy treats of letters, and the mode 
of combining them into syllables and words. 

2. — A letter is a mark or character used to represent an ele- 
mentary sound of the human voice. The Greek alphabet con- 
sists of twenty-four letters, namely : 

FORM. 

A a 

Β β 

Γ γί* 

Α δ 

Ε ε 

Ζ ζ 

Η η 

Θ & 

Ι ι 

Κ κ 

Α λ 

Μ μ 

Ν ν 

£ ϊ 

Ο ο 

Π π 

Ρ (? 

Σ σ, final ς 

Τ τ 7 

Τ ν 

Φ φ 

Ψ ψ 

Ω ω 

* The letter γ before κ, γ, χ, or ξ, is sounded like ng in sing 
thus, άγγίλο^, ciy /.ών, pronounced ang-elos, ang-kon. 



NAME. 


1 


POWER. 




Alpha 
Beta 


a 
b 


in 
in 


father 
bee 


Gamma 
Delta 


9 
d 


in 
in 


9° 
did 


Epalon 
Zeta zz (= 


e 


in 
in 


met 
Nebuchadnezzar 


Eta 
Theta 


th 


in 
in 


they 
thick 


Iota 

Kappa 

Lambda 


i 
I 


in 
or ι 
in 


pin 
; hard, kin, care 
lay, eel 


Mu 


m 


in 


madam 


Nu 


n 


in 


nun 


Xi 


X 


in 


fox 


Omikrori 





in 


tyro, not 


Pi 

Rho 


Ρ 
r 


in 
in 


pea 
roio 


Sigma 


s 


in 


sun, us 


Tau 


t 


in 


tea, not 


Upsilon 

Phi 

Chi 

Psi 

Omega 


u 

ph 
ch 
ps 




in 
in 
in 
in 
in 


brute 

philo 

buch (German) 

lips 

no, tone 



ο 



2 VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. § 1, 2. 

The letters in the Greek alphabet are either Vowels or Con- 
sonants. 



3.— § 1. VOWELS. 

1. A vowel is a letter which represents a simple inarticulate 
sound, and, in a word or syllable, may be sounded alone. The 
vowels are seven ; viz., 

Two short, s, o. 

Two long, η, ω. 

Three doubtful, a, ι, v. 

2. A, iy v, are called doubtful, because they are sometimes 
short, and sometimes long. Thus, 

a in πατήρ, is always short. 

a in λαός," is always long. 

a in Άρης, may be either long or short. 

3. There are but five distinct vowel sounds in the Greek lan- 
guage, viz., α, ε, i, o, v. The η, and ω, are used to express the 
lengthened sound of s and o. The vowel sounds then may be 
thus expressed : 

Short, 8, ο, ά, ϊ, v. 
Long, η, ω, ά, I, v. 



4.— § 2. DIPHTHONGS. 

1. The union of two vowels in one sound is called a diph- 
thong. Diphthongs are of two kinds, proper and improper. 

Note 1. The first vowel of a diphthong in Greek, is called the pre- 
positive vowel ; and the second, the subjunctive vowel. 

2. A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are 
sounded. In Greek, the proper diphthongs are six; and are 
formed from ά, ε, ο, with t or ν subjoined : thus, 

From a are formed ai and av. 
From s are formed st and sv. 
From ο are formed οι and ov. 

3. An Improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the 
vowels is sounded. The improper diphthongs in Greek are also 
six ; viz., αι, ψ, ωι, commonly written a, ?/, φ, in which the first 
vowel only is sounded ; and ην, ων, νι, in which the last vowel 
chiefly is sounded, slightly modified, however, by an imperfect 
sound of the first. These three might very properly be classed 
as proper diphthongs. 



§3. 



PllONUNCIATION. 



Xote 2. The iota («,) in α, η, ω, from its position under the preposi- 
tive vowel, is called iota subscript. But when this vowel is a capital, 
the t, is written after it; as, "Λοΰη = «(5η; το)ϊ σοφωΐ = τω σοφοί. 

4. A vowel, preceded by another vowel, with which it does 
not form a diphthong, is said to be pure. Thus, a is pure in γε'α 
and φιλία ; ος is pure in πολεος, ραδίος, &c. 



55 

§3. THE PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS AND DIPH- 
THONGS. 

5 — The ancient pronunciation of the Greek vowels and diphthongs 
cannot now be determined with certainty in all cases. The knowledge 
we have of it is derived chiefly from Greek words that appear in Latin, 
and Latin words that appear in Greek ; — from imitation of natural 
sounds, as the bleating of the sheep, or the barking of the dog; — from 
a play upon words, and other hints of a similar character. 

6 — If uniformity in the pronunciation of the Greek, is to be aimed 
at — and it is certainly desirable that it should — the Erasmian method, 
among all others now in use, seems entitled to preference as a standard, 
not only on account of its simplicity and perspicuity, but also as having 
the authority of the ancients, so far as this can be ascertained, decid- 
edly in its favor. It is, moreover, the pronunciation that generally 
prevails in Europe, and has been adopted in some of the most distin- 
guished schools in America. The whole system is exhibited in the fol 
lowing 

1. — Table of Vowel and Diphthongal Sounds. 



Short 


«, 


like a 


in Jehovah 


as μονσά 


Long 


a, 


like a 


in far 


as φάρος 


Short 


e, 


like e 


in met 


as μεν 


Long 


y> 


like ey 


in they 


as &ηρός 
as μίν 


Short 


h 


like i 


in tin 


Long 


h 


like i 


in machine 


as αΐτος 


Short 


o, 


like ο 


in tyro, not 


as τόνος 


Long 


ω, 


like ο 


in go, tone 


as εγω, φωνή 


Short 


Vy 


like u 


in brute 


as τνπτω 


Long 


v, 


like u 


in tune 


as κννός 




ai, 


like ay 


in aye 


as zvipai 




av, 


like ou 


in our, thou 


as αντός 




€1, 


like i 


in ice 


as εις, φίλει 




ευ, 


like eu 


in feud 


as φενγω -, 




01, 


like oi 


in oil 


as οϊδα 




ου, 


like ou 


in ragout 


as ουδείς 




ην, 


like ew 


in few 


as ψχομψ 




ων, 


like ow 


in how 


as ωυτός 




VI, 


like ui 


in quick, or 


like tbe English w 



4 CONSONANTS. . §4 

8.— § 4. CONSONANTS. 

1. A consonant is a letter which represents an articulate 
sound, and, in a word or syllable, is never sounded alone, but 
always in connection with a vowel or diphthong. 

Consonants are divided into mutes, semi-vowels, and double 
consonants. 

2. The mutes are nine, and are divided into three classes, ac- 
cording to their strength ; viz. , 

Smooth, π, κ, τ. 
Middle, β, γ, δ. 

Aspirate, φ, χ, &. 

3. By strength is meant the force of voice, or of breathing re- 
quisite in pronouncing, which is different in each of the classes 
specified, — the smooth mutes requiring the least ; the aspirates, 
the greatest ; and the middle, a degree of force intermediate be- 
tween the other two. 

4. Each smooth mute has its own middle and its own aspi- 
rate ; and these three are called mutes of the same sound, or of 
the same order, because they are pronounced by the same organ ; 
thus, 

77-mutes, or labials, η, β, φ. 
i£-mutes, or palatals, κ, γ, χ. 
T-mutes, or dentals, τ, d, &. 

Obs. In mutes of the same sound, one is frequently changed 
for another. 

5. The semi-vowels are five, λ, μ, ν, ρ, ς. Of these λ, μ, ν, ρ, 
are called liquids, because they readily unite with, or floio into, 
•the sound of other consonants. 

6. The double consonants are three, ψ, ξ, ζ. They are formed 
from the three orders of mutes with ς ; thus, 

7t, β, φ, ) ( ψ, ) Γ ps. 

κ > 7> Χ' Γ w ^h S makes < £, V equivalent to < x. 

*,*,#,) a, ) ι z. 

7. In the declension of nouns and verbs, when a sr-mute, or a 
κ -mute, would be followed by ς, the double consonant ψ or ξ is 
substituted for the two ; thus, instead of βίραββι or πλέκσω, must 
be written Άραιρι, πλέξω, <fcc. But a r-mute, coming before ς, 
must be rejected ; thus, for άνιιτσω must be written άννσω, &g> 
44-8. 



§ 5. SYLLABLES. 5 

8. In like manner a double consonant may be resolved into 
the mute from -which it is formed, and g ; thus, 

-ψ may be resolved into izg, fig, or cpg. 

ξ into xg, jg, or χς. 

ζ into τς, dg, or &g. 

This is done when, in the declension of nouns and verbs, i 

becomes necessary to separate the ς from the mute with which i 

is combined ; thus, λαΐλαψ, by dropping the ς becomes λαΐλαπ , 

χόραξ becomes κόρακ ; and so of other combinations. 



§ 5. SYLLABLES. 

9. — A syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole of a 
word, or so much of it as can be sounded at once. 

Every word has as many syllables as it has distinct vowel 
sounds. 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable. 

A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable. 

A word of three syllables is called a Trissyllable. 

A word of many syllables is called a Polysyllable. 

10. — In a word of many syllables, the last is called the final 
syllable ; the one next the last is called the penult, and the sylla- 
ble preceding that, is called the antepenult. 

To syllables belong certain marks and characters : these are — 

1. ACCENTS. 

11. — The accents in Greek are three; viz., the 
acute ('), the grave ( λ ), and the circumflex ("). 

12 — Accents are supposed to have been used to indicate the tone oV 
the accented syllable — the acute being used to mark an elevation c 
tone, the grave a depression, and the circumflex, the union of both. 

GENERAL RULES. 

13. — In diphthongs the accent stands always on the subjunctive 
vowel ; as, πεί&ω, τοντο ; but on the prepositive of the diph- 
thongs a, ?/, φ ; as, "Λιδης = αδης. 

14. — The acute accent may stand on any one of the three last 
syllables of a word ; but on the antepenult, only when the final 
syllable is short. 

15. — The grave is understood on all syllables not accented with 
an acute or circumflex. The grave accent is used on the final 



6 SYLLABLES. 



Ο. 



syllable of a word when followed by another word with which it 
stands in connection ; as, αυτός έλεγε ; but when the word stands 
alone, or not connected with words following it, the acute is used ; 
as, αυτός, — τον αυτόν. 

16. — The circumflex can stand only on a long syllable, and 
that must be one of the two last ; and it can stand on the penult, 
only when the final syllable is short. 

1*7. — An accented penult, if long, and followed by a short sylla- 
ble, must have the circumflex ; but if the final syllable be long, 
the accent on the penult must be acute ; as, τοϋτο, τούτφ, ούτος, 
αυτή. 

18 — Note. The diphthongs αι and ο ν final, syllables long only by 
position, and the Attic ως instead of ος, are considered short in accen- 
tuation ; but the optative terminations ot and ai, and ου in the adverb 
οΓκοί•, are long. 

19 — In words declined by cases, except participles, the accentua- 
tion of the nominative can be ascertained only by consulting a good 
lexicon. That being ascertained, the accentuation of the oblique cases 
may be found by the rules of accent under each declension. These 
rules apply generally to adjectives and participles of the same decle» 



ENCLITICS. 



20. — Certain words of one or two syllables, when used in dis- 
course, throw back their accent on the preceding word, if in con- 
nection with it, and stand themselves without an accent. Such 
words are called enclitics. 

21. — The enclitics commonly in use are the following ; viz., 
1. The present indicative of the verbs ειμί and φημ,ί in all the 
numbers and persons except the second person singular. 2. 
The indefinite τις, τι, in all its cases and numbers. 3. The pro- 
nouns μου, μοί, με — σου, σοι, σε — ου, οι, ε — μίν, viv, and most 
of those beginning with σφ. 4. The adverbs πώς, πή, ποί, πού, 
πο&ί, πο$εν, ποτέ, not interrogative, and, 5. The particles, 
πώ, τε, τοί, Φήν γε', κε'ν or κε, νυν or νύ, περ, ρά, and δε insep- 
arable, as in όδε. 

22. — When a word with an acute accent on the antepenult, or 
a circumflex on the penult, is followed by an enclitic, it takes an 
acute on the final syllable, as the accent of the enclitic ; as, ελεγ& 
μοι, δώρόν εστίν, σώμα μου. 

23. — But if the preceding word have an acute accent on the 
penult, the enclitic of one syllable loses its accent, while the en- 
clitic of two syllables retains it ; as, λόγος μου, — λόγος τινός, — 
λόγος εστίν. 



§ 5. SYLLABLES. 7 

24. — When the preceding word has any accent on the final 
syllable, the enclitic following, whether of one or two syllables, 
loses its accent ; as, άνηρ τις, — φιλώ σε, — χαλετζόν εστίν, — γυν- 
αικών τίνων, &c. 

25. — When several enclitics occur in succession, the first 
having lost, or thrown back its accent on the preceding word, 
the second throws its accent always as an acute on the first, and 
the third on the second, &c, till the last only is without an ac- 
cent ; as, ει τις τίνα φησι μοι παρειναι. 

26. — The enclitic retains its accent when it stands alone, or at 
the beginning of a clause or sentence — when the final vowel of 
the preceding word has been cut off by apostrophe — or when the 
enclitic word is emphatic. 

' ACCENTS IN CONTRACTIONS. 

27. — In a concourse of vowels, if two syllables are converted 
into one, it is called a contraction. 

28. — If the first concurrent vowel has the acute accent, it is 
changed into a circumflex on the contracted syllable ; as, φιλε'ω, 
φιλώ. 

29. — If the first concurrent vowel has not the acute accent, 
the contracted syllable has not the circumflex ; as, γενεος, γένονς. 

2. SPIEITUS OR BREATHINGS. 

30. — The Spiritus, or breathings, are two ; the spiritus asper, 
or rough breathing, marked (' ) ; and the spiritus lenis, or soft 
breathing, marked ('). 

31. — The spiritus asper has the force of the Latin H; thus, 
αμα is pronounced Hama. 

Note. Anciently Η was the mark for the aspirate, in Greek, as it is 
in Latin ; thus, εκατόν was written hekaton. 

32. — The spiritus lenis only indicates that the spiritus asper 
is not to be used. These marks are used as follows : 

1st. A vowel or diphthong, beginning a word, has always a 
spiritus. In the diphthong, it is placed over, the second vowel ; 
as, αμα, εγώ, εύρε, ούτος ; but over the first in the diphthongs a, 
Π,φ. 

2d. Initial ν has always the spiritus asper ; as, υπό, pronounced 
hupo. 

3d. Initial ρ has always the spiritus asper ; as, ρήτωρ, pro- 
nounced rhetor ; ρ not initial, if single, has no spiritus ; if double 



8 SYLLABLES. § δ. 

the first has the spiritus lenis, and the second has the spiritus 
asper ; as, τζόρφ, pronounced poro ; πόρρω, pronounced porrko. 

3. THE MOLIG DIGAMMA. 

33. — The iEolic dialect, the most ancient form of the Greek 
language, had no spiritus asper , and it is seldom used in the 
Ionic. The want of it, in the former, was compensated, in all 
words beginning with a vowel, by a species of aspirate, now 
called the ^eolic digamma. 

34. — This was originally a full and strong consonant having 
the sound of the Latin F or V. It was called digamma, because 
its form (J 1 ) was that of a double f. It is thought to have been 
used by the ancients before words beginning with a vowel, and 
between two vowels, which, bf its disuse at a later period, came 
together without forming a diphthong ; thus, ohog, εαρ, Ίς, oig, 
αιών, αορνος, ώόν, and the like, were written or pronounced as 
if written, ίοΐνος, ϊέαρ, fig, ofig, αϊτών, αΡορνος, ώίόν, &c, 
from which the Latin vinum, ver, vis, ovis, aevum, avernus, ovum, 
<fcc, were evidently derived before the digamma disappeared. 
Between two vowels, it was at length softened down, and even 
with the ^Eolians passed into v. Thus we have ανήρ, ανώς, for 
the common αήρ, ?)eog. This accounts for the form of some 
words in the Attic and common dialects, in which the digamma, 
softened into v, still remains, especially where followed by a con- 
sonant. Thus the ancient χε'ίω passed into χενω, and lastly into 
χεω, which still retains in the future χενσω, the softened form 
of the ancient χεΐ-αω. So κλαίω, Attic κλάω, has in the future 
κλαύσω. In like manner vaeg, the plural of vavg, still retains in 
the dative νανσι, the softened form of the ancient vafoi. 

35. — 4. The Apostrophe (') is written over the place of a short 
vowel which has been cut off from the end of a word ; as, αλλ' 
εγώ, for αλλά εγώ. This is done when the following word begins 
with a vowel, and in compounds, when the first part ends, and 
the last begins, with a vowel; 43-3, 1st. Sometimes the diph- 
thongs are elided by the poets ; as, βουλο^ εγώ for βονλομαι 
εγώ ; and sometimes, after a long syllable, the initial vowel is cut 
off from the following word ; as, ώ ''γαϋ'έ for ώ άγα&έ. 

36. — Exc. Instead of the apostrophe, or cutting off the final 
vowel, the concurring vowels are sometimes contracted ; as, 
προνργον, for προ έργου ; κάκ, for και εκ. 

37 Note. The union, or contraction of such words, is indicated by 

the spiritus being placed over the vowel, at the place of junction, as in 
the preceding examples. 



§ 6. SYLLABLES. 9 

38. — 5. The Diastole is a comma inserted between the parts 
of a compound word, to distinguish it from another -word consist- 
ing of the same letters ; as, τό,ζε, and this, to distinguish it from 
τότε, then ; ο,τι, what, to distinguish it frorn on, because. Some- 
times they are wiitten apart, without the comma ; thus, τό τε, 
δ τι. 

39. — 6. The Dioeresis (") is placed over a vowel, to show 
hat it does not form a diphthong with the vowel which pre- 
cedes it ; as, οίς, a sheep, πραύς, mild, pronounced o-is, pra-us. 

40. — 7. The figures affecting syllables are as follows : 

1st. Prosthesis is the prefixing of one or more letters to the 

beginning of a word; as, σμικρός, for μικρός; εείκοσι, for 

είκοσι. 
2d. Paragoge is the adding of one or more letters to the end 

of a word ; as, ησ&α, for ης ; τοΐσι, for τοις. 
3d. Epenthesis is the insertion of one or more letters in the 

body of a word ; as, ελλαβε, for έλαβε ; οππότερος, for 

οπότερος. 
4th. Syncope, is the taking away of one or more letters from 

the body of a word ; as, ήλϋ-ον, for ηλυ&ον ; ενράμην, for 

ενρησάμην. 
5th. Aphceresis is the cutting off of one or more letters from 

the beginning of a word ; as, στεροπι], for άστεροπή ; 

όρτή for εορτή. 
6th. Apocope is the cutting off of one or more letters from 

the end of a word ; as, δώ, for δώμα ; Ποσειδώ, for Πο- 
σειδώνα. 
7th. Tmesis is a separating of the parts, in a compound word, 

by an intervening term ; as, υπέρ τίνα εχειν, for νηερ- 

εχειν τινά. 
8th. Metathesis is the transposition of letters and syllables ; 

as, επρα&ον, for επαρ&ον ; εδρακον, for εδαρκον ; κάρτος, 

for κράτος. 
41. — Obs. The Ionians, by a species of Metathesis, change the 
breathing in a word ; as, κι&ών, for χιτών ; εν&αϋτα, for ενταν&α. 



§ 6. EUPHONY. 

42. — In combining letters into words, the Greeks paid the 
strictest attention to Euphony, or agreeableness of sound. This 
principle, indeed, pervades the whole structure of the language. 
Fi-om a regard to this, they carefully avoided every concurrence 



10 EUPHONY. § 6. 

of consonants not easily pronounced together. The means by 
which this is effected may be summed up in the following — 

43. — KULES OF EUPHONY. 

(It is of great importance for the student to be very familiar with 
the following rules, and expert in applying them, before he enters on 
the 3d declension, as they are then required in almost every step. To 
aid him in this, a table of exercises is subjoined, in which he should 
practise, till he can correct the orthography, and give the rule with the 
greatest ease and readiness.) 

1. Words ending in 6 c, and verbs of the third 
person in ε and i y add ν to the termination before 
a vowel, or before a pause ; as, 

Πασιν εϊπεν εκεϊνοις, for πάσι είπε εκεΐνοις; also the word 
είκοσι (twenty), and the adverbs πε'ρνσι, παντάπασι, νόσφι, 
πρόσ&ε, οπισ&ε, κε and w. This was called by grammarians ν 
εφελκνστίκόν, because, by preventing the hiatus between two 
vowels, it, as it were, drew the second vowel to the first. Among 
the poets, it is sometimes added to these terminations before a 
consonant, when it is necessary to render a final syllable long ; 
and sometimes, by the Attic prose writers, to give energy to the 
tone. 

Sometimes ς is added, on the same principle ; thus, οντω be- 
comes όντως. Also the particle ov is changed into ονκ before a 
vowel, and into ονχ before an aspirated vowel. 

2. When two mutes of a different sound come 
together, they must be of the same strength; i. e. 
they must be both smooth, or both middle, or both 
aspirate ; as, επτά, άβδελον, άχ&ος. 

If, by derivation or declension, two mutes of different strength 
would come together, the former must take the class of the latter ; 
thus, the terminations τος, δψ, &εις, with γράφω, the ω being 
omitted, form γραπτός, γράβδψ, γραφΰείς; and of two mutes 
already combined, one cannot be changed without a correspond- 
ing change in the other. Thus in επτά and οκτώ, if the τ be 
changed into δ, the π must be changed into β, and the κ into γ ; 
as, επτά, έβδομος ; οκτώ, όγδοος. 

3. A smooth mute in the end of a word is 
changed into its own aspirate before an aspirated 
vowel. This is done,— 



§6. EUPHONY. 11 

1st In the composition of words ; thus, from In (for sVrt) and 
ημέρα, comes εφήμερος. So from επτά, by apostrophe, 
επτ, and ημέρα, comes εφ&ημερος ; from κατά and ενδω, 
κα&ενδω, &c. 

2d. When words stand together in a sentence; thus, εφ' 
ημϊν, καθ 1 ' ημάς, αφ' ου, <fcc, for επι ήμΐν, κατά ημάς, άπο 
ου. 

3d. When words are united by contraction ; thus, το ιμάτιο* 
united become ΰοιμάτιον ; το έτερον, Φάτερον, &c. 

Obs. 1. The middle mute δ is never changed before an aspi- 
lated vowel ; as, οϊκαδ' 1 ικέσ&αι; and β and γ, only before a, and 
«/v in forming the perfect and the pluperfect active, 218, Obs. 2. 
—The κ in in is never aspirated. 

4. When two successive syllables would begin 
with an aspirate, the first is changed into its own 
smooth ; and the spiritus asper, into the spiritus 
lenis / thus, 

Πεφίληκα, not φεφίληκα ; &ρίξ, Gen. τριχός, not Φριχός ; so 
from the root &ρεχ, the verb is τρέχω, not &ρέχω ; from χ9•ρεφ, 
τρε'φω, not -Θρέφω ; from εχ, εχω, not έχω. (See below, 06s. 
3.) In like manner from Φαφ, the root of θάπτω (R. 2.), is de- 
rived τάφος, <fcc. 

Exceptions. To this rule there are five excep- 
tions; viz., 

Exc. 1. Compound words generally ; as, ορνιθοθήρας, εφυφη. 

.Exc. 2. Φ or χ before ϋ ; as, φάθι, χν&ηναι. 

Exc. 3. When one of the aspirates is joined with another 
consonant ; as, Φαφθείς, άπέφ&ν&ον, πυθέαθαι. But the rule 
holds when ρ follows the first aspirate, as above in τρέχω, not 
&ρέχω. 

Exc. 4. If the second aspirate has been occasioned by a spiri- 
tus asper following it ; as, ε&ηχ 6 άνθρωπος, for έθηκ ', by apo- 
ccpe for έθηκε ; πέφευχα for πέφευγ-ά ; and so of others. 

Exc. 5. When the second aspirate belongs to the adverbial 
terminations θεν or θι ; as, πανταχόθεν, Κορινθόθι. 

Obs. 2. Of three aspirates beginning successive syllables, it is 
usual to change only the first ; as, τεθάφαται for θεθάφαται. 
In some cases, however, the second also is changed ; as, τέτα- 
φα, τέτροφα, for θέθαφα, θέθροο?α. 

Obs. 3. When the first of two aspirates is the spiritus asper, 



12 EUPHONY. § 6 # 

it is changed only before χ ; thus, o&ev, οϋι, ηφα, &c, preserve 
the spiritus asger before the aspirates & and φ ; but εχω must be 
changed into εχω. 

Obs. 4. When the second aspirate is lost by inflection or 
otherwise, the first ^ is resumed; thus, εχω, fut. εξω ; •ζ'ρδχω, 
ϋρέξω ; τ^φω, #ρε'ψω ; and the derivatives ΰρεπτός, &ρεπ- 
ttxog, &c. 

Obs. 5. The second of two aspirates is seldom changed. It 
is always done, however, in imperatives in &i ; as, η&εη, τνφ- 
&qn ; for τί&ε&ι, τυφ&•η&ι, 

Obs. 6. A mute may be doubled, but if tibe an aspirate, the 
first is changed into its own smooth ; as, Ατ&ίς, not Α&&ίς ; 
Βάκχος, not Βάχχος ; Ματ&αΐος, not Μαϋ&αϊος ; Σαπφώ, not 
Σαφφώ. 

5. Initial ς> is doubled when a snort vowel is 
prefixed; as, 

'Ρίπτω, ερριπτον; άρρεπής, from a and ρέπω; περίρροος, 
from 57δξ>ί and ρεω. 

44. 1. THE MUTES BEFORE Σ. 

6. A nr-nmte before d, unites with it and forms 
?// ; as, λείπω, λείπΰω, written λείψω. 

7. A minute before 6, unites with it and forms 
ξ ; as, ηκύ), ηκϋω, written ηξω. 

Exc. But εκ never changes κ before σ ; as εκβτελλω. 

8. A r-mute before a, is rejected ; thus, 

σώματσι, κδσω, ορνν&βι 
written ϋώμαβι ασω ορνισι. 

45. II. THE MUTES BEFORE Μ. 

9. A π -mute before μ, is changed into μ ; thus, 

τετνπμαι, τέτριβμαι, γύγρα(ρμαι, * 

written τετνμμαι, τετριμμαι, γεγραμμαι. 
Exc. But after a liquid, a ίΤ -mute before μ. is rejected ; as, 
πεπεμμαι, for πεπεμπμαι : — τεϋαλμαι, for τε'ΰαλπμαι. 

10. A #-mute before ^ is changed into γ ; thus, 

πεπλεκμαι, βεβρεχμαι, 
written πεπλεγμαι, βίβρεγμαι. 
Hence γ before μ, remains unchanged ; as, λελεγμαι. 



§ β. EUPHONY. t 13 

11. A r-mute before μ, is changed into β ; thus, 

ψυτμαι, ϊρειδμαι, πε'πει&μαι, 
written ψνσμαι, ηρεισμαι, πέπεισμαι. 
Obs. Υ. To these rules, there are some exceptions in substan- 
tive forms, as, ακμή, not άγμη ; πότμος, not πόσμος. 



46. III. CHANGES OF THE LETTER N. 

12. N, before a ,τ -mute, or ψ, is changed into 
μ) thus, 

λινηάνω, λανβάνω, ενφύς, ενχρυχος, 

written λιμπάνω, λαμβάνω, εμφύς, εμ-ψυχος. 

13. iV, before a ar-mute, or g, is changed into γ ; 
thus, 

ενκειμαι, φυνγάνω, τννχάνω, πλάνξω, 
written εγκειμαι, φνγγάνω, τυγχάνω, πλάγξω. 

14. Ν, before a r-inute, remains unaltered ; as, 

εντός, συνδέω. 

15. Ν, before another liquid, is changed into 
the same ; thus, 

ενμενω, συνλαμβάνω, συνράτιτω, 
written εμμένω, συλλαμβάνω, συόράπτω. 

16. Ν, before 6 or ζ, is usually rejected ; thus, 
δαίμονσι, σύνζευξις, — written δαίμοσι, σύζευξις. 

Obs. 8. TV is retained before σ only in a few words ; as, 
Τιρυνς, ελμινς, πε'φανσαι. Before σ followed by a vowel, ν in συν 
is changed into σ ; thus, συσσευω, συσσίτια, for συνσεύω, συνσιτία. 
Έν retains ν before ρ, σ, ζ. 

4*7. IV. OF THE LETTER Σ. 

17. In the inflection of the passive voice, when 
a would stand between two consonants, it is re- 
jected; thus, 

λελείπ-σ&ων, τετρίβ-σ&αι, λελε'γ-σ&ωσαν. 
without σ, λελείπ-&ων, τετρίβ-β-αι, λελεγ-Οωσαν. 
by rule 2, λελείφ&ων, τετρίφ&αι, λελέχ&ωσαν. 
And so from t /γγεΐσϋ-αι, ?ιγγελ&αι ; from πεφανσ&ον, Λεφαν- 
&ον, or πέφασ&ον. 

2 



14 



PUNCTUATION. 



%% 



Obs. 9. But when the first consonant is a τ -mute, it is re- 
jected, and β remains (Rule 8), thus : 

εσκεναδ-σϋ-ε, πε'πειϋ'-σΰ-ε. 
become εσκενασ&ε, πε'πεισ&ε. 

18. When both ν and a τ- mute together, are 
cast out before a, s preceding it is changed into 
ετ, o into ov, and a doubtful vowel is lengthened ; 
but η and ω remain unchanged ; thus, 

τυφΰεντσι becomes τνφϋ-εϊσι ; 
οπενδσω σπείσω ; 

λέοντσι λέουαι ; 



τνψανται becomes τνιράσι ; 

γίγαντσι 

δείκννντσι 



γιγασιχ 
δείκννσι. 



Obs. 10. In some instances, and perhaps always in the nomi- 
native, this alteration takes place when ν only has been rejected ; 
thus, from &νς, ταλάνς, μελάνς, come εις, τάλάς, μέλας. 

19. WJien two consonants meet, which are not 
easily pronounced together, the pronunciation is 
sometimes relieved by transposing them, or by in- 
serting a third consonant between them ; thus, 

επαρ&ον by metathesis (40-8th) επραϋ-ον. 
άνέρος, by syncope άνρός, by inserting δ (40 -3d) ανδρός. 

48. — Table of words to be corrected according 
to the foregoing rules : 

(Let the pupil always give the rule for the correction.) 

ληβσω 

επράγ-&ην 

ενβάλλω 

τνπτοντσι 

τυπ&εντσι 

πενΰβομαι 

λεονται 

ισταντσι 

κρνβτω 



49. — The marks οι punctuation in Greek are, the 
comma Q ; the colon and semi-colon (•) ; the pe- 
riod (.) ; and mark of interrogation (;). 



ελιπε ov 


εϋηκ' Ό 


ω&μαι 


λείπαω 


φασί εκ — 


(ρε'φακα 


αννπλεκω 


σννγονος 


έλεγε ονς 


Ό-έΰεικα 


ενβαίνω 


ενχεω 


είπε 


αγσει 


σννφερω 


σννξε'ω 


παισί 


πλε'κσω 


ενιρνχος 


ενλείπω 


είσί 


άφσαι 


ενκλίνω 


σννμενω 


voacpi 


πείϋσω 


χε'χρημαι 


ΰννρέω 


τνπϋώ 


ανντσον 


έχεις 


σννληψς 
τετνπσ&αι 


uacpzo 


λελεπμαι 


Αϋ&ίς 




PUNCTUATION. 



§ 8. WORDS. 15 



PAET II. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

50. — Etymology treats of the different sorts of 
words, their various modifications, and their deri- 
vations. 

§ 8. WORDS. 

51. — "Words are certain articulate sounds used 
by common consent as signs of our ideas. 

1. In respect of Formation, words are either 
Primitive or Derivative ; Simple or Compound. 

A Primitive word is one that comes from no other ; as, παις, 
άγα&ός. 

A Denvative word is one that is derived from another word ; 
as, παιδεία, άγα&ότης ; from παις, άγα&ός. 

A Simple, word is one that is not combined with any other 
word ; as, βάλλω. 

A Compound word is one that is made up of two or more 
simple words ; as, εκβάλλω, from εκ and βάλλω. 

2. In respect of Form, words are either De- 
clinable or Indeclinable. 

A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes of 
form or termination, to express the different relations of gender, 
number, case, person, <fcc, — in grammar, usually termed Acci- 
dents. 

Obs. 1. In every declinable word, there are at least two parts, 
the root or stem, and the termination. The root remains un- 
changed, except by euphony, in all the different forms which the 
word assumes. The termination is added to the root, and is 
varied, to produce these different forms. 

Obs. 2. The variation of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and par- 
ticiples, is called Declension; that of verbs, Conjugation or Inflec- 
tion. 

An Indeclinable word is one that undergoes no change of ter- 
mination. 



16 PARTS OF SPEECH. — THE NOUN. § 9, 10. 

3. In respect of Signification and Use', words 
are divided into different classes, called Parts of 
Speech. 



j § 9. PARTS OF SPEECH. 

52. — The Parts of Speech in the Greek lan- 
guage are eight ; viz., 

1. Noun or Substantive, Article, Adjective, 
Pronoun, Verb, declined. 

2. Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, unde- 
clined. 

Note. Any part of speech used simply as a word, and spoken of, 13 
regarded as a noun ; thus, *Εγώ is a dissyllable ; πώς is an adverb ; i. e. 
the word ly&i, the word πώς, written in Greek το εγώ, το πώς. — Thus 
used it is indeclinable. 

Obs. 1. The participle, regarded by some as a distinct part of 
epeech, properly belongs to, and forms a part of, the verb. 

Obs. 2. In Greek, the interjections are considered, by most 
Grammarians, as adverbs. 



§ 10. THE NOUN. 

53. — A Noun is the name of any person, place, 
or thing. 

Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common. 

1. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an 
individual only ; as, 'Όμηρος, *Α&ηναι ; Homer, 
Athens. 

Among these may be included, 

1st. Patronymics, or those which express one's parentage, or 
family ; as, Πριαμίδης, the son of Priam. 

2d. Gentile, or Patrial, which denote one's country ; as, 
ΐΑ&ηναΐος, an Athenian. 

2. A Common Noun is a name applied to all 
things of the same sort ; as, άνηρ, a man ; οίκος \ 
a house / βίβλος, a booh. 



§11. ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. 17 

54. — Under this class may be ranged, 

1st. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, which signify 
many in the singular number ; as, λαός, people. 

2d. Abstract nouns, or the names of qualities; as, άγα&ότης, 
goodness. 

3d. Diminutives, or nouns which express a diminution in the 
signification of the nouns from which they are formed ; as, nai- 
δίον, a little boy ; from παις. 

4th. Amplificative nouns, or those which denote an increase 
in the signification of the nouns from which they are formed ; 
as, κεφάλων, a person who has a large head ; from κεφάλη. 

Note. A proper noun is the name of an individual only, and is used 
to distinguish that individual from all others of the same class. A 
common noun is the name of a class of objects, and is equally applicable 
to all the individuals contained in that class. 



§ 11. ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. 

55. — To Greek nouns belong Person, Gender, 
Number, and Case. 

1. PERSON. 

56. — Person, in grammar, is the distinction of 
nouns as used in discourse, to denote the speaker, 
the person or thing addressed, or the person or 
thing spoken of. Hence, 

57. — There are three persons, called the First, 
Second, and Third. 

A noun is in the first person, when it denotes the speaker or 
writer ; as, 'Εγώ Παύλος έγραψα, " I Paul have written it." 

A noun is in the second person, when it denotes the person or 
thing addressed ; as, Μαίνη, Πανλε, " Paul, thou art beside thy- 
self." 

A noun is in the third person, when it denotes the person or 
thing spoken of; as, Ό Πανλος εφη, "Paul said." 

Note. Person has nothing to do either with the form of a noun, or 
with its meaning ; but simply with the manner in which it is used. 
Hence, the same noun may at one time be in the first person; at 
another, in the second ; and at another, in the third, as in the preced- 
ing examples. 



18 ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. §11. 

2. GENDER. 

58. — Gender means the distinction of nouns 
with regard to sex. There are three genders, 
Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 

Of. some nouns, the gender is determined by their signified 
tion ; — of others, by their termination. 

The Masculine gender belongs to all nouns which denote the 
male sex. 

The Feminine gender belongs to all nouns which denote the 
female sex. 

The Neuter gender belongs to all nouns which are neither 
masculine nor feminine. Also to any term used simply as a 
word ; as, το πώς, 52, Note. 

Nouns which denote both males and females are said to be 
of the Common gender, i. e. they are both masculine and femi- 
nine. 

The gender of nouns not determined by their signification, is 
usually to be ascertained by their termination, as will be noticed 
under each declension. 

Obs. 1. In Greek lexicons and grammars, the gender is indi- 
cated by the article ; viz., 6 indicates the masculine, η, the femi- 
nine, and to, the neuter ; as, ό άνήρ, the man ; η γννη^ the wo- 
man ; το ζώον, the animal. 

3. NUMBER. 

59. — Number is that property of a noun by 
which it expresses one or more than one. 

Greek nouns have three numbers, the Singular, 
Dual, and Plural. The Singular denotes one; 
the Plural more than one. 

The Dual denotes two, and is most commonly used in speak- 
ing of those things which are produced, or are usually spoken of, 
in pairs. 

Obs. 2. In the oldest state of the Greek language, the dual is 
not used. It is not found in the JEolic dialect — in the New 
Testament — in the Septuagint, — nor in the Fathers. It is most 
common in the Attic dialect, in which, however, the plural is 
often used instead of it. 



§ 12. DECLENSION. 19 

4. CASE. 

60. — Case is the state or condition of a noun 
with respect to the other words in a sentence. 

61. — Greek nouns have five cases; viz., the 
Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and 
Vocative. 

1st. The Nominative case, for the most part, denotes the 
name of an object simply, or as that of which something is 
affirmed. 

2d. The Genitive connects with the name of an object, the 
idea of separation, origin, possession. 

3d. The Dative represents the thing named as that to which 
something is added, or to or for which something is said or done. 

4th. The Accusative represents the thing named, as affected 
or acted upon by something else, and also, as the object to which 
something tends or relates. 

5th. The Vocative is used when persons or things are ad- 
dressed. 

Obs. 3. There is no Ablative case in Greek, as in Latin. Its 
place is supplied by the genitive and dative. 

Obs. 4. All the cases except the nominative, are called ob- 
lique cases. 

§ 12. DECLENSION. 

62. — Declension is the mode of changing the 
terminations of nouns, adjectives, &c. 

63. — Words declined by cases, consist of two parts, — the Boot 
and the Termination. 

64. — The Root is that part which remains unchanged by in- 
flection, except as required by the rules of euphony. It consists 
of all that precedes the termination in the genitive singular ; thus 
Gen. τιμ -tjg, λόγ-ον, λάμπαδ-ος. Roots, τιμ, λογ, λαμπαδ. 

65. — The Termination is that part which, by its changes, 
indicates the different cases and numbers. 

QQ. — Nouns, — and also adjectives, pronouns, and participles, 
■ — are declined by annexing the terminations, or case-endings, to 
the root. Except the accusative in v, of the third declension, 
102. 



20 



DECLENSION OF NOtJNS. 



§13 



67. — In Greek, there are three declensions, cor- 
responding to the first, second, and third, in Latin. 
They are distinguished as follows : 

The first declension has the genitive in ας, or ης, from feminine 
nominatives ; or in ov from masculine nominatives in ας or ης. 

The second has the genitive in ov, from ος or ov. 

The third has the genitive in ο ς whatever be the nominative. 
The difference between these declensions will be seen at one 

view in the following : 

68. — Table of Terminations. 



First Declension. 




Second. 


Third. 


Nom. α, η, 


ας, 


ης, 


ος, neut. ov, 


α, ι, ν, ω, ν, ξ, ρ, ς, ψ, 


Gen. ας, ης, 


ov, 


ov, 


ov, 


ος, 


Dat. a, rj, 


Vl 


V, 


Φ» 


ι, 


Ace. αν, ην, 


av, 


ην, 


ov, 


a, Exc. as 102, & 69-2 


Voc. α, η, 


a, 


η. 


ε, neut. ov. 
Dual. 


like nom. Exc. as 104 


Ν. Α. V. a, 






ω, 


s> 


G. D. aiv. 






οιν. 

Plural. 


OIV, 


Nom. ai, 






οι, neut. a, 


ες, neut. a, 


Gen. ων, 






ων, 


ων, 


Dat. αις, 






οις, 


(SI, 


Ace. ας, 






ονς, neut. α, 


ας, neut. a, 


Voc. αι. 








ες, neut. a. 


01, • ,(«. 



§ 13. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
69. — GENERAL EULES. 

1. The vocative for the most part in the singu- 
lar, and always in the plural, is like the nomina- 
tive. 

2. Nouns of the neuter gender have the nomi- 
native, accusative, and vocative alike; and these 
cases in the plural end always in a. 



§ 14. FIRST DECLENSION. 21 

3. The dative singular ends always in i y either 
annexed or written under. 

4. The nominative, accusative, and vocative 
dual are alike ; so also the genitive and dative. 



§ 14. FIRST DECLENSION. 

70. — The First Declension has four termina- 
tions of the nominative singular; two feminine, 
η, a ; and two masculine, ης, ας. Of these, the 
principal termination is η. 

ACCENTS. 

71. — Words in the first declension are accented 
according to the following — 

72. — SPECIAL EULES. 

1. The genitive plural, for the most part, has 
the circumflex on the final syllable. 

Exc. The exceptions are the feminine of adjectives and parti- 
ciples in ος, not accented on the last syllable ; and the words 
χρήστης, ετεσίαι, and άφνη, which have χρηστών, ετεσίων, άφύων. 

2. In the other cases, so far as the general rules 
permit, the accent always remains on the same 
syllable as in the nominative. 

3. When the accent in the nominative singular 
is on the termination, all genitives and datives 
have the circumflex on the final syllable. 

QUANTITY. 

73. — Nouns in a with the genitive in ης have a short, except 
in the nominative dual and accusative plural, which are always 
long. Xouns which have the genitive in ας, have a long. To 
this there are a few exceptions. 



22 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



§15,16 



74. — Paradigm of Nouns in η : τιμή, honour. 



Sing. 
Ν. τιμ-ή, 
G. τιμ-ής, 
D. τιμ-ν, 
Α. τιμ-Ίΐν, 
V. rtjtt-^. 



Dual. 

N. A. V. *«*-(£, 
G. D. τιμ-αΐν. 



Plural. 
Ν. τιμ-αί, 
G. τιμ-ών, 
D. τιμ-αϊς, 
Α. τιμ-άς, 
V. τιμ-αί. 



75. 



15. SPECIAL RULES FOR FEMININE NOUNS. 



1. Nouns in « have the accusative singular in 
av. 

2. Nouns in a pure (4-4), and ρα, retain a in 
all the cases of the singular. 

Obs. To these may be added a few words ending in δα, &a, 
and a, circumflex, contracted for άα ; and a very few in λα and 
μα. Such words have cc always long ; as, Φιλομήλα, Gen. Φιλομή- 
λας, <fec. 

76. — EXAMPLES. 



1. 



3. 



Ν. φιλί-α, friendship. Ν. ήμερ-α, a day. 

G. φιλί-ας, G. ημέρ-ας, 

D. φιλί-α, D. ήμερ-α, 

Α. φιλί-αν, Α. ήμέρ-αν, 

V. φιλί-α. V. ήμί'ρ-α. 

Note. In the dual and plural, all nouns of this declension are de- 
clined like τ»μϊ/. 



Ν. MbW -α, α mwse. 
G. Μονσ-ης, 
D. Μονα-χι, 
Α. Μοίσ-α*', 
V. Μονα-α. 



77.— §16. SPECIAL RULES FOR MASCULINE NOUNS. 

1. Nouns in ^ς and «ς have the genitive in ου' 
and lose ς in the vocative. 

Ota. 1. Some nouns in ας have the genitive in ov or a; as, 
τζατραπλοίας, gen. πατραηλοίον, or ηατραπλοία, a parricide 
Some have α only ; as, Θωμάς, gen. Θωμά, Thomas. 

2. Nouns in z -^ς have ee in the vocative ; those 
in ότης have either η or a] as, 

Ποιητής, voc τιοιητά ; ληστής, voc. λί/στ// or ληστά. 



§17. 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



23 



Obs. 2. Nouns denoting a people or natior ; as, Πέρσης, a 
Persian ; compounds in πης ; derivatives froi ι μετρώ, πωλώ, 
and τρίβω ; also λάγνης, Μεναίχμης, and Πνραίχμης, have the 
vocative in a. 

3. In the other cases, masculine nouns are de- 
clined like the feminine, to which their termina- 
tions correspond. 





78. — EXAMPLES. 




1. 


Singular. 
2. 3. 


4. 


Atrides. 


Citizen. 


Youth. 


Pythagoras. 


Ν. Λτρείδ-ης, 
G. Λτρείδ-ον, 
D. Λτρείδ-η, 
Α. Λιρείδ-ην, 
V. Λτρείδ-η. 


πολίτ-ης, 

πολίτ-ον, 

πολίτ -n, 

πολίτ-ην, 

πολϊτ-α. 


νεανί-ας, 

νεανί-ον, 

νεανί-α, 

νεανί-αν, 

νεανί-α. 


Πν&αγόρ-ας, 

Πνχταγόρ-ον, 

ΤΙυ{ταγόρ-α, 

Πνΰαγόρ-αν, 

Πνϋ-αγόρ-α. 



The dual and plural of masculine nouns are the same as the 
dual and plural of τιμή. 

Obs. Since the termination ης, belongs also to the third de- 
clension, it may be observed, that to the first pertain the nouns 
in ίδης or άδης ; as, Θονκιδίδης, Αλκιβιάδης ; — the names of na- 
tions ; as, Σικελιώτης ; — nouns in της, derived from verbs ; as, 
ποιητής from ποιέω ; — compounds from όνονμαι, I buy ; μετρώ, 
I measure ; τρίβω, I rub, wear, train ; πωλώ, I sell ; and from 
words of this declension ; e. g. Όλνμπιονίκης, from νίκη ; άρχε 
δίκης, from δίκη. 



§ 17. DIALECTS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 

79. — Besides the regular terminations exhibited in the para- 
digms, many words are found in different cases declined accord- 
ing to some of the peculiar dialects. In the tables of termina- 
tions, A. denotes Attic, I. Ionic, D. Done, M. JEolic : but the 
distinctions are not strictly observed in every instance, — the same 
peculiarities sometimes occurring in two. and sometimes in three 
dialects. The following words are exhiuited as examples, but it 
is not to be inferred that each part of them will actually be found 
in the Greek authors. 



24 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



§18. 



Singular. 



Nom. 
D. cc, 



Χιμ-ΐ] 
μονσ-α ) 
φολία ) 
Πνϋαγόρ-ας, I. 



V> 



-ης 



j D. He. [ 
(Μα. ) 



Gen. 


Dat. 


-^ς, D. ας. 


-η, D. α. 


-ης, D. ας. 


-η, D. α. 


-ας, Ι. ης. 


-ά, Ι. υ . 


(Ι. ίω. 


-α, Ι. η. 


-ον, < D. α. 
( ίΞ. αο. 


-?Ι> D• «• 



Ace. 
-τ/ν, D. άν. 

> -αν, L iyr. 






Voc. 




-i D. 


ά. 


-α, I. 


ί? 


j Α. 
" α > ( Α. 


ας. 



Norn. 



τψ-αι 



Ger 
"Ι. 
D. 


L. 

εων. 
άν, & 


^Μ. 





Plural. 
Dat. 



Ace. 



■ας, 



j I. eaff. 
( Μ αΐς. 



Voc. 



■at. 



-afc, I. rjg, & 

D. & Α. αΐσι. 

Thus, μητιετης, Μ. μητιε'τα, a wise person ; Πηλείδου, Ι. Πψ 
λείδεω, of Ρ elides ; Αινείου, Μ. ΑΙνείαο, of uEneas ; Θηβαϊς, 
Ι. Θηβ^ζ, or Θηβησί, in Thebes ; όλοά, Ι. όλοή , pernicious / χρι/- 
σβα, Ι. χρνσεη, golden. For the genitive and dative in φι or φιν, 
see 8 31. 



§18. CONTRACTIONS. 

80. — In a concourse of vowels, if two syllables 
are converted into one, it is called a Contraction. 
Of contractions there are two kinds : 

1. A contraction without a change of vowels is 
called Synoeresis ; as, τείχεϊ, by syndesis, τείχει. 

2. A contraction with a change of vowels is 
called Crasis / as, γ toe, γή ; — φίλε ε, φίλει ; — νόον 9 
νουν ; — όΰτεον, όΰτοϋν. 

Obs. If the first of the concurrent vowels has an acute accent, 
it is changed into a circumflex on the contracted syllable. If 
the first concurrent vowel has not an accent, the contracted sylla 
ble has not the circumflex, 28, 29. 

3. In the rules for contractions generally, let it be remembered 
that 

the two short vowels, ε, ο, 

have their own long vowels, η, ω, 
and their own diphthongs, ει, ου. 
Note. A eontraction is often made, but not always. 



§19,20. 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



25 



§ 19. CONTRACTIONS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 

81. — In the first declension, no contraction takes place unless 
the first of the concurrent vowels is ε, o, or a short, and the nomi- 
native contracted is then declined regularly. 



KTJLES. 

1. Ea not after ρ is changed into η ; as, 

γεα, earth, γη, G. γης, D. γη, <fec. like τιμή. 
χρυσεα, golden, χρυσή, G. χρυσής, D. χρυσή, &c. 
Ερμεας, Mercury, Έρμης, G. 'Ερμου, D. Ερμζ, &G. 

2. In ρεα and other concurrent vowels, strike 
out the first ; as, 

πορφυρεα, purple, πορφυρά, G. πορφύρας, D. πορφυρά, &c. 
άπλόη, simple, απλή, G. απλής, &o. 

Α&ηνάα, Minerva, Α&ηνά, G. Αϋ-ηνάς, D. Α&ηνά, <fec, *l 5. 
Obs. } 

Απελλεης, Apelles, Απελλής, G. Απελλοΰ, D. Απελλή, &c. 



82. EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 



σελήνη, the moon, 
σοφιστής, a sophist, 
πέλεια, a dove. 
Αινείας, ^Eneas. 
γέφυρα, a bridge, 
λύσσα, frenzy. 
χι&αρίύτης, a harper. 
Αναξαγόρας, Anax- 
agoras. 



γλώσσα, the tongue. 

αγορά, the forum. 

τεχνίτης, an artist. 

ηδονή, pleasure. 

γωνία, an angle. 

βία, force. 

αύρα, a 

avia, 

αγωνιστής, a wrestler. 

Note. The learner should decline some of the words in this table ac- 
cording to the different dialects : and, in like manner, in the second and 
third declensions, according to their dialects. 



ειρήνη, peace, 
σοφία, wisdom, 
μέλαινα, black, 
τάλαινα, miserable, 
δίκη, justice, 
βουλή, counsel, 
μάχαιρα, a sword, 
φρονηματίας, high- 
minded. 



§20. SECOND DECLENSION. 

83. — The second declension has two termina- 
tions of the nominative singular ; og and ov ; ov 
is always neuter, og never. 



26 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



§20. 



ACCENTS. 



84. — Words in the second declension are ac- 
cented according to the following — * 



SPECIAL RULES. 



1. As far as the general rules permit (13, &c.) 
the accent remains on the same syllable in the ob- 
lique cases, as in the nominative. To this rule the 
genitive plural is not an exception, as in the first 
declension. 

Exc. 1. The Attic forms in ως and ων are accented as in the 
common form : i. e. the final long syllable permits the accent to 
remain on the antepenult. See 88, άνώγεων. 

2. When the accent, in the nominative singular, 
is on the final syllable, all genitives and datives 
have the circumflex on the final syllable. 

Exc. 2. Except the genitive singular of nouns in ως ; as, νεώς, 
gen. νεω. 

85. EXAMPLES. 



. Paradigm 


of 


the Masculine and Feminine JSiouns in og\ 




b λόγος, the speech. 




Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 


1ST. λόγ-ος, 
G. λόγ-ου, 
D. λόγ-ω, 
Α. λόγ-ον, 
V. λόγ-ε. 




Έ. A. V. λόγ-ω, 
G. D. λόγ-οιν. 


Ν. λόγ-οι, 
G. λόγ-ων, 
D. λόγ-οις, 
Α. λόγ-ονς, 
V. λόγ-οι. 



In the same manner also are declined nouns in ov, observing 
the second general rule (69-2) ; thus, 

2. Paradigm of Neuter Nouns in οί>; μετρον, a measure, 



Singular. 
Ν. μετρ-ον, 
G. μετρ-ον, 
D. μετρ -op, 
Α. μετρ-ον, 
V. αετρ-ον. 



Dual. 
Ν. Α. V. μετρ-ω, 
Q. Ώ. μετρ-οιν. 



Plural. 
Ν. μετρ- α, 
G. μετρ-ων, 
D. μέτρ-οις, 
Α. μετρ-α, 
V. μετρ-α. 



§21. 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



86.— §21. DIALECTS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

Singular. 
Norn. Gen. Ace. Voc. 



Gen. 

λαγ-ός, A. ώς. | •ον, Α. ώ, 
I. & D. οϊο. 



& ω. Ι -ε', Α. ός & ως. 



Plural. 
Nom. Dat. Ace. Voc. 

Χαγ-οί, Α. φ. Ι -οΐς, Α. φ?, -οι/?, Α. ώς. -οι, Α. φ. 

II. & D. οΓσί. D. ώ^•, & ο£. 

Ι ^Ε. οίς. 

87. — Neuter nouns in the Attic dialect have the same termi- 
nations with nouns in og ; except that ν is substituted for ς. 

Thus it will appear that the Attic form, in which ος is changed 
into ως, ov into ων, and οι into φ, is the principal variation in 
this declension. Let it be observed, however, that a long, and η, 
before og, are changed into ε before ως ; as, λαός, Attic λεώς. a 
short remains unchanged; as, τα-ός, τα-ώς, or it is contracted 
with the ο into ως\ as, άγζραος, άγηρως. For the genitive and 
dative in φι or qiiv, see § 31. 






88. EXAMPLES OF THE 


ATTIC DECLENSION 


OF NOUNS IN Ος. 




Singular. 




λαγώς for λαγός. 


νεώς for y«o£. άνώγεων for ά^ω^ο?. 


a hare. 


α temple. 


a building. 


Ν. λαγώς, 


νεώς, 


άνώγεων, 


G. λαγώ, 
D. λαγφ, 
Α. λαγώ, or ών, 


νεώ, 
νεφ, 
νεώ, or νεών, 


άνώγεω, 
άνώγεω, 
άνώγεων, 


V. λαγώς, or ός. 


νεώς, or *>αο£. 


άνώγεων. 


Ν. Α. V. λαγώ, 
G. D. λα/φν. 


νεώ, 
νεφν. 

Plural. 


άνώγεω, 
άνώγεφν. 


Ν. V. λοφφ, 
G. λα^ώ?, 
D. λαγφς, 
Α. λα/ώί. 


νεφ, 
νεών, 
νεφς, 
νεώς. 


άνώγεω, 
άνώγεων, 
άνώγεφς, 
άνώγεω. 



Obs. The Attics did not decline all nouns in ος in this man 
ner, but only a very few. The same forms occur also in the Ionic 



23 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



§22. 



and Doric writers. After this form, the Attics often declined 
nouns which otherwise belong to the third declension ; as, Μίνω, 
Ace. for Μίνωα, from Μίνως, G. Μινωος ; γελων, Ace. for γελω- 
ra f from γελως, γέλωτος. 



§ 22. CONTRACTIONS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

89. — In the second declension contractions are 
seldom used, and never, unless the first of the con- 
current vowels is short. 

RULES. 

Eule I. Two short vowels concurring are 
changed into ου. 

Except εε in the vocative singular, never contracted. 
Kule II. A short vowel before a diphthong, 
or before a vowel not short, is rejected. 







90. EXAMPLES. 








6 voog, contracted νους, the mind. 






Singular. 


Dual. Plural. 




N. 


Rule 1 νό-ος vovg 


Ν. Α. V. 


Ν. 2 νό-οι 


vol 


G. 


2 νό-ον νου 


2 νό-ω νώ 


G. 2 νό-ων 


νών 


D. 


2 νό-φ νφ 


G. D. 


D. 2 νό-οις 


νοΐς 


A. 


1 νό-ον νουν 


2 νό-οιν νοΐν 


Α. 2 νό-ονς 


νους 


V. 


1 νό-ε νου 




V. 2 νό-οι 


vol 




το όϋτίον, 


contracted όατοϋν, the hone. 






Singular. 


Dual. Plural. 




N. 


όστε-ον όστοΰν 


N. A. V. _ 


Ν. όστε-α 


όστα 


G. 


όστε-ον οστού 


όστε-ω όστώ 


G. όστε-ων 


οστών 


D. 


όστε'-φ όστφ 


, G> D ; 


D. όστε-οις 


όστοΐς 


A. 


όστε-ον όστονν 


όστε•οιν όστοΐν. 


Α. όστε-α 


όστα 


V. 


οατε-ον όστονν 






V. όστε-α 


όστα 



Decline and contract in the same manner, πλόος, navigation ; 
ρόος, a stream ; χνόος, down ; άδελφιδεός, a nephew. 



23. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



29 



91. WORDS FOR PRACTICE. 



άγγελος, a messenger, 
αετός, an eagle. 
ά&λος, a combat, 
ά&λον, a prize, 
άμπελος, a vine, 
άργυρος, silver. 



αργύρων, silver, 
έργον, work, 
μρίον, an apple, 
νότος, the south wind, 
οίκος, a house, 
παιδίον, a child. 



ρόδον, a rose 
σίδηρος, iron, 
στρατός, an army, 
φορτίον, a burden, 
χαλκός, copper, 
χρυσός, gold. 



§ 23. THIRD DECLENSION. 

92. — The third declension has seven termina- 
tions of the nominative singular, a, t, ν, ω, — ν, ρ, 
ς : it has all genders, and increases the noun by 
one syllable in the oblique cases. 

Note. Nouns in ξ and \p are considered as ending in ς (8-6). 

93. — The root, seldom unchanged in the nomi- 
native, is always found in the genitive singular by 
omitting og (64). 

The oblique cases, for the most part, are formed 
by adding the terminations (68) to the root. 

ACCENTS. 

94. — Words in the third declension are accent- 
ed according to the following — 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. The accent, in the oblique cases, remains on 
the accented syllable of the nominative, as far as 
the general rules permit, 13 — 17. 

Exc. 1. But άνηρ, δαΐ}ρ, πατήρ, and σωτ?]ρ, in the vocative, 
throw the accent back on the penult; as, άνερ, δάερ, <fcc. See 
104, Exc. 

Exc. 2. "When the genitive singular ends in ω? instead of ο ς 
(98-4), there is no change of accent, and the genitive plural is 
accented as the genitive singular ; as, πόλις, πόλεως, πόλεων. 

2. Words of one syllable in the nominative sin- 
gular, accent the final syllable of the genitive and 



80 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§23. 



dative in all numbers ; and in these, the final sylla- 
ble long has the circumflex. So also γυνή, κύων, 
and syncopated substantives in ηρ, 99-4: 

Exc. 3. Except δάς, a torch ; δμώς, a slave ; &ώς, a jackal ; 
κράς, κράτος, the head ; ους, the ear ; παις, a child; αι]ς, a 
moth ; Τρως, a Trojan ; φφς, a burning ; φως, light ; which in 
the genitive plural, and in the genitive and dative dual, have the 
acute accent on the first syllable. 

Except also participles of one syllable ; as, δονς, δόντος, &c. ; 
and the dual and plural of πάς, viz. : πάντοιν, πάντων, πάαι. 

3. The vocative of nouns in ccvg, evg, ους, ω, 
and ως, has the circumflex on the final syllable; 
as, γραύ, βαόιλξν, &c. 

95. — Nouns in the third declension are declined 
as follows : 

1. Paradigm of Masculine and Feminine Nouns ; 6 &ήρ, the 
wild beast. 



Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 


N. d -ήρ,^ 


1 


Ν. ΰηρ-ες, 


G. &ηρ-6ς, 


N. A. V. &ήρ-ε, 


G. &ηρ-ών, 


D. Ό'ηρ-ί, 




D. Φηρ-σί, 


Α. #/;ρ-α, 


G. D. &ηρ-οϊν. 


A. &tjQ-ug, 


V. &$. 




V. ϋ-ήρ-ες. 



Neuter nouns are declined in the same manner, 
observing the 2d general rule, 69-2. 

2. Paradigm of Neuter Nouns ; βήμα, a tribunal. 
Dual. 



Singular. 
Ν. βήμα, 
G. βήμα-τος, 
D. βημα-τι, 
Α. βήμα, 
V. βήμα. 



Ν. Α. V. βημα-τε, 
G. D. βημά-τοιν. 



Plural. 

Ν. βημα-τα, 
G. βημά-των, 
D. β))μα-σι, 44-8. 
Α. βημα-τα, 
V. βημα-τα. 



Note. In the declension of nouns which take roc, δος, or ϋος, in the 
genitive, the Rule 44-8 must be particularly attended to in the dative 
pluraL 



§ 24, 25. THIRD DECLENSION. 31 



§ 24. FORMING THE GENITIVE. 


96. — GENERAL RULES. 




1. If the noun does 
τος to the nominative ; 


not end in 

as, 


ς, add ος, or 


Ν. ο παιάν, a poean, 
το μίλι, honey, 
ο μην, a moth, 
6 πνρ, fire, 
6 Ζενοφών, Xenophon, 
το σώμα, the body, 


G. παιαν-ος 
μελι-τος 
μψ-ός 
πνρ-ός 
Ξενοφών-τος 
σώμα-τος 


Root παιαν 
μελιτ 
μην 
πνρ 

Ξενοφωντ 
σωματ 



2. If the noun ends in q y reject q, and add ος. 
Tog, Sog, or &og ; as, 

N. 6 ηρως, a hero, reject ς ?)ρω G. ηρω-ος Root ηρω 
b λεβης, a caldron, λεβη λεβη-τος λεβητ 

ν λαμπάς, a torch, λάμπα λαμπά-δος λαμπαδ 

ο,η όρνις, a bird, όρνι ορνι-ϋ^ος 6ρνι& 

ο άναξ, a ruler, άναχ άναν,-τος άναν,τ 

η λαίλαψ, α storm, λαιλαπ λαίλαπ-ος λαιλαπ 

Whether ος, τος, δος, or &ος, is to be added, can be learned 
only by practice and consulting the dictionary. 

97. — Exception. But if the noun ends in og y 
insert ε before it. All these are neuter ; as, 

Ν. τείχος, a wall, G. τείχ-ε-ος Root τειχε 

μέρος, apart, με'ρ-ε-ος μερε 

ορός, a mountain, ορ-ε-ος όρε 






§ 25. THE PENULT. 

98. — If the final syllable of the nominative con- 
tain a long vowel or diphthong, it is commonly 
shortened in the root by the following — 

RULES. 

1. A diphthong casts away its subjunctive vow- 
el; as, 



82 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§25. 



Ν. 6 βασιλεύς, the king, G. βασιλε-ως, 

6 βονς, the ox, βο-ός, 

?j νανς, the ship, Doric, να-ός, 

2. A long vowel is changed into its own short ; 
as. 



Root βασιλε. 
βο. 
να. 



Ν. ο ποιμήν, 
Λητώ, 
6 κανών, 
6 δράκων, 
η αιδώς, 
τετνφοάς, 



the shepherd, 
Latona, 
the rule, 
the dragon, 



having struck, 



G. ποιμεν-ος, 
Λψό-ος, 
κανόν-ος, 
δράκον-τος, 
αίδό-ος, 
τετνφό-τος, 



Root, ποιμεν. 
Αψο. 
κανον. 
δρακοντ. 
αίδο. 
τετνφοτ. 



3. l and */, whether long or short, are changed 
into ε ; as, 

Ν. η δνναμις, the power, G. δννάμε-ως, Root, δνναμε. 
the flock, πώε-ος, . πωε. 



το τιων, 



THE GENITIVE IN C0£. 

4. Nouns in eg and νς, when they change c and 
'v into ε, and likewise nouns in ευς, take the Attic 
ως instead of og in the genitive ; as, 
Ν. ό νομενς, the shepherd, G. νομε-ως, Root, νόμε. 

?ι πόλις, the city, πόλε-ως, πόλε. 

ο πηχνς, the elbow, πήχε-ως, πηχε. 

99. — OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Neuters in ι and ν have the genitive in εος; as, αστν, G. 
αστεος. The Ionic and Doric writers retain ι in the oblique 
cases of nouns in ις and ι ; as, πόλις, G. πόλιος, ΐ>. πολιι. But 
even in these, the dative is usually contracted into ει ; as, πόλιι, 
πόλει. Also nouns in (£ sometimes have the Attic εφν instead 
of εοιν, in the genitive and dative dual. 

2. All Greek words ending in ς, which take ν in the genitive, 
appear to have originally ended in ν ς, and the ν at length was 
dropped for the sake of euphony; 46-16. But to maintain the 
former quantity of the nominative, the doubtful vowel was made 
long, and the short vowels were changed into their own diph- 
thongs ; thus, the original terminations ανς, ινς, ννς, ενς, ονς, 

were changed into ας, ΐς, νς, εις, ονς. 
But the oblique cases, regularly formed from the original nomi- 
native, remain unchanged ; as in the following examples : 



§26. THIRD DECLENSION. 33 

Nom. originally. Gen. Root. 

γίγας γίγανς, γίγαν-τος, γιγαντ. 

δελφις, δελφίνς, δελφϊν-ος, δελφιν. 

φόρκνς, φόρκννς, φόρκνν-ος, φορκνν. 

κτείς, κτενς, κτεν-ός, κτεν. 

οδούς, όδόνς, όδόν-τος, όδοντ. 

3. Instead of rejecting ν before ς in the nominative, sometimes 
the ς was dropped and the ν retained; and hence the double 
forms of the nominative which sometimes occur: as, δελφίς or 
δελφιν ; φόρκυς or φόρκυν. 

4. Certain nouns in τηρ, having τερος in the genitive, are con- 
tracted by syncope in the genitive and dative singular, and in the 
dative plural (106-R. 2), and throw the accent in the genitive 
and dative singular on the final syllable (94-2) ; as, 

πατήρ, a father, πατέρος, πατρός. 

πατέρι, πατρί. 

μψι\ρ, a mother, μητερος, μητρός. 

So also, άνήρ, a man, άνερος, ανδρός. (4*7-19.) 

Note. The nouns thus contracted are πατήρ, a father ; μήτηρ, a mo- 
ther ; -θ-νγάτηρ, a daughter; γαστήρ, the belly ; /ίημήτηρ, Ceres; and 
άνήρ, a man. This last rejects £ in all the cases and numbers except 
the vocative singular. 



§26. THE GENITIVE OF ADJECTIVES. 

100. — Adjectives of the third declension form the genitive by 
the same rules as substantives ; but some form it from the mas- 
culine, and others from the neuter gender; and the genitive 
formed from either gender, is also the genitive of the other. The 
gender from which the genitive is formed may be ascertained by 
the following — 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. Adjectives in eg and ovg, form the genitive 
from the nominative masculine ; as, 

ν ^'l ° α ^ ις ' !■ Gen. of both, φιλοπάτριδος, Root, φλοπατριδ. 

U.Slnovg, j u „ fi(W . 

SS. διπονν, ) ' 

2. Adjectives not in eg or ovg, form the genitive 
from the nominative neuter ; as, 



81 THIRD DECLENSION. §27. 

Masc. Neut. Gen. of both. Root. 

τερψ, χερεν, tender, τερεν-ος, τερεν. 

άλη&ης, άλ-η&ες, true, άλη&ε'-ος, αλη&ε. 

μέλας, μελαν, black, μελαν-ος, μελαν. 

χαρίεις, χαρίεν, graceful, χαρίεν-τος, χαριεντ. 

Obs. 1 . This rule applies universally to participles of the third 
declension, and these have their genitive always in τος ; as,• 

N. Masc. Κ Neut. Gen. of both. Root. 

στάς, στάν, στάν-τος, σταντ. 

διδονς, διδόν, διδόν-τος, διδοντ. 

τνπών, τνπόν, τνπόν-τος, τνποντ. 

τνφ&είς, τνφ&εν, τνψΌ-εν-τος, τνφ&εντ. 

For the declension of adjectives and participles, see §§ 46, 47 



§ 27. THE ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 

101. — The Accusative singular of masculine acd 
feminine nouns commonly ends in a. But, 

102. — SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1. The genitive in ο ς pure, from ις, νς, 
avg, and ovg, changes ς of the nominative into ν ; 
thus, 

Nora. Gen. 

όφις, a serpent, οφι-ος, 

βότρνς, a bunch of grapes, βότρν-ος, 
νανς, a ship, Doric, να-ός, 

βονς, an ox, βο-ός, 

Likewise λάας and χάρις have ν ; as, 

Nom. Gen. Ace. Root. 

λάας, a stone, λάα-ος, λάαν, λαα. 

χάρις, favour, χάρι-τος, χάριν, χκρΜ• 

Exc. But Αίς, Αι-ός, Jupiter, has Αία ; and Χάρις, the name 
of one of the Graces, has Χάρινα', and χρονς, the skin, has χρόα, 
seldom χρονν. 

Rule 2. Words in νς, -εος, and compounds of 
πού ς, afoot, have aorv; as, 



Ace. 


Root. 


οφιν, 
βότρνν, 
vavv, 
βουν, 


οιμ. 
βοτρν. 
να. 
βο. 



§28. THIRD DECLENSION - . 35 

Nom. Gen. Ace. Root. 

ώκνς, ωχε-ος, ωκε-α, or ώκνν, ώκε. 

δίπονς, δίπο -dogj δίπο-δα, or δίπονν, διποδ. 

Rule 3. Words in ig and vg not accented on 
the last syllable, with the genitive in og not pure, 
have a or v; as, 

Nom. Gen. Ace. Root. 

ερις, ερι-δος, ερι-δα, or εριν, εριδ. 

κόρνς, κόρν-ϋος, κόρν-ΰα, or κόρνν, κορνΰ: 
So also, κλείς, κλει-δός, κλεΐ-δα, or κλεϊν, κλειδ. 

Obs. Such words, in prose, have almost always v, seldom a; 
but in poetry, commonly a, seldom v. 



§ 28. THE VOCATIVE SINGULAR. 

103. — The vocative singular is for the most part 
like the nominative. But, 

104. — SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1. A short vowel in the genitive, from a 
long vowel of the nominative, remains short in the 
vocative; as, 

Nom. Gen. Voc. Root 

μήτηρ, a mother, μητερ -og, μψερ, μητερ. 

"Εκτωρ, Hector, "Εκτορ-ος, "Εχτορ, *Εχτορ. 

Exc. But nouns accented on the last syllable, have the voca- 
tive long ; as, ποιμψ, Gen. ποίμεν-ος, Voc. ποιμψ ; except πα- 
τήρ, άνήρ, and δαηρ, which have the vocative πάτερ, άνερ ί and 
δάερ, with the accent thrown back. 

Λπόλλων, Ποσειδών, and σωτήρ, with the long vowel in the 
genitive, have the final vowel short in the vocative, and the ac- 
cent thrown back ; thus, Λπολλον, Πόσειδον, σώτερ. 

Rule 2. Nouns in eg, vg, and tvg, reject g in the 
vocative; as, 

όφις, V. οφί ; — βότρνς,Ύ. βότρν; — βασιλεύς, V. βασιλεν. 
Likewise, παις, γρανς, and βονς ; Voc παϊ, γραΰ, ψον. 



36 THIRD DECLENSION. §29. 

Rule 3. Feminines in ως and ω make the voca- 
tive in ol ; as, 

αιδώς, V. αιδοϊ] Σαπφώ, V. Σαττφοΐ. 

Rule 4. Nouns in ας, -αντος (99-2), nave tlie 
vocative in av ; those in εις, -εντός have the voca- 
tive in εν ; as, 

Nom. Gen. Voc. Root. 

Αίας, Ajax, Αϊαν-τος, Alav, Αιαντ. 

Σιμόεις, Simois, Σιμόεν-τος, Σιμόεν, Σιμόεντ. 

Note. In proper names, however, the poets often reject v; as, Ala 
for Λϊαν. 

Obs. γυνή has γνναι in the vocative ; and αναξ, in addressing 
the deity, has ava ; otherwise ανα'ξ. 

Rule 5. In adjectives, the vocative masculine 

is like the nominative neuter ; as, 

Κ Masc. Κ Neut. V. Masc. 

άλη&ής, άλη&ε'ς, άλη&ες. 

ελεήμων, ελεημον, ελεημον. 

δίπονς, δίπουν, δίπονν. 

μέλας, μελαν, μελαν. 

χαρίεις, χαρίεν, χαρίεν, also χαρίεις. 

Note. This rule does not apply to participles. These follow the gen- 
eral rule; as, N. & V. τύπτων, τύπτονσα, τΰπτον. 



§ 29. THE DATIVE PLURAL. 

105. — The dative plural is formed by adding α ι 
to the root. Besides the changes required by the 
rules of Euphony (44-8), other changes are to be 
noticed under the following — 

106. — special rules. 

Rule 1. Nouns in εν ς, ανς, and ους, insert υ 
before ^jnthe dative plural; as, 



29. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



37 



Ν. ό βασιλεύς, the king, G. βασιλε-ως, D. PI. βασιλεΰ-σι. 
η vav ς, the ship, να-ός, Doric. ναυ-σί. 

η βονς, the cow, βο-ός, βου-σί. 

Exc. But πους, a foot, πο-δός, has ποσί. 

Rule 2. Nouns in τηρ, -τερος, after a syncope, 

have aoi (99-4) ; as, 

πατήρ, G. πατερ-ος, (πατερσι) by syncope, πατράσι 
So άνι]ρ, άνερ-ος, {ανερσι) άνδράσι. 

Exc. But γαστηρ, G. γαστε'ρ-ος, has sometimes γαστηρσι. 

107. — Examples of the preceding Rules, 

In the following examples, note the difference between them and 
the example &ήρ, &ηξός, 95-1, and give the rule for the difference. 









Singular. 






ό, pasturer. 


η, cow. 


ό, a divinity. 


ο, lion. 


ό, shepherd 


N. 


νομενς 


βονς 


δαίμων 


λέων 


ποψψ 


G. 


νόμε'- ω ς 


βο-ός 


δαίμον-ος 


λεοντ-ος 


ποιμεν-ος 


D. 


νομέ-ι 


βο-ι 


δαίμον-ι 


λέοντ-ι 


ποιμεν-ι 


A. 


νόμε- α 


βοΰν 


δαίμον-α 


λεοντ-α 


ποιμεν-α 


V. 


νομεΰ 


βον 


δαΐμον 
Dual. 


λεον 


ποιμψ 


N.A.V. 


νόμε- ε 


βό-ε 


δαίμον-ε 


λεοντ-ε 


ποιμεν-ε 


G.D. 


νομε-οιν 


βο-οΐν 


δαιμόν-οιν 

Plural. 


λεόντ-οιν 


ποιμεν-οιν 


N. 


νομε-ες 


βό-ες 


δαίμον-ες 


λεοντ-ες 


ποιμέν-ες 


G. 


νόμε- ων 


βο-ών 


δαιμόν-ων 


λεόντ-ων 


ποιμεν-ων 


D. 


νομεΰ-σι 


βον-σί 


δαίμο-σι 


λε'ου-σι 


ποιμε-σι 


A. 


νόμε- ας 


βό-ας 


'δαίμον-ας 


λεοντ-ας 


ποιμεν-ας 


V. 


νομε-ες 


βό-ες 


δαίμον-ες 
Singular. 


λέοντ-ες 


ποιμεν-ες 


i 


city. 


ί], sow. 


ό, swift. 


η, strife. 


ό, father. 


N. 


πόλις 


συς 


ώκνς 


ερις 


πατήρ 


G. 


π όλε- ω ς 


σν-ός 


ώ'/.έ-ος 


ερι,δ-ος 


πατρ-ός 


D. 


πόλε-ϊ 


συ-ΐ 


ώ'λε-ϊ 


εριδ-ι 


πατρ-ί 


A. 


πάλιν 


συν 


ώχε-α -ων,νν εριν, ϊ'ριδ- 


α πατερ-α 


V. 


πάλι 


συ 


ώχν 


ερι 


πάτερ 



88 



THIED DECLENSION. 



30. 



Dual. 



.A.V. 


πόλε-ε 


συ-ε 


ώκε-ε 


εριδ-ε 


πατερ-ε 


G.D. 


πολε-οιν 


συ-οΤν 


ώχέ-οιν 

Plural. 


ερίδ-οιν 


πατζρ-οιν 


N. 


πόλε-ες 


συ-ες 


ώχέ-ες 


εριδ-ες 


πατερ-ες 


G. 


πόλε-ων 


CV-COV 


ώχε'-ων 


ερίδ-ων 


πάτε ρ- ων 


D. 


πόλε-σι 


σν-σί 


ώχε'-σι 


ερι-σι 


πατρ-α-σι 


A. 


πόλε-ας 


σύ-ας 


ώκε'-ας 


εριδ-ας 


πάτε ρ- ας 


V. 


πόλε-ες 


συ- ες 


ώκε-ες 


εριδ-ες 


πατερ-ες 



§ 30. DIALECTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

108. — From the variety of terminations in nouns of this de- 
clension, it is impossible to exhibit them in one concise table. 
But the general principles are — The nominative and vocative At- 
tic are alike, — The Attic genitive is in εως, instead of εος and 
ως, — The Ionic has η in the penult, through the oblique eases, 
instead of ε and a ; and with the poets makes εσι or εσσι instead 
of σι, in the dative plural. 



Singular. 



Nona. 
βασιλ-ίύς. 

Μ ης. 
βαθ-ύς. 
οφ-ι,ς. 
ναΰς. 

αίδ-ώς. 



Gen. 



ίΐ. ηος. 
D. & 
Μ. ίνς. 



Α. έως. 



-ως, 
•αός, 

■όος, 



jx. εως. 
Ι. ηός 

Μ. ως. 



Dat. 

-έϊ, Ι. ηϊ. 

-u. 
-αΐϊ. ψ. 



Ace. 



εα. ) 

' ' Γ 

■νν, εα. ) 



η α. 



-IV. 

-ανν, 



ϊ.ηνν, η α. 
Ι. ονν. 

J&. ών. 



Plural. 



Nom. and Yoc. 

ί Α. ψ. 
βασιλ -hq. < or τ/ς. 

( Ι. ψζ• 
ν-αες, L ψς. 



τίνχ-ΐα. 



Gen. 
-ίων, Ι. ήων. 



-αων. 



Ι. 



ηο)ν. 





Dat. 


-ίΰσν, 


j Ι. ησν. 
Ι Ρ. ψσσι,. 


-aval, 


j Ι. ηνσί. 
( Ρ. ψσαν 




\ Ι. ισσι. 
Ι Ρ. ε'ίσσ* 


-εσν, 



Voc 
-ίΰ, Α. 


fvq. 


-ν, Α. 

-ι, Α. 
-αν, Α. 


νς. 
ανς. 


-οΐ, Α. 


ως. 


Ace. 




-ε'ας, Ι 


rj ας. 


-ανς, Ι. 


ηας. 



Thus, Gen. χείλεος, of a lip, Dor. χείλευς; Voc. Masc. δυσ- 
τυχές, Attic δυστυχής; as, δυστυχής γερον, Ο unfortunate old 
man ; Dat. pi. χερσί, Ion. χείρεσσι, to hands ; Accus. Αψω, La~ 
tona, Ion. Αψοΰν, Gen. άστεος, of a city, Attic άστεως; Voc. 
αιδοϊ, Ο modesty Attic αιδώς. 



§31, 32. THIRD DECLENSION. 39 

§ 31. THE PARAGOGIC φι or φιν. 

109. — Sometimes, and particularly in Epic poetry, the sylla- 
ble φι or φιν annexed to the word, is used for the genitive or da- 
tive, both singular and plural. It is annexed, in the 

First declension, by changing a οτ η into ηφι, e. g. κεφαλή, 
χεφαλήφι ; βία, βίηφι, or βίηφιν. 

Second declension, by changing og or ov into οφι, e.g. στρα- 
τός, στρατόφιν. 

Third declension, by changing og, genitive sog, into εσφι; as, 
οχος, όχεσφι ; στή&ος, στή&εσφιν. 

110. — A few deviations from this mode of annexing the φι oc- 
cur. This form of the genitive and dative appears to have had 
originally an adverbial signification like the endings {ϊι, &εν, δε. 
To render it more definite, the preposition was often prefixed, as, 
παρά ναυφιν, near the ship, or ships ; and lastly, it was used 
for a case without a preposition, in the same manner as the or- 
dinary forms of the genitive and dative ; thus, πλάτος πτνόφιν, 
the breadth of the fan, άγλαΐηφι πεποι&ώς, confiding in valour. 

111. — The termination &εν appears to be an appendage of a 
similar nature, but is found only in the genitive; as, εξ ονρανό- 
&εν, from heaven. So εμε&εν for εμον ; σε'&εν for σον, &c. 



§ 32. GENDERS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

112. — The Genders of substantives of the third declension, 
so far as determined by the termination, are as follows : 

113. — RULES. 

1. Nouns in ενς, ας -αντος, αν, and w , are al- 
ways masculine ; as, 

Gen. οχεος 

άνδριάντος 

παιάνος 

φόρκννος 

2. Nouns in ας -αδος, της -τητος, αυς, ω, and 
verbals in ις, are always feminine ; as, 



svg 

ag -αντος 


οχενς, ο 
άνδριάς, ο 


a clasp 
a statue 


αν 

vv 


παιάν, 6 
φόρκνν, 6 


a paian 
a harbour 



40 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§33. 



ας, -αδος 


λαμπάς, η 


a torch 


Gen 


λαμπάδος 


της, -τψος 


κακότης, η 


wickedness 




κακότητος 


ανς 


νανς, η 


a ship 




ναός 


ω 


φειδώ, η 


parsimony 




φειδόος 


ις, verbal 


φνσις, η 


nature 




ψνσεως 


3. Nouns 


in α, ι, ν, 


ας -ατός, 


og, and ορ, are 


always neuter. 








a 


βήμα, <m 


a tribunal 


Gen. 


βήματος 


ι 


μέλι, τό 


honey 




μέλιτος 


ν 


τιώ'ν, τό 


a flock 




7Τωέος 


ας -αχός 


κρέας, τό 


flesh 




κρέατος 


ος 


τείχος, τό 


a wall 




τείχεος 


ορ 


άορ, τό 


a sword 




άορος 



Obs. 1. Nouns of other terminations are so varied in gender, 
that no general rule can be given respecting them. 

Obs. 2. Dialect frequently varies the gender in all the declen- 
sions. Thus, βατός is masculine in Attic, otherwise feminine ; 
and so of others. 



114.— § 33. WORDS FOR PRACTICE ON THE PRECED- 
ING RULES, FROM §§ 20-27. 

Decline the words in the following list ; accent them ; give the rule 
for the genitive and the accent, and for the other cases when they vary 
from the example dtjQ. 



b γέρων 


(οντ) 
1°) 


the old man. 


η αηδών 


the nightingale. 


6 άγκών 




the elbow. 


ό άηρ 


Μ 


the air (104-1). 


η ελπίς 
η ερις 
η κόρνς 


TO 


the hope. 


TO 


the strife. 


8 


the helmet. 


το κνμα 


the luave. 


ο μην 




the month. 


το άνΰος 




the flower. 


το γένος 




the race. 


η άκτίς 


ύ 


the ray. 


ο πένης 


the poor man. 



το όρος 




the mountain. 


ό ορενς 




the mule. 


ή φλόξ 


ω 


the flame. 


ο χήν_ 




the goose. 


η πραξις 




the action. 


n β>$ 

η σαρξ 


(ζ) 


the cough. 


Μ 


the flesh. 


ν, χιών 


(ο) 


the snow. 


ο ίμάς ' 


(«) 


the thong. 


ή πίτνς 




the pine. 


δ μάντις 




the seer. 


η αί'ξ 
δ λιμψ 


(ϊ) 


the goat. 


(«) 


the havm. 



§ 34, 35. THIRD DECLENSION. 41 

§ 34. CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

115. — In the oblique cases in the third declen- 
sion, there is no contraction, unless the first of the 
concurrent vowels is either short, or a doubtful 
taken as short. 

In verbs and in some other contractions, the first of the con- 
current vowels is sometimes long. 

■ 

§ 35. GENERAL RULES. 

116. — The following Rules are universal, being applicable, not 
only to contractions of the third declension, but also to those of 
verbs, and of all cases in which concurrent vowels admit of con- 
traction, except such as fall under the rules for contractions in the 
1st and 2d declensions, 81 and 89. Concurrent vowels are con- 
tracted as follows : 

1. A short vowel with the same, is contracted 
into its own diphthong ; as, εε into ει ; oo into ου. 

Exc. 1. In the third declension, εε of the dual is contracted 
into η. 

II. A short vowel with the other short, is con- 
tracted into ov ; as, os or ε ο into ov. 

III. A short vowel with «, is contracted into 
its own long vowel ; as, sec into η ; oa into ω. 

Exc. 2. But εα pure into a. 

IV. A short vowel with ι, is contracted by Sy- 
nceresis / as, ε ϊ into ει ; οϊ into οι. 

V. Ε before a long vowel or a diphthong, is re- 
jected. 

Exc. 3. But in verbs, εαι is contracted into y. 

VI. 1. Ο with a long vowel, is contracted into 
ω ; as, οη into ω ; οω into ω. 

2. Ο with a diphthong, the prepositive vowel 
being rejected, is contracted by Synceresis ; as, ooi 
into οι, &c. 



42 THIKD DECLENSION. §36. 

Exc, 4. But οεις and οειν, ι being rejected, are contracted by 
Crasis into ovg and ovv. 

VII. 1. ^ with o, or δλ, is contracted into ω ; 
aSj oro or αω, into ω. 

2. A with a vowel, not ο or <#_, is contracted into 
a ; as, «θ into £, &c. 

065. 1. A before a diphthong is contracted with the preposi- 
tive vowel only, the subjunctive being rejected. 

Obs. 2. In contraction by crasis, ι is never rejected, but is writ- 
ten under: except in οειν and οεις, 119, Exc. 3. 

Obs. 3. Neuters in ας pure and ρας, reject τ in the oblique 
cases, and then contract the concurrent vowels. 

VIII. If the former of two vowels is t or v, or 
a long vowel, the latter is rejected; as, ιε contract- 
ed ν ; νε , ν ; ηε , η. 

Note. Σάος and σόος, safe, when a contraction occurs, are contracted 
by the foregoing rules; thus, σάος, σώς, VII. 1. ; σάον, σων, VII. 1. ; σώα, 
σα, VII. 2.; σάους, σώς, VII. 1.; σόας, σώς, III. 



§36. EXERCISES ON THE PRECEDING RULES FOR 
CONTRACTIONS. 

117. — The following list comprises all the concurrent vowels 

that usually admit of contraction. Contract them and give the 
rules. 

23 εοι 34 οω 

24 εον 35 οει 

25 ψ 36 oy 

26 ψ 37 οοι 

27 ψι 38 οον 

28 ηαι 39 να 

29 ιε 40 νε 

30 οα 41 νη, rare 

31 οε 42 ωα 

32 03/ 43 ωί 

33 οϊ 



1 αα . 


12 αοί 


2 «e 


13 αον 


3 Μ 


14 εά 


4 οο 


15 «ά, pure 


5 Ci€ 


16 εϊ 


6 αη 


17 «ο 


7 αί* 


18 εω 


8 αο 


19 εφ 


9 αω 


20 cat 


10 α«ί 


21 εει 


11 ay 


22 δ?? 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



43 



WORDS FOR TRACTICE. 



1 1 8. — In the following words, contract the concurrent rowels, — give 


the rule for eacJ 


ι contraction, — .•'. 


the accent where 


required after 


contraction, and 


give 


the reason for the change. 




Λημοσ&Μ>&ς 




Λημοσ&ένεε 


Λητόος 


μελιτόεν 


/ίημοσ&ένεοέ 




εαρ 


/Ιημοσϋέιεα 


Λψόα 


χρεεα (exc. 2) 




Λημοσ&ε'ηϊ 


Αητόϊ 


Ηρακλεης 


qt/.Ho 




qi /.εεις 


δηλόω 


8ηλόητε 


Λημοσ&ενέοιν 




δηλόοι 


δι,λόου 


δ^λόιι 


τιμάομεν 




τιμάω 


λάας 


τίμαε 


τιμάονσι, 




τιμάει 


τιμάΐ] 


τιμάει ς 


κε'ραϊ 




κέρας -ατός 


οφιες 


OCfll 


βότρνες 




τιΰί;αι 


τψ,ηεν 


χεραα 


κεράο(ν 




μί'ρεος 


με'ρεϊ 


μερεε 


μερέοιν 




μερεα 


μερε'ων 


πόλεϊ 


πόλεες 




φειδόος 


φειδόϊ 


ηειδόα 


κέρατος, 116. < 


9δ5.3 


. κεράτοιν 


φιλε'ιι 


qilt'oi 


ν.ίρατι 




κέρατα 


τιμά)] 


τιμάοι 


κέρατε 




κεράτων 


δηλόΐ} 


δηλόοι 


βόες 




ηδεε 


σάος 


σόας 



§37.— CONTRACTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

119. — Ν. Β. In the inflection of declinable words, the vowels 
that concur are the final vowel of the root, and the first vowel or 
diphthong of the termination. In the examples of contracts that 
follow, as well as in the table of contract verbs (258), the hyphen 
(-) does not separate the termination from the root, but that part 
of the root not affected by contraction, from the rest of the word. 
By this means the concurrent vowels are brought together, and 
the change made by contraction, is rendered more obvious. 

120. — Concurrent vowels are not always con- 
tracted in the third declension, but only as direct- 
ed by the following — 

SPECIAL .RULES. 

1. The accusative plural assumes the contrac- 
tion of the nominative ; thus, 
Κ. τρυ'.ο-εες, ) , Ν. occ -ιες, ) » Ν. βότρ~νες, ) Q , 



Α. τριι;ο-εας, 



Α. οφ-ιας, 



Α. βοτρ-νας, 



u 



THIRD DECLENSION, 



87 



Exc. But εας pure is contracted into ας (116, Exc. 2); as, 
χοψς, χοάς. 

2. The genitive in aog, from ης, ες, og, or in 
oog, not from ους, and also neuters in ag pure and 
ρας, contract the concurrent vowels in all cases. 

121. — Example of the Genitive in socfrom ης. 

η τριήρης, tlie trireme. 



Singular 




Dual. 


Plural. 




Ν. τριηρ-ης 




Ν. Α. V. 


Ή. τριηρ-εες 


-εις 


G. τριηρ-εος 


-ονς 


τριηρ-εε -η 


G. τριηρ-εων 


-ων 


D. τριηρ-εϊ 


-ει 


G. D. 


D. τριηρ-εσι 




Α. τριηρ-εα 


-Ά 


'Τριηρ-ε'οιν -οϊν 


Α. τριηρ-εας 


-εις 


V. τριηρ-ες 






Υ. τριηρ-εες 


-εις 


122. — Example of the Genitive 


in εος,β -Om 


ος. 






το τείχος, the wall. 






Singular 




Dual. 


Plural. 




Ν", τείχ-ος 




Κ Α. V. 


Ν", τείχ-εα 


-\ 


G. τείχ-εος 


-ονς 


τείχ-εε -η 


G. τειχ-ίων 


-ων 


D. τείχ-εϊ 


-ει 


G. D. 


D. τείχ-εσι 




Α. τεϊχ-ος 




τειχ-ίοιν -οϊν 


Α. τείχ-εα 


-ν 


V. τεϊχ-ος 






V. τείχ-εα 


-η 


123.— 


■Thei 


renitive in οος, n 

η ηχώ, the echo. 


ot from ους. 




Singular 




Dual. 


Plural. 




Ν. ηχ-ώ 




Ν. Α. Υ. 


1ST. ηχ-οί 




G. ηχ-όος 


-ονς 


ηχ-ώ 


G. ηχ-ών 




Ι), ήχ-όϊ 


-οϊ 


G. D. 


D. ηχ-οΐς 




Α. ?/χ-όα 


-ω 


ηχ-οΐν 


Α. ηχ-ονς 




V. r /χ-οί 






V. ηχ-οί 





124. — Obs. 1. Nouns in ω and ως have the singular only, of 
the third declension. The dual and plural are of the second, 136 
-2 (4). Hence the contraction takes place only in the singular, 
as in the above example. The accusative in 6a contracted ω, 
from the nominative in ώς, has the circumflex according to rule 
(80 Obs.) ; as, αίδόα contr. αιδώ. The same contraction from 
the nominative in ώ, has the acute; as in the example 123. 



§37 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



45 



125. — Examples of Neuters in ας pure and ρας. (116, Obs. 3.) 



-άοιν 



■a 
■ων 



το χέρας, the horn. 
Singular. 
N. A. V. κέρ-ας 
G. κέρ-ατος 



-a 

-wv 



το κρέας, the flesh. 
Singular. 
Ν. A. V. κρέ-ας 

G. κρέ-ατος -αος -ως <jr. κερ-ατος -αος -ως 

D. κρέ-ατι -αϊ -a D. κε'ρ-ατι -αϊ -α 

Dual. 
Ν. Α. V. κρέ-ατε 
G. D. κρε-άτοιν 

Plural. 

Ν. Α. V. κρέ-ατα -αα -a in . Ά. ν . κε ρ-ατα -αα -α 

G. κρε-άτων -άων -ων G. κεο-άτων -άων -ων 

Ό. κρε-ασι 

126. — 3. The genitive in tog or εως, not from ης, 
eg, og) and also the genitive in tog, contract only 
the dative singular and the nominative, accusative, 
and vocative plural. Those in tv g contract also 
the nominative dual. 

127. — Examples of the Genitive ίηεως, not from ης, ες, or ος. 
6 βασιλεύς, the king. 



D. κερ-ατι 
Dual. 
N.A.V. κέρ-ατε 
G. D. κερ-άτοιν 

Plural. 
N. A. V. κέρ-ατα 
G. κερ-άτων 
D. κερ-ασι 



■αε 
■άοιν 





Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 




s. 


βασιλ-ενς 


Κ Α. V. 


Ν", βασιλ-έες 


-εις 


(}. 


βασιλ-έως, (98-4) 


βασιλ-έε -η 


G. βασιλ-έων 




D. 


βασιλ-έϊ -ει 


G.O. 


D. βασιλ-ενσι 




A. 


βασιλ -t'a 


βαβιλ-έοιν 


Α. βασιλ-έας 


-εις 


V. 


βααιλ-εΰ 




V. βασιλ-έες 


-εις 



Exc. But nouns in ενς after a vowel, contract also the genitive 
and accusative singular, and the genitive plural ; thus, 

ό χοενς, the measure. 



Singular. 




Dual. 


Plural. 


Χ. χο-ενς 




Ν. Α. V. 


Ν", χο-εες -εις 


G. χο-έως 


-ως 


χο-εε -ή 


G. χο-έων -ων 


P. χο-έϊ 


-ει 


G. D. 


D. χο-ενσι 


Α. χο-έα 


-a 


χο-έοιν 


Α. χο-έας -α? (116, exc. 2) 


V. χο-εν 




«2b 


V. χο-εες -εις 



46 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§37. 



In this way Πειραιενς has genitive Πειραιώς, Ace. Πειραιά ; 
and άγνιενς, in the accusative plural, has αγυιάς contracted for 
Πειραιεως, Πειραιεα, άγυιεας\ and so of others. 

ή πόλις, the city. 
Singular. Dual. N 

Κ ττόλ-ις ^ Ν. Α. V. 

G. πόλ-εως πόλ-εε 

D. πόλ-εϊ -ει G. D. 

Α. πόλ-ιν πολ-έοιν % 

V. πόλ-ι 

The Ionics always decline words in ις, genitive ιος ; as, τζόλις, 
ιος, like πόρτις ; but they make the dative in εϊ. 

128. — Example of the Genitive in cog. 

6, η πόρτις, the calf. 





Plural. 




N. 


πόλ-εες 


•εις 


G. 


πόλ-εων 




D. 


πόλ-εσι(ν) 




A. 


πόλ-εας 


-εις 


V. 


πόλ-εες 


-εις 





Singular. 


Dual. 


Plural. 




Ν. 


πόρζ-ις 


f Κ Α. V. 


Ν. τζόρτ-ιες 


-ις 


G. 


πόρτ-ιος 


πόρτ-ιε 


G. πορτ-ίων 




ρ. 


πόρτ-ιι -ΐ 


G. D. 


D. τζόρτ -ici 




Α. 


πόρτ-ιν 


πορτ-ίοιν 


Α. πόρτ-ιας 


-ις 


V. 


πόρτ-ι 




V. πόρτ-ιες 


-ις 



Note. The words declined in this way, besides πόςτι,ς, are ό κ/ς, the 
wood-worm ; b, η τίγρι,ς, the tiger ; 6 ποσις, the husband ; η μήνι,ς, wrath ; 
η τρόπ^, the keel; and the uncontracted οΐς, a sheep; — some proper 
names; as, Ίφι,ς; — and adjectives in tg, ι, which have νος in the genitive 
Other nouns in ι,ς not inserting a consonant are declined like πόλος. 

129. — Exc. Adjectives in νς, neuter v, have the common geni- 
tive (εος), and do not contract εα in the plural. 152. 

130. — 4. Nouns in vg yog, and ovg oog, contract 
only the nominative, accusative, and vocative plu- 
ral; as, 

ο ιχ&υς, the fish. 

Dual. 
N. A. V. 
ίχϋ•-νε 

G. D. 
ίχϋ'-νοιν 



Singular. 
Ν. ίχ&-νς 
G. ίχ{ϊ-νος 
D. ίχΰ-νϊ 
Α. ίχΰ•-νν 
V. ιχ&-ν 

So 6 βονς, the ox, 



-νς 



G. βοός, 



Plural. 
Ν. Ιχϋ•-υες 
G. ίχϋ•-νων 
D. ιχΰ•-νσι 
Α. ίχΰ-νας -νς 
V. ίχΰ'-νες -νς 

Ή. V. Plural, βόες, contr. βονς, 
Α. " βόας, " βονς 



§37. THIRD DECLENSION. 47 

131. — 5. Comparatives in ων reject ν in the ac- 
cusative singular, and in the nominative, accusative, 
and vocative plural, and then contract the concur- 
rent vowels ; as, 

βελτίων, better. 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

M. & F. M. & F. M. & F. 



Ν. βελτί-ων 

G. βελτί-ονος 

D. βελτί-οη 

Α. βελτί-ονα, -oa, -ω 

V. βελτί-ον 



Ν. Α. V. 
βελτί-ονε 
G. D. 
βελτι-όνοιν 



Ν. βελτί-ονες, -οες, -ονς 

G. βελτι-όνων 

Ό. βελτί-οσι 

Α. βελτί-ονας, -οας, -ονς 

V. βελτί-ονες, -οες -ονς 



Ν. Α. V. Plural, Neuter, βελτί-ονα, -οα, -ω. 

132. — β. The nominative contracted, is then de- 
clined regularly; as, 

εαρ, spring, by contraction ήρ, G. ηρος, D. ηρι, &c. 
λαας, a stone, " λάς, G. λάος, ΐ>. λάι] <fec. 

133. — Obs. 2. When vowels concur in the oblique cases after 
the contraction of the nominative, they are moreover contracted 
in the usual way ; thus, Ήρακλεης, Hercules, is contracted into 
Ηρακλΐβ, and then declined and contracted as follows : 
Ν. 'Ηρακλ-ης, 

G. Ήρακλ-εος, contr. Ήρακλ-ονς, 

D. Ήρακλ-έϊ, Ήρακλ-εΐ, 

Α. Ήρακλ-εα, Ήρακλ-ψ 

V. Ήρακλ-ες. 

134. — 7. In adjectives, the masculine ana femi- 
nine, in the oblique cases, assume the contraction 
of the neuter ; thus, 

μέλιτος made of honey. 

Nom. μελιτ-όεις μελιτ-οεσσα μελιτ-οεν 

contr. μελιτ-ονς μελιτ-ονσσα μελιτ-ονν 

Gen. μελιτ-ονντος μελιτ-ονσσης μελιτ-ονντος, &α 

τιμήεις, honoured. 
Nom. τιμ-ψις τιμ-ψσσα τιμ-ηεν 

contr. τιμ-ης τιμ-ησσα τιμ-ψ 

Gen. τιμ-ψτος τιμ-ψσης τψ^ψτος, &c 



43 



THIKD DECLENSION. 



§ 38, 39 



135.— §38. WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION TO 
BE DECLINED AND CONTRACTED. 

(Ν. B. The following method of practising on these exercises will 
direct the student in his preparation. E. g. ευσεβής — Form the genitive ; 
— give the rule ; — decline; — what cases contract the concurrent vowels? — 
give the rule ; — decline and contract, giving the rule for each contraction. 
This exercise should be continued till the student is perfectly ready and 
at ease in the whole process.) 



ενσερης, pious, 
άμείνων, better. 
στάχνς, a spike of corn, 
άρείων, more excellent. 
νομενς, a shepherd, 
φειδώ, parsimony, 
γήρας, old age. 
Λχιλλενς, Achilles. 
νπερφνης, excellent, 
άληϋες, true. 
μυς, a mouse, 
μέρος, a part, 
πλεϊον, more. 



γραφενς, a painter. 
Περικλεης, Pericles, 
ιχΰνς, a fish. 
πλε'ιων, more. 
άστυ, a city. 
ηώς, the morning, 
βα&νς, deep. 
Ι βελτίων, better, 
πει&ώ, persuasion, 
ηδν, sweet, 
πόσις, a husband. 
η&ος, custom, 
χέρας, a horn. 



αιδώς, modesty. 
πέρας, a limit, 
τείχος, a wall, 
δρυς, an oak. 
φονενς, a murderer, 
αναιδής, impudent. 
ορός, a mountain, 
φράσις, diction, 
πρεσβυς, old. 
ενδεής, indigent. 
Αιοκλεης, Diodes, 
ετζος, a word, 
δρομευς, a runner. 



136.— §39. IRREGULAR NOUNS. 

1. Some nouns have one gender in the singular, and another 
in the plural ; as, 

(1.) Ό δίφρος, the chariot-seat; 6 μοχλός, the lever; 6 και 
η Τάρταρος, Tartarus; 6 τράχηλος, the neck; 6 d εσμός, the 
decree ; Ό νώτος, the back ; 6 ερετμός, the oar ; 6 ζνγός, the 
yoke, are neuter in the plural; as, τα δίφρα, &c. The three 
last have also neuter forms in the singular, as, το νώτον, &c, but 
with a variation of meaning. 

(2.) Ό δεσμός, the bond ; 6 λύχνος, the lamp ; 6 κύκλος, the 
circle; 6 μηρός, the thigh; 6 σίτος, corn; ο στα&μός, the sta- 
tion ; have both a masculine and neuter form m the plural ; as, 
οι δεσμοί, and τα, δεσμά, &c. 

(3.) Η κέλεν&ος, the way, has at κέλενχτοι and τα κέλεν&α. 

(4.) To στάδιον, the stadium, has οι στάδιοι, and τα στάδια. 

(5.) Γυνή, a woman; οδός, a way ; πόλις, a city ; χειρ, a 
hand, feminines, have τώ γυναϊκε, τω οδώ, τω πόλιε, and τω 
χεϊρε, in the nominative and accusative dual. 



§39. THIRD DECLENSION. 49 

2. Some have more than one declension ; thus, 

(1.) Some are of the 1st and 2d, as, ?/ στεφάνη, and Ό στέφα- 
νος, a crown ; — some, of the 1st and 3d, as, Μωσης, -ov ; and 
Μωσενς, -έως, Moses. 2d and 3d, as, το δάκρνον, -ov, and to 
δάκρν, -νος ; μάρτυρος, -ov, and μάρτνρ, -νρος, a witness. 

(2.) Some have more than one declension, in the oblique 
cases, from one form of the nominative ; thus, Θάλης, gen. -ov 
1st, and -ητος 3d, Thales ; Άρης, -ov 1st, and -εος and -ψος 
3d, Mars ; b and το σκότος, darkness ; οχος, a chariot ; έλεος, 
mercy ; τάριχος, pickle ; όσσος, an eye ; have -ov the 2d, and 
-εος the 3d ; οσσος is used mostly in the dual, όσσε &c. 3d, and 
G. and D. plural όσσων, οσσοις, 2d. 

(3.) Some have the forms of different declensions, in certain 
cases, though not regularly declined through all the cases ; thus, 
1st and 3d in the ace. sing. Δημοσθένης, ace. -ην and -εα, De- 
mosthenes ; Σωκράτης, Socrates, ace. Σωκράτην and -εα\ άλκη, 
fortitude, gen. -ης (1st), dat. -ι (3d) ; νσμίνη, a battle, dat. νσμί- 
vrj and νσμΐνι (1st and 3d) ; άνδράποδον, a slave, 2d, dat. pi. av- 
δραπόδεσσι, 3d, Horn. ; γέλως b, laughter, G. γέλωτος, ace γέλω- 
τα and γέλων, after the Attic form of the 2d declension (88). 

(4.) Feminine nouns in ω, and ως, of the third declension, 
have generally the form of the second as if from' ος, in the dual 
and plural, when their meaning is such as to admit of their being 
used in these numbers. 

3. Some, from one form of the nominative, have different 
forms in the oblique cases, in the same declension ; thus, τίγρις, 
a tiger, has -ιος and -ιδος ; Θέμ(ς, Justice, has -ιδος, -ηος, and 
-ιστός ; Χάρων, Charon, has -(όνος and οντος ; γόνν, a knee, and 
δόρυ, a spear, have -νος and -ατός; χρως, χρωτός, and χρονς, 
χ ooo ς, the skin, have two forms of the nominative, as well as of 
the oblique cases, both of the 3d. 

4. Some appear to form the oblique cases from obsolete nomi- 
natives ; as, ήπαρ, a liver ; ημαρ, a day ; είδαρ, food ; φρέαρ, 
a well ; στε'αρ, fat ; κάρηαρ, a head ; άλειψαρ, ointment ; δέ- 
λεαρ, a bait ; ονειαρ, a benefit ; ον&αρ, fatness ; νδωρ, water ; 
σν.ώρ, dirt ; γόνν, the knee ; δόρν, a spear, have the genitive in 
-ατός, as if from nominatives in ας ; thus, ήπατος, νδατος, γόνα- 
τος. Ονς, an ear, ώτός ; γάλα, milk, γάλακτος ; γυνή, a woman, 
γνναν/.ός, voc. γνναι ; Ίησονς, gen. ov, dat. ov ; ace. οϊιν ; voc. ov. 

5. Some are indeclinable, i. e. have no change of termination 
in the different cases ; such as, 

(1.) Names of letters; as, το άλφα, τον άλφα, &c. (2.) The 
cardinal numbers from πέντε to εκατόν. (3.) Poetic nouns whieb 



50 THIRD DECLENSION. § 40, 41. 

have lost the last syllable by apocope ; as, το δω, for δώμα. (4.) 
Foreign names which are not susceptible of Greek inflexions ; a& 
b Αβραάμ, του Αβραάμ, &c. , 



137.— §40. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 

1. Some nouns have no plural; as, άηρ,αη ; πυρ, fire; ελαιον, 
oil ; γη, earth; αιδώς, shame; αλς, salt. 

2. Some have no singular; as, αλφιτα, victuals; Α&ηναι, 
Athens; ονείρατα, dreams ; and the names of festivals; as, Πα~ 
να&ηναια, Panathenma. 

3. Some occur in one case only, and are called monoptotes; 
as, ω τάν, Ο friend, ω τιόποι, Ο gods ; το όφελος, the advan- 
tage. 

4. Some have only two cases (diptotes)', as, nom. λΐς, ace. λΐν, 
a lion; nom. Ζευς, voc. Ζευ, Jupiter ; το οναρ, the vision; nom. 
■and ace. 

5. Some have only three (triptotes)', as, nom. μάρτυς, a wit- 
ness, ace. μάρτνν, dat. plur. μάρτνσι. 

6. The Poets sometimes by apocope (40-6th) cut off the final 
letter or syllable from a word ; as, κάρη for κάρηνον, a head. 
Such words are then indeclinable (136-5). 



§ 41. NOUNS OF PECULIAR SIGNIFICATION. 

138. — Some nouns have peculiar significations, according to 
their terminations ; as, 

1. Masculine Patronymics, (53-1, 1st) commonly in δης or 
ων ; as, Πηλεύς, Peleus, Πελείδης, Pelides, or the son of Pele- 
us ; Κρόνος, Saturn, Κρονίων or Κρονίδης, the son of Saturn. 

2. feminine Patronymics, commonly in ιας and ις, ινη and 
ι,ωνη ; as, Αητωϊάς and Αητωΐς, from Λητώ, Latona ; Αδρηστίνη 
from Αδρηστος ; Νηρίνη from Νηρενς ; Ακριβιώνη from Ακρί- 
σιος, &c. 

3. Gentile Nouns, (53-1, 2d) commonly in ης, ος, or ευς, 
masculine ; and α, ας, or ις, feminine ; as, Σπάρτη, Sparta, 
Σπαρτιάτης, a Spartan; Σαμάρεια, Samaria, Σαμάρειτις, a 
woman of Samaria. But many of these are declined as regular 
adjectives. 



42. 



THE ARTICLE. 



SI 



4. Diminutives, (53-2, 3d) commonly in ια, ιον, ιακος, or 1ος ; 
as, πατήρ, a father, πατρίδων, a little father (a term of endear- 
ment) ; παις, a boy or girl, παιδίον, a little boy or girl, παι- 
δίσχη, a young daughter ; έρως, love, ερωτνλος, a little lover. 

5. Atnpli fixatives, (53-2, 4th) commonly in μα, or ων; as, 
οίκος, a house, οίκημα, a large building ; •&ράσνς, bold, ΰράσων, 
a bully. 

6. Verbal JVouns. From the first root of the verb (209-4), 
are formed three nouns of different terminations and signification, 
indicating respectively the thing done, the doing, and the doer ; 
as follows, 



Verb. 


1 Root. 


Ter. 


Derivative. 




ποιε'ω 


ποιε 
ποιζ 


-μα 
-ϋΐς 


ποίημα 
ποίησις 




a poem 

the art of poetry 




ποιε 


-της 


ποιητής 




a poet 


πράα σ ω 


πραγ 
πραγ 


-μα 
-σις 


πράγμα 

π ρ ah ς, 44-7 


a deed 

action or doing 




πραγ 


-τηρ 
or -της 


πρακτηρ 
πρ ακτής, 


\«- 


-2 a doer 



§42. THE ARTICLE. 

139. — The article is an adjective word of three 
genders, and irregular in the nominative singular. 
In the oblique cases, the masculine and the neuter 
gender are of the second declension ; the feminine 
is of the first. It wants the vocative, and is thus 
declined : 





Singular 






Dual. 






Plural. 




N. 


ό 


n 


r 

το 




Ή. Α. 




Ν. 


οι 


αι 


τά 


G. 


τον 


της 


του 


τω 


τα 


τω 


G. 


των 


των 


των 


D. 


τφ 


την 


τφ 




G. υ. 




D. 


τοις 


ταϊς 


τοις 


A. 


τον 


τό 


τοϊν 


ταίν 


τοϊν 


Α. 


τους 


τάς 


τά 










140.- 


-OBSERVATIO: 


S"S. 









1. The Greeks spoke definitely, by placing the article before 
the substantive ; indefinitely, by omitting it or prefixing the pro- 
noun τις; as, 6 άν&ρωπος, the man ; αν&ρωπος, a man ; or τΙ(, 
αν&ρωπος, any man. 



52 



THE ADJECTIVE. 



§43,44. 



2. In grammar and lexicography, the article is used techni- 
cally to distinguish the gender of nouns (58, Obs. 1). 

3. The enclitic δε annexed to the article through all its cases, 
gives it the force of the pronoun " this ; " as, οδε, ηδε, τόδε, this, 
he, she, it ; Gen. τονδε, τησδε, τονδε, &c. In Homer and the 
other old Epic writers, the article itself is, with few exceptions, 
used in this sense. 

4. The article ό, ή, to, is sometimes used as a relative. (See 
186-2.) 

141. — Note. The article ο,η,τό, being commonly placed before a 
noun, is by some grammarians called the prepositive article, to distin- 
guish it from the relative pronoun ος, η, ο, which, from being generally 
placed after the noun to which it refers, they call the postpositive arti- 
cle. 



142.— § 43. DIALECTS OF THE ARTICLE. 

Singular. 



M. and N. 








Fern. 


N. 6 το 








D. α 


G. τον A. I. P. toio 


D. 


τω, τεΰ 


Ρ. τεω της 


D. τας 


D. τ φ Ι. τ εφ 






τψ 


D. τα 


Α. τον το 




" 


D. τάν 






Plural. 






Μ. and Ν. 






Fem. 




Ν. οι D. τοί neut. 


τά 




at D. ταί 




G. των Ι. τεων 






των D. τάν 


JEi. τάων 


D. τοις D. & Ι. τοΐσι 


Ι. 


τεοιαι 


ταΐς D. & Ι. 


ταΐσι, τψι 


Ρ. τοιδεσι and τοιδεσσι 








Α, τονς D. τός τώς 






τάς 





§ 44*. THE ADJECTIVE. 

-An adjective is a word used to qualify a 
as, άγα&ος άνηρ, a good 



man 



143. 

substantive 

μία ήμερα, one day. 

A noun is " qualified'''' by an adjective, when the object named 
is thereby described, limited, or distinguished from other things 
of the same name. 



§45. 



FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 



53 



1. The accidents of the adjective are gender, number, and 
case ; and in most adjectives also comparison. 

2. Adjectives in Greek, as well as Latin, indicate the gender, 
number, and case, by the termination ; as, καλ-ός masc, καλ-η 
fern., καλ-όν neuter, &c. 

3. Participles have the form and declension of adjectives, while 
in time and signification, they belong to the verb. 

4. Some adjectives denote each gender by a different termina- 
tion in the nominative, and consequently have three terminations. 
Some have one form common to the masculine and feminine, and 
are adjectives of two terminations ; and some are adjectives of 
one termination, which is common to the masculine and feminine ; 
such want the neuter. 

5. In adjectives of three terminations, the feminine is always 
of the first declension. In all adjectives, the masculine is always 
of the second or third; and the declension of the neuter, is always 
the same with that of the masculine. 



§ 45. REGULAR ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND 
SECOND DECLENSIONS. 

144. — 1. Adjectives of the first and second de- 
clensions nave the masculine always in ος, the 
feminine always in η or «, and the neuter always 
in or; thus, 

καλός, beautiful. 

Dual. 
N. A % V. 
καλ-ώ -ά -ώ 

G. D. 
καλ-οΐν -αΐν -οΐν 



Singular. 
Ν. καλ-ός -η -όν 
G. καλ-ον -ης -ου 
D. καλ-φ -rj -φ 
Α. καλ-όν -ην -όν 
V. καλ -s -η -όν 



Plural. 

Ν. καλ-οί -αϊ -ά 

G. καλ-ών -ων -ών 

D. καλ-οΐς -αΐς -οΐς 

Α. καλ-ονς -άς -ά 

V. καλ-οί αϊ -ά 



Thus decline άγα&ός, good ; κακός, bad; φίλος, friendly ; 
μαλακός, soft; λευκός, white; δήλος, manifest; απαλός, tender, 
τερπνός, pleasant. 

145. — 2. But ος pure, and ρος, have a in the 
feminine ; as, 



54 



FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 



45. 





Singular. 






Singular. 




Κ 


ράδι-ος -a 


-ον 


Ν. 


φανερ-ος 


α 


όν 


G. 


ραδί-ον -ας 


-ου 


G. 


φανερ-ον 


ας 


ου 


D. 


ραδί -co -a 


-φ 


Ό. 


φανερ-φ 


α 


Φ 


A. 


ράδι-ον -αν 


-ον 


Α. 


φανερ-όν 


άν 


ον 


V. 


ράδι-ε -a 


-ον 


V. 


φανερ-ε 


α 


όν 



The dual and plural terminations are the same as in κάλος. 
But the rules for the accents in the masculine and neuter (84), 
and in the feminine (12), must be carefully observed. 

146. — Exc. The terminations οος, and sometimes εος, espe- 
cially in adjectives denoting matter and colour, retain η ; as, 
όγδοος, the eighth, ογδόη ; όλοός, pernicious, όλοι] ; χρύσεος, gold- 
en, χρνσε'η ; φοινίκεος, purple, φοινικε'η. Except where ρ stands 
before the vowel.; as, ά&ρόος, frequent, ά&ρόα; άργύρεος, silver, 
άργύρεα. 

147. — 3. The Attics often decline adjectives in 
og, especially derivatives and compounds, by the 
common gender, without the feminine termina- 
tion ; thus, 

ά&άνατος, αθάνατος, ά&άναζον, immortal. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 



Ν. ά&άνατ-ος 


-ος 


-ον 


Ν. Α. V. 


Ν. ά&άνατ-οι -οι -α 


G. άϋανάτ-ου 


-ου 


-ου 


ά&ανάτ-ω -ω -ω 


G. ά&ανάτ-ων -ων -ων 


D. άϋανάτ-φ 


-φ 


-φ 


G. D. 


D. ά&ανάτ-οις -οι ς -οις 


Α. ά&άνατ-ον 


-ον 


-ον 


ά&ανάτ-οιν -οιν -οιν 


Α. ά&ανάτ-ους -ους -α 


V. ά&άνατ-ε 


-ε 


-ον 




V. ά&άνατ-οι -οι -α 



Adjectives of the common gender are often expressed thus : 

ο, η άϋ-άνατος, το ά&άνατον. 
του, της, του ά&ανάτου, &c. 

In the same manner decline — 



M. &F. 


Έ. 




ηάτι^ιΧος 
άδικος 


τζάμφιλον 
αδικον 


from πάν and γίλος 
from δίκη 


ουράνιος 
όμορος 


ουρανών 
όμορον 


from ουρανός 

from όμός and όρος 



Note. Though this form of declension is most used by the Attic 
writers, it is not confined to them. Instances of it occur in Homer. 



§46. 



FIRST AND THIRD DECLENSION'S. 



55 



§ 46. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND THIRD 
DECLENSIONS. 

148. — The masculine and neuter of all adjec- 
tives not ending in og, are of the third declension. 
The regular terminations of these are — 

M. F. N. 

1. ας αινα αν 

2. εις εϋΰα εν 

3. νς εια ν 

Adjectives, so far as they are of the third declension, are ac- 
cented the same as nouns, according to the rules, 94. 

149. — 1. Example of an Adjective in ας, αινα, 
αν / μίλας, black. 

Singular. 
μελ-αινα 
μελ-αίνης 
μελ-αίνη 
μελ-αιναν 
μελ-αινα 

Dual. 

μελ-αινα 

μελ-αίναιν 

Plural. 

μελ-αιναι 

μελ-αινών 

μελ-αίναις 

μελ-αίνας 

150. — 2. Example of an Adjective in εις, εααα 
εν ; χαρίεις, comely. 

Singular. 

χαρί-εσσα χοιρί-εν 

χαριεσσης χαρί-εντος, 100-2. 

χαρι-ε'σστ) χαρί-εντι 

χαρί-εσσαν χαρί -w 

χαρί-εσσα χαρί-εν 



Ν. μελ-ας 

G. μελ-ανος 

D. μελ-ανι 

Α. μελ-ανα 

V. μελ-αν 



Ν. Α. V. μελ-ανε 
G. D. μελ-άνοιν 

Ν. Υ. μελ-ανες 
G. μελ-άνων 
D. μελ-ασι 
Α. μελ-ανας 



μελ-αν 

μελ-ανος 

μελ-ανι 

μελ-αν 

μελ-αν 

μελ-ανε 
μελ-άνοιν 

μελ-ανα 
μελ-άνων 
μελ-ασι, 46-16. 
μελ-ανα 



Ν. χαρί-εις 
G. χαρί-εντος 
D. χαρί-εντι 
Α. χαρί-εντα 
Υ. χαρί-εν -εις 



56 



FIKST AND THIRD DECLENSIONS. 



§46. 



Ν. Α. V. χαρί-εντε 
G. D. χαρι-εντοιν 



1ST. V. χαρί-ενζες 
G. χαρι-εντων 
D. χαρί-εισι 
Α. χαρί-εντας 



Dual. 

χαρι-εσσα 
χαρι-έσσαιν 

Plural. 
χαρί-εσσαι 
χαρι-εσσών 
χαρι-ε'σσαις 
χαρι-εσσας 



χαρι-εντε 
χαρι-εντοιν 



χαρι-εντα 
χαρι-εντων 
χαρί-εισι, 47-18. 



151. — 06s. According to Buttmann, adjectives in εις (but not 
participles) have εσι and not εισι, in the dative plural. Prof. An- 
thon adopts the same termination. When so used it must be re- 
garded as an exception to the general rule, § 6, 18. 

152. — 3. Example of an Adjective in υς, sea, υ ; 

ηδύς, sweet. 









Singular. 






Κ 


ηδ-νς 


ηδ-εΐα 


ηδ-ύ 




G. 


ηδ-εος 


ηδ-είας 


ηδ-εος 




D. 


ηδ-εϊ, contr. - 


ει ηδ-εία 


ηδ-έϊ, contr. ει 




Α. 


ηδ-νν, or -εα, 


102-2. ηδ-εΐαν 


ηδ-ύ 




V. 


ηδ-ύ 


ηδ-εΐα 
Dual. 


ηδ-ύ 


Ν. Α. 


V. 


ηδ-εε 


ηδ-εΐα 


ηδ-ε'ε 


G. 


D. 


ηδ-εοιν 


ηδ-είαιν 
Plural. 


ηδ-έοιν 


Ν. 


V. 


ηδ-ε'ες, contr. 


εις ηδ-είαι 


ηδ-έα, not contr. 




G. 


ηδ-εων 


ηδ-ειών 


ηδ-εων 




D. 


ηδ-εσι 


ηδ-είαις 


ηδ-εσι 




Α. 


ηδ-ε'ας, contr 


εις ηδ-είας 


ηδ-εα, not contr. 


After the same manner decline — 








1. 




γλυκ 


3. 
-νς -εΐα -ν 


τάλ-ας 


-αινα 


-αν 


ημισ-νς -εια -ν 






2. 




βαρ- 


νς -εΐα -ν 


μελιτό-εις -εσσα 


-εν 


βαχϊ- 


νς -εΐα -ν 


τιμη-εις 


-εσσα 


-εν 


όξ-νς -εΐα -ύ 






§47. 



DECLENSION OF PARTICIPLES. 



57 



§47. DECLENSION OF PARTICIPLES. 
• 

153.— Participles are declined like adjectives of three termi- 
nations : those of the middle and passive in ος, are inflected 
throughout like καλός, 144. Of others, the feminine always fol- 
lows the terminations of the first declension, and the masculine 
and neuter, those of the third, the genitive being always formed 
as directed, 100, Obs. 1. The terminations of these are as fol- 
lows : 





M. 


F. 


Ν. 


Μ. 


F. 


Ν. 


1. 


-ων 


-ονσα 


-ον 


Gen. -οντος 


-ονσης 


-οντος, &c. 


2. 


-ων 


-ονσα 


-όν 


-όντος 


-ονσης 


-όντος, &c. 


3. 


-ας 


-ααα 


-αν 


-αντος 


-άσης 


-αντος, &c. 


4. 


-ως 


-νια 


-ός 


-ότος 


-νιας 


-ότος, <fec. 


5. 


-είς 


-εΐσα 


-εν 


-εντός 


-είσης 


-εντός, <fcc. 


6. 


-ους 


-ονσα 


-όν 


-όντος 


-ονσης 


-όντος, &c. 


1. 


-νς 


-νσα 


-νν 


-νντος 


-νσης 


-νντος, &c. 



Of these the 2d, 3d, and 4th are declined as examples ; thus, 

154. — 1. τυπών, having struck. (2 Aor. Act.) 
Singular. 





N. 


τνπ-ών 


τνπ-ονσα 


τνπ-όν 




G. 


τνπ-όντος 


τνπ-ονσης 


τνπ-όντος 




D. 


τνπ-όντι 


τνπ-ονση 


τνπ-όντι 




A. 


τνπ-όντα 


τνπ-ονσαν 


τνπ-όν 




V. 


τνπ-ών 


τνπ-ονσα 
Dual. 


τνπ-όν 


. A. 


V. 


τνπ-όντε 


τνπ-ονσά 


τνπ-όντε 


G. 


D. 


τνπ-όντοιν 


τνπ-ονσαιν 
Plural. 


τνπ-όντοιν 




N. 


τνπ-όντες 


τνπ-ονσαι 


τνπ-όντα 




G. 


τνπ-όντων 


τνπ-ονσών 


τνπ-όντων 




D. 


τνπ-ονσι 


τνπ-ονσαις 


τνπ-ονσι, 4 




A. 


τνπ-όντας 


τνπ-ονσας 


τνπ-όντα 




V. 


τνπ-όντες 


τνπ-ονσαι 


τνπ-όντα 



In this manner are declined all participles which have ν before 
tog in the genitive ; also the adjectives εκών and άεκων. When 
the accent of the nominative is on the penult, it remains there, 



58 ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. §47. 

2. τύψας, having struck. (1 Aor. Act.) 

Singular. 



N. 


rvxpag 


τνιρασ-α 


zvxpav 


G. 


τνιραντ-ος 


τνψάΰ-ης 


τν\ραντ-ος 


D. 


τνιραντ-ι 


τνψάα-χι 


τνψαντ-ι 


A. 


τνψαντ-α 


τν-ψαα-αν 


rvxpav 


y. 


τύχρας 


τνψαα-α 
Dual. 


zvxpav 


N. A. V. 


tvipavr-s 


τνχράα-α 


τνψαντ-ε 


G. D. 


τν\ράντ-οιν 


τνψάσ-αιν 
Plural. 


τν\ράντ-οιν 


N. 


rvxpavr -ες 


τνιρασ-αι 


τνψαντ-α 


G. 


τν\ράντ-ων 


τνχρασ-ών 


τνψάντ-ων 


D. 


τνψα-σι 


τνψάσ-αις 


τνχρα-σι 


A. 


τνψαντ-ας 


τν\ράσ-ας 


τν\ραντ-α 


V. 


τν\ραντ-ες 


τνχρασ-αι 


τν\ραντ-α 



In like manner decline the adjective πάς, πάσα, πάν, all. 

155. — 3. τετυφ-ώς, having struck. (Perf. Act.) 

Singular. 



Κ 


V. τετνψώς 


-νια 


-ός 




G. τετνφ-ότος 


-νιας 


-ότος 




D. τετνφ-ότι 


-νια 


-ότι 




Α. τετνφ-ότα 


-νΐαν 
Dual. 


-ός 


Ν. Α. 


Υ. τετνφ-ότε 


-νια 


-ΟΤδ 


G. 


D. τετνφ-ότοιν 


-νίαιν 
Plural. 


-ότοιν 


■" Ν. 


V. τετνφ-ότες 


-νϊαι 


-ότα 




G. τετνφ-ότων 


-νιων 


-όζων 




D. τετνφ-όσι 


-νίαις 


-όσι, 44-8 




Α. τετνψ-ότας 


-νιας 


-ότα 



156. — The participle in ως, after a Syncope (267), has the 
nominative and vocative ως, ώσα, ως ; G. ώτος, ώσης, ώτος, (fee. 



§48. ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 59 

§48. ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 

15 7. — Many adjectives of the third declension have but one 
form tor the masculine and feminine, and are therefore said to be 
declined according to the common gender. They are declined 
throughout like nouns of the third declension, of the same termi- 
nation. The regular terminations of these are ων, ψ, ης, ις, vg, 
and ονς (viz. compounds of πους) ; and they form the neuter ac- 
cording to the following — 

158. — EULES. 

1. Adjectives of the common gender in ων, ην, 
ης, form the neuter by changing the long vowel 
into its own short one ; thus, 

M. and F. N. 

Ν. σώφρων σώφρον prudent, G. σώφρον-ος 

Ν. άρρην άρρεν male, G. άρρεν -og 

Κ άλη&ης άλη&ε'ς true, G. άλη&ε -og 

So also some in ωρ ; as, 
Ν. μεγαλητωρ μεγάλητορ ; G. μεγαλψορ-ος 

Note. But τερψ, tender, usually has the feminine τερεινα, 
neuter τερεν. 

2. Adjectives of the common gender in ig and 
νς, form the neuter by rejecting g ; as, 

M. and F. N. 

Ν. εύχαρις ενχκρι G. ενχάρι -zog 

Ν. άδακρνς αδακρν G. άδάκρν -og 

3. Compounds of πους, a foot, have the neuter 
in ου ν ; others in ους have the neuter in ov ; as, 

M. and F. N. 

Ν. δίηονς, δίπονν, G. δίποδ -og, 100-1. 

μόνόδονς, μονόδον, μονόδ -ovrog. 

Note. It is probable that πους was originally ποός ; whence δίποος, 
Έ. δ'ιττοον, contracted δίπονς, δίπονν; and that the declension was after- 
wards changed from the 2d to the 3d, as was done also in γέλο)ς, and 
εοως, from the ancient γέλαος, and εοαος. 



60 



IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 



§48. 



159. — Examples of adj 
gender. 
1. δ, ή ΰωφρων, prudent. 

Singular. 
Ν. σώφρ-ων -ων -ov 
G. σώφρ-ονος -όνος -όνος 
D. σωφρ-ονι ~ονι -ονι 
Α. σώφρ-ονα -ova -ov 
V. σώφρ-ον -ov -ov 
Dual. 
Κ A. V. 

σωφρ-ονε -ονε -ovs 

G. D. 

σωφρ-όνοιν -όνοιν -όνοιν 
Plural. 

Ν. σώφρ-ονες -ονες -ova 
G. σωφρ-όνων -όνων -όνων 

D. σώφρ-οσι -οσι -οσι 

Α. σωφρ-ονας -ονας -ova 

V. ΰώφρ-ονες -ονες -ova 

3. εύχαρις, acceptable. 

Singular. 

Ν. ενχαρ-ις -ις -ι 

G. ενχάρ-ιτος -ιτος -ιτος 

D. ενχάρ-ιτι -ιτι -ιτι 

ι j ενχάρ-ιτα -ιτα -ι, or 

( ενχαρ-ιν -ιν -ι 

V. ενχαρ-ι -ι -ι 
Dual. 
Ν. Α. V. 

ενχάρ-ιτε -ιτε -ιτε 

G. D. 

ενχαρ-ίτοιν -ίτοιν -ίτοιν 
Plural. 

Ν. ενχάρ-ιτες -ιτες -νζα 

G. ενχαρ-ίτων -ίτων -it ων 

D. ενχάρ-ιβι -ιβι -ισι 

Α. ενχάρ-ιτας -ιτας -ιτα 

V: ενχάρ-ιτ&ς -ιτες -ιτα 



ectives of the common 

2. δ, ή άλη&ής, true. 

Singular. 

Ή. άληϋ'-ί'ις -ης -ες 

G. άληϋ•-εος -εος -εος 

D. άληϋ-εϊ -εϊ -εϊ 

Α. άληΰ-εα -εα -ες 

V. άλη&-ές -ες -ε'ς 

Dual. 

Ν. Α. V. 

άληϋ'-ε'ε -εε -εε 

G. D. 

άλη&-εοιν -εοιν -έοιν 
Plural. 

Ν. άληΰ-εες -εες -εα 

G. άληϋ-εων -εων -εων 

D. άλη&-εσι -έβι -έαι 

Α. άληίϊ-έας -εας -εα 

V. άλη&-ε'ες -εες -εα 

4. αδακρνς, tearless. 

Singular. 

Ν. άδακρ-νς -νς -ν 

G. άδάκρ-νος -νος -υος 

D. άδάκρ-νϊ -νϊ -νϊ 

Α. άδακρ-νν -νν -ν 

V. άδακρ-ν -υ -ν 

Dual. 

Ν. Α. V. 

άδάκρ-νε -νε -νε 

άδακρ-νοιν -νοιν -νοιν 

Plural. 

Ν. άδάκρ-νες -νες -να 

G. άδακρ-νων -νων -ί'ων 

D. άδάκρ-νσι -ναι -ναι 

Α. άδάκρ-νας -υας -να 

V. άδάκρ-νες -νες -να 



£ 49. ADJECTIVES TO BE DECLINED. 61 

Note. Iu these examples, άλη&ης and αδαχριις are declined without 
contracting. The pupil may contract the concurrent vowels (120-2, and 
ISO), and inake the necessary changes in the accents. 



§ 49. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 

160. — Every adjective not ending in some of 
the regular terminations already mentioned, is ir- 
regular, — wants the neuter gender, — and is de- 
clined like a noun of the third declension ; thus, 

N. 6, η άρπαξ, 

G. τον, της άρπαγος, &c. 

Obs. 1. The poets sometimes use the genitive and dative of 
such adjectives in the neuter. Sometimes the neuter is supplied 
by a derivative form in ov ; thus, άρπακτικόν is used as the neu- 
ter of άρπαξ ; βλακτικόν, as the neuter of βλάξ, &c. 

Exc. 1. εκών and άέκων (by syncope άκων), are declined with 
three genders, like participles (154-1) ; thus, 

Ν", εκ-ών εκ-ουσα, εκ-όν, 

G. εκ-όντος, εκ-ονσης, εκ-σντος, &c. 

Exc. 2. Μέγας, great ; and πολνς, many, are irregular in the 
nominative and accusative singular. The other cases are regu- 
larly formed from the ancient nominatives μεγάλος and πολλός, 
of the second declension ; thus, 

Singular. Singular. 

M. F. N. M. F. N.' 



πολνς πολλή πολύ 

πολλού πολλής πολλοί' 

πολλφ πολλή πολλφ 

πολύν πολλην πολύ 



Ν. μέγας μεγάλη μέγα 

G. μεγάλου μεγάλης μεγάλου 

D. μεγάλος μεγάλη μεγάλορ 

Α. μεγαν μεγάλην μέγα 

Dual. Dual. 

"Ν. Α. V. μεγάλω, μεγάλα, μεγάλω. | πολλώ, πολλά, πολλώ, &c 
through the dual and plural, as in καλός, 144. 

Note. Homer and other poets infleet πολνς regularly, Gen. πολέος, 
Dat. πολέ'ί, &c. It was afterwards changed, in those cases in which it 
would not be distinguished from the same cases of πόλι,ς, a oity. 

4 



62 



NUMERALS. 



§50,51. 



Obs. 2. Some substantives in ας and ης, inflected in the first 
declension, are called by grammarians, adjectives; as, υβριστής, 
an insolent man ; τραυματίας, a wounded man ; but they are 
really independent of any other substantives in construction. The 
same observation may be applied to several other words, called 
adjectives of one termination. 



§ 50. ADJECTIVES TO BE DECLINED. 


κακ-ός, -?/, -όν, bad. 


ήχψεις, -εσσα, -εν, 


sonorous. 


ταλ-ας, -αινα, -av, miserable. 


φοβερ-ός, -ά, -όν, 


formidable. 


βαρ-υς, -εΐα, -υ, heavy. 


άγαΰ-ός, -ή, -όν, 


good. 


τερ-ην, -ην, -εν, tender, 
ευσεβές, -ης, -ε'ς, pious. 


6, η μακρόγειρ, 


long-handed. 


ταχ-ύς, -εΐα, -υ, 


swift. 


βελτί-ων, -ων, ον, better. 


καλλί-ων, -ων, -ον 


more beauti- 


τιμή-εις, -εσσα, -εν, honoured. 




ful. 


αδικ-ος, -ος, -ον, unjust. 


φίλ-ος, -η, -ον, 


friendly. 


ah -ος, -α, -ον, worthy. 


μνήμ-ων, -ων, -ον, 


mindful. 


ψλόπατρ-ις, -ις, -ι, patriotic. 


αδμ-ής, -ης, -ες, 


unconquered 


πολύπ-ους,-ους,-ουν, many-footed. 


ο, η φυγάς, 


an exile. 


ο, η μάκαρ, happy. 


γλυκ-ύς, -εΐα, -υ 


sweet. 


βα&-ύς, -εΐα, -υ, deep. 


ράδί-ος, -α, -ον, 


easy. 


μείζ-ων, -ων, -ον, greater. 


σοίφρ-ων, -ων, ον, 


wise. 



§51. NUMERALS. 

161. — Numeral adjectives are those which sig- 
nify number. In Greek they are divided into 
two classes, Cardinal and Ordinal. 

1. The Cardinal express numbers simply, or 
how many ; as, one, two, three, &c. 

2. The Ordinal denote which one of a number; 
as, first, second, third, &c. 

Distributives have no separate form in Greek. The meaning 
of these is expressed by the cardinal numbers, sometimes com- 
pounded with συν ; as, σύνδυο, σύντρεις, &c. ; bini, terni ; — and 
sometimes preceded by κατά, ανά, &c. 



§ 51. NUMERALS. 63 

162. 1. THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 

1. Elg, one, has the singular number only, and 
is thus declined : 

Ν, εις μία εν 

G. hog μιας ενός 

Ό. ενί μια ενί 

Α. era μίαν εν 

In like manner decline tlie two compounds, 

ονδ-είς, ούδε-μία, ούδ-εν, plur. ούδ-ενες, -εμίαι, -ένα, 
μηδ-είς, μηδε-μία, μηδ-εν, " μηδ-ενες, -εμίαι, -ίνα. 

Obs. 1. From εϊς, one. is formed the adjective έτερος, either, 
one, other ; and from ουδείς, μηδείς, are formed ουδέτερος, μηδέ- 
τερος, neither. 

Obs. 2. Εις is sometimes used for the ordinal πρώτος, as in 
Matth. 28. 1 ; Mark 16. 2. This is usuall}- considered a Hebra- 
ism, but it is sometimes used by the Greeks also ; Herod, iv. 161, 
Thucyd. iv. 115. Also in Latin, Cic. Sen. 5 : " Uno et octoyesi- 
mo annoy 

2. Λύω, two, is properly dual ; it is alike in all 
genders, and is defective in the plural ; thus, 

Dual. Plural. 

Ν. Α. δύω Ν. Α. 

G. δυοΐν, Attic δνεϊν G. δυών 

D. δυοΐν D. δυσί{ν) 

Obs. 3. Αΰο, two, is indeclinable ; i. e. it is the same in all 
genders and numbers ; άμφω, both, is declined like δύω, in the 
dual. 

3. Τρεις, three, and jtooaqtz, four, are plural 
only, and are thus declined : 

τρεις, three. τέσσαρες (τετταρες), four. 

Ν", τρεις τρεις τρία Ν. τέσσαρες τέσσαρες τέσσαρα 

G. τριών τριών τριών G. τεσσάρων τεσσάρων τεσσάρων 

D. τρισί τρισί τρισί D. τεσσαρσι τεσσαρσι τεσσαρσι, 

Α. τρεις τρεις τρία Α. τεσσάρας τεσσάρας τέσσαρα 

4. The Cardinal numbers from πίντε, jive, to 
Ικατον, a hundred, are indeclinable. 



64 



GEEEK NOTATION OF NUMBERS. 



52. 



5. After Ικατον, the larger numbers are regu- 
lar plural adjectives of the first and second declen- 



sions: as. 



M. 


F. 


Ν. 




διακόσιοι 


διακόσιαι 


διακόσια 


two hundred 


τριακόσιοι 

χίλιοι 

δισχίλιοι 

μύριοι 

δισμνριοί 


τριακόσιαι 

χίλιαι 

δισχίλιαι 

μνριαι 

δισμυριαι 


τριακόσια 

χίλια 

δισχίλια 

μνρια 

δισμνρια 


three hundred 
a thousand 
two thousand 
ten thousand 
twenty thousand 


Obs. 4. 


In the compositio 


η of numbers, either the smaller pre- 



cedes, and the two are joined by και ; or the greater precedes, in 
which case the και is generally omitted; thus, πέντε και είκοσι, 
or είκοσι πέντε, twenty-five ; πέμπτος και εικοστός, or εικοστός 
πέμπτος, twenty-fifth. When three numbers are reckoned to- 
gether, the greatest comes first, and so on in succession, with the 
conjunction και', as, νηες εκατόν και είκοσι και επτά, a hundred 
and twenty-seven ships. 

Obs. 5. Instead of the numbers compounded with eight or 
nine, more frequent use is made of the circumlocution ενός (or 
μιας) δέοντος, &o. ; thus, νηες μιας δέονσαι είκοσι, twenty ships 
wanting one, i. e. nineteen ships ; ετεα δνών δέοντα ε'ίκοσι, twenty 
years wanting two, i. e. eighteen years. 



163. §52. II. OEDINAL NTJMBEES. 

The ordinal numbers are formed from the cardinal. All un- 
der twenty, except second, seventh, and eighth, end in τος ; from 
twenty upwards, all end in οστός, and, in their inflection, are re- 
gular adjectives of the first and second declensions ; thus, 

πρώτος πρώτη πρώτον first 

(πρότερος ίτρότ^οί πρότερον first of the two) 

δ έντερο ς δευτέρα δεύτερον second 

τρίτος τρίτη τρίτον, &c. third 

Obs. 1. In order to express half, or fractional numbers in 
money, measures, and weights, the Greeks used words compound- 
ed of ημι, half, and the name of the weight, &c. (μνά, όβολός, 
τάλαντον), having the adjective termination ov, ιον, aiov, append- 
ed to it, and placed before the ordinal number, of which the half 



§53. GREEK NOTATION OF NUMBERS. 65 

is taken ; as, τρίτον ημιταλαντον, 2| talents ; i. e. the first a talent, 
the second a talent, the third a half talent, and so of others. In 
like manner the Latin sestertius, 2£ asses by syncope from semis- 
iertiu»; the first an as, the second an as, the third a half as (ter- 
ti/is semis). 

From this must be distinguished the use of the same com- 
pounds iu the plural, preceded by the cardinal number which, in 
that case, mean simply so many half talents; thus, τρία ?;μι- 
τάλαντα, not 2£ talents, but three half talents, or one and a half. 

Obs. 2. From the ordinal numbers are formed numerals in 
αϊος, expressing "on what day ;" as, οευτεραϊος, on the second 
day ; τριταίος, on the third day, &c. 



§53. THE GREEK NOTATION OF NUMBERS. 

164. — The Greeks used the letters of the alphabet in three 
different ways, to denote numbers. 

1. To express a small series of numbers, each letter was reck- 
oned according to its order in the alphabet; as, α, 1, β, 2, ε, 5, 
ω, 24. In this manner the books of Homer's Iliad and Odys- 
sey are distinguished. The technical syllable HNT (ψτ), will 
assist the memory in using this kind of notation ; for if the alpha- 
bet be divided into four equal parts, η will be the first letter of 
the second part, that is 1 ; v, of the third, or 1 3 ; and τ of the 
fourth, or 19. 

2. The capital letters were used, in denoting larger series of 
numbers, thus; 1, 1, Π for πέντε, 5, A for dt'xa, 10, Η for Ηε- 
χατόν, 100, X for χίλιοι, 1000, and Μ for μύριοι, 10,000. Λ 
large Π round any of these characters, except I, denoted five 
times as much as that character represented ; as, \j\ , 50 ; \m\ 
for 50,000. 

3. To express the 9 units, the 9 tens, and the 9 hundreds, the 
Greeks divided the alphabet into three parts ; but, as there are 
only 24 letters, they used c', called επίσημον, for 6; £j, called 
κόππα, for 90 ; and Gt), called σαμπί, for 900. In using this 
kind of notation, the memory will be assisted by the technical 
syllable AlP\ that is, Λ', denotes 1 ; /, 10 ; and P, 100. It 
is to be observed, also, that all the numbers under 1000, are de- 
noted by letters with a small mark like an accent, over them ; 
and that a similar mark placed under any letter, denotes that it 
represents so many thousands. 



6Q 



GREEK NOTATION OF NUMBERS. 



§53. 





165. — TABLE OF NUMERALS. 




Cardinal. 


Ordinal 


1 


a 


τ 
εις 


πρώτος 


2 


β' 


δύο 


δεύτερος 


3 


V 


τρεΐς 


τρίτος 


4 


δ' 


τέσσαρες 


τέταρτος 


5 


ε' 


πέντε 


πέμπτος 


6 


ζ 


εξ 


έκτος 


7 


ζ' 


επτά 


ε/?(5ομος 


8 


V 


οκτώ 


όγδοος 


9 


& 


εννέα 


ϊννατος 


10 


ι! 


δέκα 


δέκατος 


11 


ιά 


ένδεκα 


ενδέκατος 


12 


Ψ' 


δώδεκα 


δο)δέκατος 


13 


<ύ' 


τρισκαίδεκα 


τρισγ.αιδέγ.ατος 


14 


ιδ' 


τεσσαρεσκαίδεχα 


τεσσαρακαιδέκατοζ 


15 


ιε 


πεντεκαίδεκα 


πεντεκαιδέκατος 


16 


ις 


εκχαίδεκα 


ϊχγ.αιδέγ.ατος 


17 


£ 


επταχαίδεκα 


επτακαιδέκατος 


18 


ιη 


οχτο)χαίδεχα 


6 κτω Υ.αιδέ/.ατος 


19 


φ> 


εννεακαίδεχα 


έννεακαιδέκατος 


20 


χ 


είκοσι 


εικοστός 


21 


κ α 


είκοσι- εις 


εικοστός πρώτος 


30 


λ' 


' τριάκοντα 


τριακοστός 


40 


μ 


τεσσαράκοντα 


τεσσαρακοστός 


50 


ν' 


πεντήκοντα 


πεντηκοστός 


60 


r 


εξή/.οντα 


εξηκοστός 


70 


ο' 


ίβδομηγ.οντα 


εβδομηκοστός 


80 


π' 


ογδοήκοντα 


δγδοηκοστός 


90 


5' 


έννενηχοντα, 


ϊννενηκοστός 


100 


ρ[ 


εκατόν 


εκατοστός 


200 


σ 


δια/.δσιοι 


διακοσιοστός 


300 


τ 


τριακόσιοι 


τριακοσιοστός 


400 


ν 


τεσσαρα/.όσιοι 


τεσσαρακοσιοστύς 


500 


Ψ 


πεντα/.οσιοι 


πεντακοσί-οστό? 


600 


'/ 


εξακόσιοι 


εξακοσιοστός 


700 


ψ' 


επτακόσιοι 


επτακοσιοστός 


800 


ω' 


οκτακόσιοι 


οκτακοσιοστός 


900 


^ 


ϊννεαγ.όσιοι 


έννεακοσιοστός 


1,000 


α ι 


χίλιοι 


χιλ.ιοστός 


2,000 


β, 


δισχίλίοι 


δισχιλιοστός 


3,000 


Υ, 


τρισχίλιον 


τρισχώι,οστός 


4,000 


δ\ 


τετ ρ αγ.ισ χίλιοι 


τετρακισχιλιοστός 


5,000 


ε, 


πεντα/.ισ χίλιοι 


πεντακισχιλιοστός 


6,000 


£, 


είαγ.ισ χίλιοι 


είακισχιλ.ιοστός 


7,000 


c, 


επτα/.ισ χίλιοι 


επτακισχιλιοστός 


8,000 


η, 


oy δ ο/.ισ χίλιοι 


δγδοκισχιλιοστός 


9,000 


ϋ-, 


έννεακ<,σχίλιοι 


εννεακισ χιλιοστός 


10,000 


i t 


μνριοο 


μνριοστός 


20,000 


κ * 


δισμνριου 


δισμνριοστός 


50,000 


ν, 


πεντα/.ισ μύριοι 


πεντακισ μνριοστός 


100,000 


Q, 


δ ε/.ακισ μύριοι 


δεχακισμνριοστός 


Thust 


he num 


)er 1853 is a t ω' ν /. 





§ 54 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 67 

OTHER CLASSES OF NUMERALS. 

166. — From the cardinal numbers are formed — 

1st. The Numeral adverbs; as, δίς, twice, from δυο ; τρίς, 
thrice, from τρεις; and from the others, by adding the termina- 
tion κις, ά/.ις, or τάκις; as, τεσσαράκις, έϊάχις, εκατοντάκις, four 
times, six times, a hundred times. 

2d. Multiple numbers in πλόος, contracted πλους' as, δι- 
πλόος, two-fold; τριπλόος, three-fold ; τετραπλόος, four-fold. 

3d. Proportionals in πλάσιος ; as, τριπλάσιος, three times as 
much ; τετραπλάσιος, four times as much. 

4th. Substantives in άς, άδος, which express the name of the 
several numbers ; as, μονάς, Gen. -άδος, the number one, unity ; 
δνάς, the number two; δεκάς, the number ten ; εικάς, the num- 
ber twenty ; τριακάς, the number thirty, &c. 

Xote. The substantive numerals are commonly employed to express 
the higher numbers; thus, $ir.a μΐφκχ&ς, 100,000; εκατόν μνξΐάδίζ, a 
million. Sometimes the smaller numbers, added to the larger, are 
likewise expressed by substantives ; thus, 517,610, πίντή/.οντα μυριά- 
δίς y.cti μι,ά, χιλιάόίΐ; τί επτά και π^ός έκατοντάύ>ς ti κα* ύίκάς. 

5th. The Distributives, answering to the question, in how 
many parts ? are formed in χα ; as, δίχα, τρίχα, τε'τραχα, πεν- 
ταχα ; in two parts, in three parts, <fec, and connected with 
these are such adverbs as, τριχ\], trebly, τριχον, in three places, &c. 

005. ΛΥηβη other parts of speech are compounded with nu- 
merals, the first four assume the following forms, viz. : μονό-, one ; 
δι-, two ; τρι-, three ; τετρα-, four ; as, μονόκερως, δίκερως, 
τρίπονς, τετράπονς, one-homed, two-horned, three-footed, four- 
footed. 



§ 54. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

167. Adjectives have three degrees of compari- 
son, the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. 

168. The Positive expresses a quality simply ; the # Compara- 
tive asserts it in a higher or lower degree in one object than in 
another, or, than in several taken together ; and the Superlative, 
in the highest or lowest degree compared with several taken sep- 
arately ; thus, "gold is heavier than silver; it is the most pre- 
cious of metals." Hence, those adjectives only can be compared 
whose signification admits the distinction of more or less. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



§5o. 



The superlative in Greek, as in Latin and English, often ex- 
presses only a very high degree of the quality, without implying 
comparison, and may be called the superlative of eminence. 



§ 55. GENERAL RULE. 

169. — The comparative degree is formed by 
adding τερος to the positive ; and the superlative, 
by adding τατος ; thus, 



Positive. 



Superlative. 



μακαρ 
ευνους 
κακόνονς 
άπλόος-άπλους 



Comparative. 

μακάρ-τερος 

ευνούσ-τερος 

κακονούσ-τερος 

άπλούσ-τερος 

170. — SPECIAL RULES. 

1. Adjectives in teg reject ι; as, 

χαρίεις χαριεσ-τερος 

2. Adjectives in og reject g ; and also, after a 
short syllable, change ο into ω ; thus, 



μακαρ-τατος 
ευνονσ-τατος 
κακόν ουσ-τ ατός 
άπλονσ-τατος 



χαριεσ-τατος 



όρ&ό-τερος όρϋό-τατος 

δίκαιό-τερος δικαιό-τατος 

πονηρό-τερος πονηρό-τατος 

•&αυμαστό-τερος Φαυμαστό-τατος 

δηλό-τερος δηλό-τατος 



όρ&ός 

δίκαιος 

πονηρός 

θαυμαστός 

δήλος 

og after a short syllable : 

σοφός σοφώ-τερος σοφω-τατος 

κενός κενώ-τερος κενω-τατος 

φοβερός φοβερώ-τερος φοβερώ-τατος 

φανερός φανερώ-τερος φανερώ-τατος 

χαλεπός χαλεπώ-τερος χαλεπώ-τατος 

Obs. The change of ο into ω is made, to prevent the concur- 
rence of four short syllables. Hence o, after a doubtful vowel 
considered long, remains unchanged ; but if considered short, the ο 
is changed into ω ; thus, έντιμος has εντιμότερος, and Ισχυρός has 
ισχυρότερος ; because ι and υ are considered long ; but άγριος has 
άγριώτερος, and ικανός, ικανώτερος, &c, because the ι and a are 
considered short. 



^ 56. COMPARISON BY ιων AND ιστός, 69 

3. Adjectives in ας, ης, and νς, add to the neu- 

er gender; as, 

αέλας μέλαινα με'λαν; μελάν-τερος, &c. 

ευσεβής ευσεβής εύσεβε'ς-, εύσεβε'σ-τερος, <fcc. 

ευούς ευρεία ευρύ) εύρύ-τερος, <fcc. 

4. Adjectives in ων and ην add to the nomina- 
tive plural masculine ; as, 

άφρων Ν. P. άφρονες άφρονεσ-τερος, &c. 

τε'ρην " τερενες τερενεσ-τερος, &c. 

Exc. But πίπων makes πεπαίτερος, &c, and πίων, — πιότερος, 
πιότατος. 



§56. COMPARISON BY ίων AND ιστός. 

171. — Some adjectives are compared by ίων 
and lurog ; viz., 

1. Some in' ρος, derived from substantives. 
These form the comparative and superlative, not 
from the adjective, but from the substantive ; 
thus, 

εχ&ρος, inimical, from εγβός, enmity, εχ&Ιων, εχ&ΐύτος. 

οικτρός, compassionate, οίκτος, compassion, οικτίων, οικτιστος. 
αισχρός, base, αίσχος, baseness, αίσχίων, α'ίσχίύτος. 

μακρός, long, μήκος, length, μηκίων, μήκιστος. 

Also καλός, beautiful, has καλλίων, κάλλιστος, as if from κάλ- 
λος, beauty. 

2. Some in νς are compared both ways ; as, 

βα&ύς, deep, βα&ύτερος, βαθύτατος. 

and βα&ίων, βά&ιστος. 

In like manner compare βραδύς, slow; ταχύς, swift; παχύς 
thick; γλυκύς, sweet ; ώκύς, quick; &c. 

3. ράδως, easy, has ραΐων, ραΐϋτοζ ; or, with c 
subscribed, ράων, ράβτος. 

Note. Some of these, and of others compared in this way, are occa- 
sionally found compared by nooq and τατος. Ταχύς also has a com- 
parative ϋ-άσσων, Att. &άττων. The comparatives in o)v are declined 
like σώφοων, 159-1. 



70 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. § 57, 58. 



172.— § 57. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

The following adjectives are irregular in their 
comparison; viz., 

■ άμείνων άγαϋ-ώτατος \ 

άρείων άριστος from Άρης, Mars 

βελτίων βέλτιστος from βούλομαι, I wish 
άγα&ός, good J *Q s f<*™v νράτιστος from κρατνς, brave 

from λώ, for &ελω, I wish 

from φέρω, I bear 



λωΐων λφστος 

( φερτατος 
φε'ρτερος -j φεριστος 



κακός, bad 



(ρερτιστος ) 

( κακίων κάκιστος 

Ι χειρών χείριστος 
μέγας, great μείζων μέγιστος 
πολύς, many πλείων πλείστος 
ελαχνς, small ελάσσων ελάχιστος 
μικρός, little ησσων, or μείων, or μικρότερος ; μικρότατος 



§58. DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 

173. — Some adjectives in the comparative and superlative de- 
grees, have no positive, but are formed from — 



1. nouns; as, 

βασιλεντερος 

κερδίων 

■Νεώτερος 



βασιλεύς a king 

κέρδος gain 

Θεός God 

κλέπτης a thief 

κνδος glory 

κυων a dog 

πληκτης a striker 

πότης a drinker 

ρϊγος cold, rigor 

φώρ a thief 

2. pronoun ; as, 

αυτός self 

3. participle; as, 

έρρωμε'νος strong ερρωμενεστερος 



κνδίων 
κνντερος 



ριγίων 



βασιλεντατος 
κερδιστος 

κλεπτίστατος 
κνδιστος 

πληκτίστατος 
ποτίστατος 
ρίγιστος 
φώρτατος 



αντότατος 



ερρωμενεατατος 



§59. 



DIALECTS OF COMPARISON. 



71 



4. adverbs; as, 



ανω 

άφαρ 

εγγύς 



κάτω 

εσω 

οπίσω 

πέραν 

πόρρω 

πρωί 

νψι 



up 
immediately 



out 
down 



in 

back 

beyond 

far 

early 

highly 



ανω-τερος 

άφάρ-τερος 

εγγύ-τερος 

εγγ-ίων 

εξώ-τερος 

κατώ-τερος 

εσω-τερος 

οπισώ-τερος 

περαί-τερος 

πορόώ-τερος 

πρωϊαί-τερος 



-τατος 



{: 



-τατος 
ιστός 
-τατος 
-τατος 
-τατος 
-τατος 
-τατος 
•τατος 
-τατος 
ύψιστος 



5. prepositions ; as, 

πρό-τερος πρό-τατος whence 
υπέρτερος νπερ-τατος whence 

1*74. — Some comparatives and superlatives are again com- 
pared ; as, 



προ 
νπερ 



before 
over 



πρώτος 
νπατος 



λω'ίων, better 

μείων, less 

ράων, easier 

καλλίων, more beautiful 

χερείί 

*«<?< 

χείριστος, worst 
κνδιστος, most glorious 
ελάχιστος, least 
πρώτος, first 



W.'.IWI ) I 

ρείων, ) 
ίρων, ) 



worse 



λω'ίτερος 
μειότερος 
το ραότερον 
το καλλιώτερον 

ίτο χερειότερον 
and χειρότερον 
η χειριστοτερη 
κνδίστατος 
ελαχιστότερος 
πρώτιστος 



175. — Some words ending in ης, of the first declension, are 
compared; thus (see 160, Obs. 2), 

υβριστής, an insolent man νβριστό^τερος νβριστό-τατος 
πλεονέκτης, an avaricious man' πλεονεκτίσ-τατος 



!7G. — §59. DIALECTS OF COMPARISON. 

1. The Attics compare many adjectives in ος, ης, and ξ, by 
-ίοτερος -ίστατος, -αίτερος -αίτατος, and -έστερος -εστατος ; as, 



72 



THE PRONOUN. 



60. 



λάλος, loquacious 
φίλος, friendly 
by Syncope, 
σπουδαίος, diligent 
άφθονος, not envying 
παλαιός, old 
γεραιός, an old man 
αρπα'ξ, rapacious 
πλεονεκτΐ^ς, avaricious 
ψευδής, false 



λαλίσ-τερος 

φιλαί-τερος 

φίλ-τερος 

σπουδαιεσ-τερος 

άφ&ονε'σ-τερος 

παλαί-τερος 

γεραί-τερος 

άρπαγίσ-τερος 

πλεονεχτίσ-τερος 

ιρευδίσ-τερος 



-τ ατός 

-τατος 

-τατος and φίλιστος 

-τατος 

-τατος 

-τατος 

-τατος 

-τατος 

-τατος 

-τατος 



2. Dialects of particular comparatives and superlatives, are, 
for κρείσσων, I. and D. κρεσσων, better; χειρών, P. χερείων, I. 
dat. χε'ρηϊ, ace. χε'ρηα, nom. plur. χερηες ; — μείζων, Ι. μεζων, D. 
μάσσων, greater; with others which may be learned by practice 
in reading. 



§60. THE PRONOUN. 

177. — A Pronoun is a word used instead of a 
noun. 

178. — Pronouns may be divided into Personal, 
Possessive, Definite, Reflexive, Reciprocal, De- 
monstrative, Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite. 
Of these the Personal only are substantives ; the 
rest are adjectives. 

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

179. — The Substantive or Personal Pronouns 
are εγώ, I, of the first person ; av, thou, of the sec- 
ond ; and ov, of himself, of herself, of itself, of the 
third (56) ; they have the same accidents as nouns 
(55) ; are of all genders ; and, in construction, 
take the gender and number of the noun for 
which they stand. They are thus declined : 



§60. 



THE PRONOUN. 



ίγω, I. 

Singular. 

XT ' ^ 

Γϊ. εγω 

G. εμού or μου 
D. εμοί or μοί 
Α. εμε or με \ 

OVy tkOU. 

Singular. 
N. V. cri 
G. σον 
D. σοι 
Α. σδ 



First Person, M. or F. 

Dual. Plural. 

Ν. ημείς 

G. ημών 

D. ημϊν 

Α. ^ιιά? 

Second Person, M. or F. 



Ν. Α. νώϊ or νω 
G. D. jOoiV or ^ω? 



Dual. 

N. A. V. σφώϊ or σφώ 
G. D. σφώϊν or σφφν 



Plural. 

G. υμών 
D. ιγ-αν 
Α. υμάς 



ου 



λ. ve 

v, of himself of herself of itself Third Person 
M., F., or Κ 

Dual. Plural. 

Ν. σφεΐς, Neut. σφεα 

G. σφα»» 

D. σφίσι 

Α. σφα?, Neut. σφε'α 



Singular, 

G. ov 
D.ei 
A. I 



Ν. Α. σφω£, 
G. D. σφω'ίν 



σφώ 



I 

180. — OBSERVATIONS 

-l-l -Ι "Ι Λ ~ / / 



1. The monosyllable forms μου, μοί, με, are always enclitic, 
21-23, and have their accent thrown back on the preceding word. 
They are never governed by a preposition. 

2. In the dual, the forms νώ and σφώ are sometimes written 
νφ and σφφ. 

3. The third personal pronoun, like sui in Latin, wants the 
nominative singular, and is commonly used by the Attic prose 
writers in a reflexive sense; i. e. it refers to the svbject of the pro- 
position in which it stands ; or of the foregoing, if the second be 
sufficiently connected with it. Thus used, it is translated of him- 
self, of herself of itself &c. In Homer and Herodotus, and the 
Attic poets, it is more frequently used as the pronoun of the third 
person, for the nominative of which they use the relative og ; as, 
ος εφη, he said. This pronoun, however, is but little in use, the 
definite αυτός, 182, and the reflexive εαυτού, 183, being used in- 
stead of it. The nominative (not now in use) appears to have 
been anciently ζ from which was derived the Latin is. A neu- 
ter form of the nominative and accusative plural, σφέα, occurs in 
Herodotus. 



74 POSSESSIVE AND DEFINITE PRONOUNS.* § 61, 62. 

§ 61. II. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

181. — The Possessive Pronouns denote pos- 
session, and are derived from the substantive pro- 
nouns. 

1. In signification, they correspond to the genitive of their 
>rimitives, for which they may be considered as a substitute ; 
hus, ό αδελφός εμοΰ, the brother of me, and ό εμος αδελφός, my 

brother, are synonymous expressions. 

2. Inform, they are regular adjectives of the first and second 
declensions, and are declined like καλός, 144. They are derived 
as follows : 



From εμε 


comes 


εμός 


~\ 


-όν 


my 


σε 
ε 




σός 

w 

ος 


ay 

-ν 


σόν 
-όν 


thy 
his 


νώϊ 




νωΐτερ-ος 


-α 


-ον 


our, ] 


αφώϊ 




σφωϊτερ-ος 


-α 


-ον 


your, 


ψεϊς 




ημέτερ -ο ς 


-α 


-ον 


our 


νμεϊς 




υμετερ-ος 


-α 


-ον 


your 


σφεΐς 




σφε'τερ-ος 


-α 


-ον 


their 




Doric 


σφ-ός 


•ή 


-όν 





your, i. e. of you two 



Obs. To this class also belong ημεδαπός, one of our country ; 
υμεδαπός, one of your country. But ποδαπός; of what coun- 
try ? more properly belongs to the interrogative, — and αλλοδα- 
πός, one of another country, to the indefinite pronouns. 



§ 62. III. THE DEFINITE PRONOUN. 

182. — The Definite Pronoun αυτός is used to 
give a closer or more definite signification of a per- 
son or thing. 

This pronoun has three different significations. 

1. In the nominative it adds the force of the English self to 
the word to which it belongs ; as, εγώ αυτός, I myself; cv αυ- 
τός, thou thyself; αυτός, he himself: so also, in the oblique 
cases, when it begins a clause ; as, αυτόν εώραχα, I have seen the 
person himself. 

2. In the oblique cases, after another word in the same clause, 



§63. 



REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 



75 



it is used for the third personal pronoun, and signifies him, her, 
it, them ; as, ούχ εώρακας αυτόν, thou hast not seen him. 

3. With the article before it, it signifies the same ; as, b av- 
ος άνθρωπος, the same man. 

Obs. In the last sense when the article ends with a vowel, it 
often combines with the pronoun, forming one word ; thus, ταν- 
τού, for του αυτόν ; ταντη, for τη αυτή ; ταυτά, for τα αυτά, &c. 
When thus combined, the neuter ends in ov as well as o. The 
combined ταύτη and ταυτά must be carefully distinguished from 
ταύτη and ταύτα, parts of οντος, 185. The former has the Spiri- 
tus lenis (') over the v, the latter has not. 

4. The definite pronoun αυτός is thus declined. 



Singular. 



Dual. 



Plural. 



N. 

G. 


αυτ-ός -η -ό 
αυτ-οϋ -ης -ον 


N. A. 
αντ-ώ -ά -ω 


Ν. 
G. 


αυτ-οί -αϊ 
αυτ-ών -ων 


-a 

-ών 


I). 
A. 


αυτ-φ -η -φ 
αντ-όν -ην -ο 


G. D. 
αυτ-οΐν -αϊν -οΐν 


D. 
Α. 


αυτ-οΐς -αΐς 
αυτ-ους -άς 


-οΐς 
-a 




In the same manner are declined : 










άλλος i 

V 

ος \ 
εκείνος J 


τλλΐΐ άλλο 

ί , ? 

■κείνη εκείνο 




another 
who, which 
that 





§ 63. IV. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 

183. — Reflexive Pronouns are such as relate 
to the subject of the proposition in which they 
stand. 

1. The Reflexive pronouns are formed from the accusative 
singular of the personal pronouns, with the oblique cases of αυτός. 
They are εμαυτοΰ, of myself; σεαυτοΰ, of thyself ; εαυτόν, of 
himself ; and are thus declined. 



Singular. 

G. εαυτ-οΰ -ης -ου 

D. εαυτ-φ -rj -φ 

Α. εαυτ-όν -ην -ό 



Plural. 

G. εαυτ-ών -ών -ών 

D. εαυτ-οΐς -αΐς -οΐς 

Α. εαυτ-ούς -άς -α 



2. In the same manner are declined εμαυτοΰ and σεαντον, 
without the neuter gender, but, in the singular number only. In 



76 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. § 64, 65. 

the dual and plural, ttie parts of the compound are used sepa- 
rately; as, ημών αυτών, of ourselves. 

3. Homer never uses the compound form even in the singu- 
lar ; but, ε]με αυτόν ; σε αυτόν, <fcc. 

4. The contracted forms σαυτοϋ and αυτού, &c, are often 
used for σεαυτοϋ and εαυτού. 

5. Sometimes in the singular, and often in the plural, εαυτού 
is used by the Attics in the first and second, as well as in the 
third person. They are all sometimes used as reciprocals, 184 ; 
and, in some grammars, they are so denominated. 

6. In these compounds, instead of αυ, the Ionics have ωυ, and 
retain ε before it ; thus, εμεωυτοϋ, σεωυτόν, &c, for εμαυτοΰ, &c. 



§ 64. V. RECIPROCAL PRONOUN. 

184. — The Reciprocal Pronoun indicates a mu- 
tual relation between different persons, expressed 
in English by the phrase one another. 

This pronoun is formed from άλλος, wants the singular, and 
is thus declined : 





Dual. 




Plural. 




G. 


άλλήλ-οιν -αιν -oiv 


G. 


άλληλ-ων -ων 


-ων 


D. 


άλλήλ-οιν -αιν -οιν 


D. 


άλλήλ-οις -αις 


-οις 


A. 
rhe 


άλληλ-ω -α -ω 
Dual is seldom used. 


A. 


άλλήλ-ους -ας 


-α 



§ 65. VI. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

185. — The Demonstrative Pronouns are such 
as point out with precision a person or thing al- 
ready known. They are, 

VL «<. ί ,jj. I this, the latter, the one. 

οοε ήοε τοοε j ' 

εκείνος εκείνη εκείνο that, the former, the other. 

1. "Οδε, ηδε, τόδε, this, is simply the article 6, η, το, rendered 
emphatic by the enclitic δε annexed through all its cases, 140-3. 
"Εκείνος is declined like αυτός, 182-4. 



6β. 



RELATIVE PRONOUN. 



77 



Ούτος, like the article, takes the initial t in 


the oblique cases, 


and is thus declined : 












Singular. 




N. 


V. 


ούτος 


αυτή 


τοΰτο 




G. 


τούτου 


ταύτης 


τούτου 




D. 


τούτω 


ταύτη 


τούτω 




A. 


τούτον 


ταύτψ 
Dual. 


τούτο 


N. A. 


V. 


τούτω 


ταύτα 


τούτω 


G. 


D. 


τούτοιν 


ταύταιν 
Plural. ^ 


τούτοιν 


N. 


V. 


ούτοι 


αύται 


ταύτα 




G. 


τούτων 


τούτων 


τούτων 




D. 


τούτοις 


ταύταις 


τούτοις 




A. 


τούτους 


ταύτας 


ταύτα 



Obs. The correlatives τοσούτος, τοιούτος, and τηλικούτος, 
have either ον or ο in the nominative and accusative singular 
neuter; thus, 

Ν. τοσούτος τοσαύτη τοσούτον, or τοσούτο 

G. τοσούτου, &c. 

2. Among the Attics, the demonstratives were rendered em- 
phatic by adding ι to the termination ; as, ούτοσί, τουτονί, του- 
τώι, &c. But when the final vowel is a, or o, or ε, it is dropped, 
and ι put in its place ; thus, οδε, τούτο, ταύτα, with the emphatic 
ι are written οδι, τουτί, ταντί. When γε or δε follows the de- 
monstrative, the ι is placed after it, e. g. τούτο γε with ι becomes 
τουτογί. This suffix always draws the accent to itself. A sim- 
ilar emphasis is expressed in Latin by annexing the syllables met, 
te, pte, ce; as, egomet, tute, meapte, hicce (Lat. Gr. 118-4; 121, 
Obs. 4 ; 123-3). The ι added by the Attic and Ionian writers to 
the Dative Plural, however, is not emphatic but merely euphonic. 

3. The emphatic ι is annexed also to the compounds of ούτος, 
and a few of the correlatives ; such as τοσούτος, τοιούτος, τηλι- 
χούτος, τόσος, &c, making τοσουτοσί, &c. 



§66. VH. RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

186. — The Relative Pronoun is one that re- 
lates to, and connects its clause with, a noun or 
pronoun going before it, called the antecedent. 



78 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 



§67. 



1. The relative ος, ?j, b, who, which, that, is declined like av~ 
τός (182-4). It is rendered emphatic by adding the enclitic 
syllable περ ; as, οσπερ, ηπερ, όπερ, 403-20. 

2. The Ionic and Doric writers, and the Attic tragedians, in- 
stead of ος, use the article b, ι), τό, as a relative. 

3. Instead of ος, the compound pronoun όστις is used as a 
relative after nag, or any word in the singular expressing an 
indefinite number ; and όσοι, after the same words in the plural ; 
as, nag όστις, every one who ; πάντες όσοι, all who. 



§67. VIII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 

187. — The Interrogative Pronoun is used in 

asking a question ; as, τις εποίηΰε ; Who did it ? 

1. The interrogative τίς, τι; who? which? what? has the 
acute accent on the first syllable, and is thus declined : 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 



N. rig, τις, τι, 
G. τίνος, τίνος, τίνος. 
D. τίνι, τίνι, τίνι, 
Α. τίνα, τίνα, τί. 



Ν. τίνες, τίνες, τίνα, 
G. τίνων, τίνων, τίνων, 
Ό. τίσι, τίσι, τίσι, 
Α. τίνας, τίνας, τίνα. 



Ν. Α. 
τίνε, τίνε, τίνε, 

G. D. 
τίνοιν, τίνοιν, τίνοιν. 

In the same manner decline οτις, οντις, and μητις. 

Obs. Instead of the genitive and dative τίνος, τίνι, we often 
find a secondary form, του, τφ ; 

2. The interrogative τις has its responsive όστις, which is thus 
used : τίς εποίησε ; who did it ? ονκ οϊδα όστις εποίησε, I know 
not who did it. The responsive όστις is declined as follows, and, 
as will be perceived, disregards the usual rules of accentuation : 

Singular. 



N. 


όστις 


ψις 


tr 

ο,τι 


G. 


ούτινος 


ηστινος 


ούτινος 


D, 


φτινι 


ψινι 


ωτινι 


A. 


οντινα 


ψτινα 
Dual. 


ο,τι 


N. A. 


ωτινε 


ατινε 


ωτινε 


G.D. 


οίντινοιν 


αίντινοιν 


οίντινοιν 



§63. 



INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 



Ν. οιτινες 

G. ώντινων 

D. οίστισι 

Α. ονστινας 



Plural. 

αΊτινες 
ώντινων 
αίσησι 
αστινας 



ώντινων 
οίστισι 



3. Instead of όστις, Homer uses οτις, declined like τις as 
above, and instead of the genitive and dative ούτινος, φτινι, we 
find the secondary forms ότου and οτω ( Obs. above). 

4. There appears to have been, among the ancient Greeks, an- 
other interrogative pronoun, πός, πι), πό, and its responsive οπός, 
οπη, οπό, which have become obsolete, except in two cases, now 
used adverbially ; viz. που, where ? πη, in what way ? and hence 
the responsives όπου and οπψ From these are formed the inter- 
rogative πότερος, -a, -ov, which of the two ? and its responsive 
όπότερος, -a, -ov, which of the two ; with several other adverbs 
and adjectives still in use ; each interrogative having always its 
own responsive, — the one being the correlative of the other ; as, 



INTERROGATIVES. 



Adj. ποιος, of what kind ? 

πόσος, of what number ? 

πηλίχος, of what age ? 

πότερος, which of the two ? 
Adv. πώς, how ? 

Πηλίκος εστί ; of what age is he ? ow οΊδα οπηλίκος, I know 
not of what age. In the same manner the responsives are used 
without an interrogation preceding ; as, επελάϋ-ετο οποίος ψ, 



RESPONSIVES. 

οποίος, of what kind. 
Όπόσος, of what number, 
όπηλίκος, of what age. 
όπότερος, which of the two. 
όπως, how, &c. ; thus, 



he forgets of what kind he was Γ 
ποδαπός, of what country ? 



To these also may be added 



§68. IX. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

188. The Indefinite Pronouns are such as de- 
note persons or things indefinitely. They are, 



τις 


τις 


τι 


some one. 


δείνα 


δεΐνα 


δεΐνα 


some one, such a one. 


άλλος 


άλλη 


άλλο 


another. 


έτερος 


έτερα 


έτερον 


other, a different one, another. 



80 CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. § 69 

To which may be added the following negatives ; viz., 

ουτις ουτις ούτι \ 

ουδείς ουδεμία ουδέν 

/ / r , >no one. 

μήτις μψις μψι I 

μηδείς μηδεμία μηδέν J 

1. The indefinite τις has the grave accent on the last syllable, 
to distinguish it from tig interrogative, which has the acute ac- 
cent on the first ; the former is enclitic (21), the latter is not. 

2. The indefinite δείνα, some one, of all genders, and always 
with the article prefixed, is declined like a noun of the third de- 



ion 


; thus, 




Singular. 


1ST. 


δείνα 


G. 


δεινός 


D. 


δεΐνι 


A. 


δείνα 



Dual. 


Plural. 


Ή. Α. 


Ν. δεινές 


δεΐνε 


G. δεινών 


' G.D. 


D. 


δείνοιν 


Α. δεΐνας 



Αεϊνα is sometimes indeclinable ; as, G. του δείνα, D. τφ 
δείνα. Άλλος is declined like αυτός, 182-4 ; έτερος, like φανε- 
ρός, 145. 

Obs. 1. All words used interrogatively are also used indefi- 
nitely, but generally with the accent changed ; thus, 

INTERROGATIVES. ' INDEFINITES. 

πόσος ; how great ? how many ? ποσός, of a certain size or num- 
ber, 
ποίος ; of what kind ? ποιος, of a certain hind, such, 

πηλίκος ; how old ?. how large ? πηλίκος, of a certain size or age. 



189.— §69. CORRELATIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

1. Besides the interrogatives and responsives (187-4), the 
Greek language has likewise special correlative pronouns, each 
pair of which has a mutual relation. The latter of the two is 
expressed in English by as. 

τόσος όσος (Lat. tantus, quantus), so great, as. 

τοϊος οίος (Lat. talis, qualis), such, as. 

τηλίκος ηλικος of the same age, as ; of the same size, as. 

2. When the correlation is more expressly designated, express- 
ing just as great as, exactly as great as, the former pronoun 



§70. 



DIALECTS OF THE PRONOUN. 



81 



(τόσος, τοΐος, τηλίκος) has δε or ούτος attached to it, and the 
latter has on (from οπη) prefixed ; as, 

τοιόσδε ) <• « τηλικόσδε ) < ι / 

>■ οποίος S - ν οπηλικος 
τοιούτος j τη^ικοντος \ * 



τοσοσδε 
τοσούτος 



σδε ) 



οποσος 



190. — § Υ0. DIALECTS OF THE PRONOUNS. 
9 Εγώ, I. 





Ionic. 


Doric. 


JEolic. 


Poetic. 


Β. 


Κ 


ε/οίν, εγώνη. 
εγώγα, έγώνγα. 


εγο), εγο)ν. 
Β. Ιω, ϊο)γα. 


'γο'). 




G. εμεΐο, εμέο. 


έμεν. 


Β. εμοΰς. 


εμέ&εν. 




εμέ&εν. 










Ώ. 


εμίν. • 


εμον, Β. έμν. 




D. 


ΚΑ 


αμε, ecu με. 






P. 


Κ. ημέες. 
G. ήμέθ)ν. 
D. 


άμες, άμμες. 




άμμες. 




άμών, άμέο)ν. 


άμμο)ν, άμμέων. 


ημεΐο)ν. 




άμίν, άμΐν. 


άμμο, αμμι,ν, 


ημίν. 








αμμεσιν. 






Α ημέας. 










&μ<χς, α/*ε, αμμε. 


αμμας, αμμεας. 


ημειας, αμμε 






Συ, Thou. 




S. 


κν. 


τύ, τννη, τνγα. 


χούνη. 






G. σ*Γο, σε'ο, σέ&εν. 


τεν, τενς, τεοΐς. 


σεν, σέ&εν 


σείο&ιν. 




Ό. 


τοί, τίν, τέϊν. 


τίνη. 






Α 


τέ, τν. 


τίν, τεΐν. 




D. 


KAV. 


νμέ, νμμε. 






P. 


Κ V. iV^'f?• 


νμες, ϋμμες. 




νμμε, νμμες. 




G. νμέων. 


νμών. 


νμμο)ν, νμμέων. 


νμείων. 




Γ). 


ν μίν, ν μίν. 


νμμι, ΐιμμι^ν, 
νμμεσνν. 






Α. νμέας. 


υμάς, νμε, νμμε. 


νμμας, νμμέας. 


νμεΐας. 




< 


%, of Himself, <&c. 




8. 


G. «ο, οίο, Ι?Γο, 

to, ε&εν. 
D. Ιο Γ. 


εν. 


ε&εν, γέ&εν. 


εϊο&εν 
εοΐ. 




A ^*w. 


νίν. 


μίν, νίν. 


εε, σφέ 


D. 


Κ Α σ<ρέ"ί . 


σφωε, σφώ. 






P. 


Ν. σφέες. 
G. σφίων. 


σφές. 




σφεΐες. 
σφείων 




Ό. σφίν, σφι« 




άσφν. 


φΐν. 




Α σφέας. 

Ι 


σφέ, -ψέ. 


σφές, άσφε. 
μίν, νίν. 


σφεΐας 
σφέ. 



82 THE VERB. §71. 

Obs. Ι. μίν and νίν are used for the accusative in all genders 
and numbers ; so also is σφέ, among the poets, i. e. for αυτ-όν, 
■ψ, -6, and αντ-ονς, -άς, -ά. 

Obs. 2. The adjective pronouns are inflected in the different 
dialects according to the models of the first and second declen- 
sions. Other peculiarities may be learned by practice ; as, for 
ημέτερος, -a, -ov, our ; D. άμός, -ά, -όν ; for υμέτερος, D. υμός ; 
for σφετερος,^ D. σφός ; for ούτινος, Α. ότου, D. οτευ, Ι. οτεο, Ρ. 
οττεω ; for φτινι, Α. οτψ, Ι. οτεφ ; for άτινα, Α. άττα, D. άσσα ; 
for τίνος and two?, Α. τοι>, Ι. τεο, Ό. τευ ; for τίη and ?w, Α. 
τφ, Ι. τ/φ ; for τίνων, I. rfcW ; for 7to"t, Ι. τέοισι ; for rwa, A. 
c6Z"r«, D. άσσα ; for σος, ση, σον, thy, D. τεός, τεά, τεόν ; for ος, 
η, όν, I. £0£, e/J, fiw, Ais, &c. : this form occurs only in the singu- 
lar number. 



§71. THE VERB. 

191. — A Verb is a word used to express the 
act, being, or state of its subject. 

1. Verbs are of two kinds, Transitive and In- 
transitive* 

2. A Transitive verb expresses an act done by 
one person or thing to another. In Greek, it has 
three forms, Active, Middle, and Passive, 195. 

* These two classes comprehend all the verbs in any language. 
According to this division, Transitive verbs include those only which 
denote transitive action ; i. e. action done by one person or thing to 
another, or which passes over, as the word signifies, from the actor to 
an object acted upon ; as, " Csesar conquered Gaul," or " Gaul was con- 
quered by Caesar." Intransitive verbs, on the other hand, include all 
those which have nothing transitive in their meaning — nothing passing 
over from one person or thing to another, and consequently no relation 
to any thing beyond their subject which they represent in a certain 
state or condition, and nothing more. — Instead of the terms active and 
neuter formerly used to denote these two classes of verbs, the terms 
Transitive and Intransitive are here preferred, as being more expressive 
and appropriate, and -in order to relieve the term "active" from the 
ambiguity created by using it, both as the designation of a class of 
verbs, and also, as the ;ame of a particular form of the verb called the 
active voice. To the latter of these only, it is now applied in this work. 



§ 71. THE VERB. 83 

3. An Intransitive verb expresses being, or a 
state of being, or action confined to the actor. It 
is commonly without the passive form. 195, Ohs. 2. 

192. — OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The use of the yerb, in simple propositions, is, to affirm. 
That of which it affirms is called its subject, which, if a noun or 
pronoun, is in the nominative ; but when the verb is in the infi- 
nitive, its subject is in the accusative. 

2. The verbs that express being simply, in Greek, are three, 
ειμί, γίνομαι, and υπάρχω, signifying in general to be. The state 
of being expressed by intransitive verbs, may be a state of rest ; 
as, ενδω, I sleep ; or of motion ; as, η vavg πλέει, the ship sails ; 
or of action ; as, τρέχω, I run. 

3. Transitive and Intransitive verbs may always be distin- 
guished thus : a transitive verb always requires an object to com- 
plete the sense ; as, φιλώ σε, I love thee ; the intransitive verb 
does not, but the sense is complete without such an object ; as, 
ημαι, I sit ; τρέχω, I run. 

4. Many verbs considered intransitive in Greek, are translated 
by verbs considered transitive in English ; as, άνδάνω, I please ; 
νπακονω, I obey ; άπεί&ω, I disobey ; εμποδίζω, I hinder ; 
ενοχλεω, I trouble ; &c. In strict language, however, these and 
similar verbs denote rather a state than an act, and may be ren- 
dered by the verb to be and an adjective word ; as, I am pleasing, 
obedient, disobedient, <fec. 

5. Many verbs are used, sometimes in a transitive, and some- 
times in an intransitive sense ; as, φ&ίνω, tr. / destroy, intr. I 
sink, or decay ; ορμάω, tr. / stir up ; intr. / rush. This change 
from a transitive to an intransitive sense, however, is generally 
indicated by a change from the active to the middle form of tli€ 
verb ; as, φαίνω, active tr. / sheio ; φαίνομαι, mid. / shew my- 
self, i. e. intr. I appear. (See 195, Note.) 

6. Verbs usually intransitive become transitive, when a word 
of similar signification with the verb itself is introduced as its ob- 
ject ; as, τρεχωμεν τον αγώνα, let us run the race. 

1. When a writer wishes to direct the attention, not so ranch to 
particular act, as to the employment or state of a person or thing, the 
object of the act, not being important, is omitted ; and the verb, though 
transitive, assumes the character of an intransitive. Thus, when we 
eay, " The boy reads," nothing more is indicated than the present state 
or employment of the subject "boy," and the verb has obviously an 



84 DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. § 72. 

intransitive sense': still an object is implied. But when we say, "The 
boy reads Homer," the attention is directed to the object "Homer," as 
well as to the act, and the verb has its proper transitive sense. 



§ 72. DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. 

193. Though the division of vesrbs into Transitive and In- 
transitive, comprehends all the verbs in any language, yet, from 
something peculiar in their form or signification, they are charac- 
terized by different names expressive of this peculiarity. The 
most common of these are the following, viz. : Regular, Irregu- 
lar, Deponent, Defective, Redundant, Impersonal, Desiderative, 
Frequentative, and Inceptive. 

1. Regular Verbs are those in which all the 
parts are formed from the Root or stem, accord- 
ing to certain rules. §§ 93-97, and 106, 107. 

2. Irregular, or Anomalous Verbs, differ in 
some of their parts from the regular forms. §§112 
116, 117. 

3. Deponent Verbs under a middle and pas- 
sive form, have either an active or middle signifi- 
cation. § 113. 

4. Defective Verbs are those in which some 
of the parts are wanting. 

5. Redundant Verbs have more than one 
form of the same part. 

6. Impersonal Verbs are used only in the 
third person singular. § 114. 

7. Desideratives denote desire, or intention 
of doing. § 115, 1. 

8. Frequent atives express repeated action. 
§ US, 2. 

9. Inceptives mark the beginning or continued 
increase of an action. § 115, 3. 



§ 73 74. INFLECTION OF VEKBS.— VOICE. 85 

§ 73. INFLECTION OF REGULAR VERBS. 

194. — To the inflection of verbs belong Voices, 
Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. 

1. The Voices in Greek are three, Active, Mid- 
dle, and Passive, 

2. The Moods are five ; the Indicative, Subjunc- 
tive, Optative, Imperative, and Infinitive. 

3. The Tenses, or distinctions of time in Greek, 
are seven, the Present, the Imperfect, the Future, 
the Aorist, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and, in the 
passive voice, the Paulo-post-future, or Future- 
perfect. 

4. The Numbeks are three;- Singular, Dual, 
and Plural. 

5. The Persons are three ; First, Second, and 
Third. 

6. The Conjugations, or forms of inflection, 
are two ; viz., the First, of verbs in ω ; and the 
Second, of verbs in με. 

Obs. Some verbs appear in both forms ; as, δεικνύω and δεικνν- 
ui, I show. Some verbs are partly of the first conjugation, and 
partly of the second ; thus, βαίνω, I go, of the first ; 2d Aorist. 
ίβψ, I went, from βημι of the second; γι,γνώσκω, I know; 2d 
Aor. εγνων, I knew, from γνώμι of the second. Such verbs as 
these, however, though regular in each form, are generally reckon- 
ed among the irregular verbs. 



§ 74. VOICE. 

195. — Voice is a particular forir of the verb 
which shows the relation of the subject, or thing 
spoken of, to the action expressed by the verb. 

The transitive verb, in Greek, has three voices 
Active. Middle, and Passive. 

5 



S6 voice. § 74. 



Obs. 1. In all voices the act expressed by the transitive verb is 
the same, and in all, except sometimes the middle, is equally tran- 
sitive; but in each, the act is differently related to the subject of 
the verb, as follows :. 

1. The Active Voice represents the subject of 
the verb as acting on some object ; as, τυπτω ae, 
I strike you. 

2. The Middle Voice represents the subject of 
the verb as acting on itself, or in some way for it- 
self ; as, τύπτομαί, I strike myself j έβλαψα μην 
τον πόδα, Τ hurt my foot j ώνηϋάμην ϊππον, I 
bought me a horse. 

3. The Passive Voice represents the subject of 
the verb as acted upon ; as, τνπτομαι, I am 
st/ruck • δ πους εβλάφτϊη, the foot — his foot — my 
foot — was hurt. 

Obs. 2. Intransitive verbs, from their nature, do not admit a 
distinction of voice. They are generally in the form of the ac- 
tive voice, frequently in that of the middle or passive ; but, what- 
ever be their form, their signification is always the same; as, 
Φνήσκω or χϊνήσκομαι, I die. 

Obs. 3. The Middle voice, in Greek, is so called, because it 
has a middle signification between the active and the passive, im- 
plying neither action nor passion simply, but a union, in some 
degree, of both. Middle verbs may be divided into Five Classes, 
as follows : 

1st. In middle verbs of the first class, the action of the verb is 
reflected immediately back upon the agent ; and hence verbs of 
this class are exactly equivalent to the active voice joined with the 
accusative of the reflexive pronoun; as, λούω, I wash another; 
λούομαι, I wash myself; the same as λούω εμαντόν. 

2d. In middle verbs of the second class, the agent is also the 
remote object of the verb, or he with respect to whom the act 
takes place ; so that middle verbs of this class are equivalent to 
the active voice with tne dative of the reflexive pronoun (εμαντφ, 
σεαντφ, εαντφ) ; as, αίρεΐν, to take up (any thing), sc. for another, 
in order to transfer it to another ; αιρεϊα&αι, to take up, sc. in 
order to keep it for one's self, to transfer it to one's self. Hence 
verbs of this class carry with them the idea of a thing's being 
done for one's self. 



§74. voice. 87 

3d. Middle verbs of the third class express an action performed 
at the command of, or with regard to, the subject, and is expressed 
in English by to cause. In other words, this class may be said to 
signify, to cause any thing to be done ; as, γράφω, I write ; γρά- 
φομαι, I cause to be written ; I cause the name, as of an accused 
person, to be taken down in writing by the magistmte before whom 
the process is carried, or simply, I accuse. 

4th. The fourth class of middle verbs, includes those which 
denote a reciprocal or mutual action ; as, ύπενδεσϋ'αι, to make 
libations along with another, to make mutual libations, i. e. to 
make a league ; διαλνεσ&αι, to dissolve along with another, to 
dissolve by mutual agreement. To this class belong verbs signi- 
fying " to contract," " to quarrel," " to contend," &c. 

5th. The fifth class comprehends middle verbs of the first 
class, when followed by an accusative, or some other case ; in 
other words, it embraces all those middle verbs which denote an 
action reflected back on the agent himself, and which are, at the 
same time, followed by an accusative, or other case, which that 
action farther regards ; as, άναμνάα&αι τι, to recall any thing to 
one's own recollection. 

Xote. From, the reflected nature of this voice, many verbs, which 
are transitive in the active voice, may be rendered by an intransitive 
verb in the middle voice ; as, στέλλω, I send (viz. another) ; στέλλομαι, 
I send myself , i. e. I go ; οογί^ο), I provoke another ; οργίζομαι, I provoke 
myself, i. e. lam angry ; nti&io, I persuade another; πιί&ομαι, I per- 
suade myself, i. e. I yield, or obey. In many instances, however, the re- 
lation to self is not so clearly distingnishable. This is particularly the 
case with the later writers, as Plutarch, Herodian, &c. In the writings 
of the ancients, Herodotus, Xenophon, and others, the distinction between 
the active and the middle voice is much more strictly observed. 

Obs. 4. The future middle has often an active, and sometimes, 
especially among the poets, a passive sense. 

Obs. 5. The present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, 
and the future-perfect middle, are the same as in the passive, or, 
more strictly, they are the passive fonns in a middle sense. When 
the middle aorists are unusual or wanting, their place is supplied 
by the passive aorists in a middle sense. Sometimes, when the 
middle aorist is used in the ordinary sense, the passive also is used 
as a middle, but in a peculiar sense ; as, middle στείλασ&αι, to 
array pne^s self ; passive οταλψαι, to travel. 

Obs. 6. The 2 Perfect, and 2 Pluperfect Active (called by the 
ancient grammarians the perfect and pluperfect middle) are of rare 
occurrence, and, when used, are completely of an active significa- 
tion. In a few instances, it is true, they incline to an intransitive 



88 moods. § 7δ 

and reflexive sense ; as, πεποι&α, I have persuaded myself, i. e. 
1 am confident. But still it is certain that, in all cases in which 
a verb can have a middle sense, that sense is expressed, in these 
tenses, only by the perfect and pluperfect passive in their middle 
sense. 



§ 15. MOODS. 

196. — Mood is the mode or manner of express- 
ing the signification of the verb. 

1.97. The moods, in Greek, are five, namely ; 

the Indicative, Subjunctive, Optative, Imperative, 
and Infinitive. 

1. The Indicative Mood asserts the action or 
state expressed by the verb simply as a fact ; as, 
φιλίω, Hove / γραφεί, lie writes. 

Obs. 1. The indicative, in Greek, being used in dependent, as 
well as in independent clauses, resembles the English indicative, 
and is often used where the subjunctive would be used in Latin ; 
as, γιγνώσκεις tig εστί ; do you know who he is ? Latin, An sets 
qui sit ? 

2. The Subjunctive and Optative Moods re- 
present the action or state expressed by the verb, 
not as a fact, but only as a conception of the mind 
still contingent and dependent: that is, they do 
not represent a thing as what does, or did, or cer- 
tainly will exist, but as what may, or can, or 
might exist. 

The Subjunctive represents this contingency 
and dependence as present; — the Optative, as 
past 

Obs. 2. The subjunctive and optative moods involve a com- 
plex idea including — 1st and chiefly, the general idea of liberty 
or power, expressed by the English words, may, can, might, &c, 
from which the secondary ideas of contingency and futurity are 
derived; and 2d, the modification of this idea by the meaning of 



§ 75. moods. 89 

the verb common to all the moods ; thus, He may, or can, ex- 
pressed in Greek by the subjunctive form, represents the person 
he in possession of the general attribute of liberty or power. Com- 
bine with this the meaning of the verb, and then we have the 
general attribute expressed by the subjunctive form, restricted to 
the particular action or state expressed by the verb ; as, he may 
write ; he can walk ; he may be loved. 

Obs. 3. The future indicative is often used in a subjunctive, 
and also in an imperative sense ; and hence, in the futures, there 
is neither subjunctive nor imperative mood. See Syntax, 699-5 
and 705. 

Obs. 4. The contingency of an action conceived of as past, is 
not absolute, but relative to the knowledge of the speaker; thus, 
in the expression, γεγράφν, he may have written, the act, if done, 
is past, but of the fact, the speaker is uncertain. 

3. The Imperative Mood commands, exhorts, 
entreats, or permits ; as, γράφε, write thou; ϊτω, 
let him go. 

Obs. 5. In the past tenses the Imperative expresses urgency 
of command, expedition, or completion of action ; as, ηοιήσον, 
have clone. In the perfect, moreover, the idea of permanent and 
completed action is implied ; as, έμβεβλ/}σ&ω, let him have been 
cast, i. e. let him be cast speedily, and effectually, and continue so ; 
η ΰνρα κεχλείσ&ω, let the door be shut, and kept so. 

Rem. The future indicative, the subjunctive, and the infinitive, 
are sometimes used imperatively. See Syntax of these moods. 

4. The Infinitive Mood expresses the meaning 
of the verb in a general manner, without any dis- 
tinction of person or number; as, γράφειν, to 
write; γεγραφ&ναί, to have written / γράφεΰ&αι, 

to he written. 

Obs. 6. Besides the common use of the infinitive, as in Latin, 
it is completely a verbal noun, of the neuter gender, 714. 

Obs. 7. Hence the Greek infinitive supplies the place of those 
verbal nouns called gerunds and supines, in Latin, 7 17, 718. 

Obs. 8. The infinitive, with a subject, is usually translated as 
the indicative, § 175. 

Obs. 9. The imperfect and pluperfect exist only in the indica- 
tive. 



90 THE TENSES. § 76 

§ 76. THE TENSES. 

198. — Tenses are certain forms of the Verb 
which, serve to point out the distinctions of time. 

The Tenses in Greek are seven, — the Present, 
the Imperfect, the Future, the Aorist, the Per- 
fect, the Pluperfect, and, in the Passive, the Fu- 
ture-perfect or Paulo-postfuture. 

Rem. In some verbs, the perfect and pluperfect active, the aorists in 
all the voices, and the future in the passive voice, have two different 
forms, usually distinguished as first and second, but of the same signifi- 
cation. The second future has no existence in the active and middle 
voices ; that which was so called by the ancient grammarians, is only 
an Attic form of the first§101, 4 (1). 

I. The Present tense expresses what is going 
on at the present time ; as, γράφω, I write, I am 
writing. 

Obs. 1. The present tense is used, to express general truths ; 
as, ζώα τρέχει, animals run. In historical narration it is used 
with great effect for a preterite tense. 

II. The Imperfect tense represents an action or 
event as passing, and still unfinished, at a certain 
past time ; as, έ'γραφον, I was writing (when he 
came). 

Bern. This tense corresponds in meaning and use to the past 
progressive in English, and the imperfect in Latin. 

Obs. 2. From its expressing the continuance of an action, this 
tense is frequently used to express what was customary, or con- 
tinued from time to time; as, ό ιπποκόμος τον Ιππον έτριβε, 
και εκτένιζε ηάαας ημέρας, the groom kept rubbing and cur- 
rying the horse every day. 

Obs. 3. For the same reason it is used instead of the aorist 
to express a past action, without reference to any specified time. 
When the action is continued, and not momentary, and when 
actions of both kinds are mingled in a narration, the continued 
action is often expressed by the imperfect, and the momentary by 
the aorist; as, εξε'δραμε και καίτυλάκτει, He ran forth 
(the aorist,) and continued barking at them (the imperfect). 
Τους μεν ovv πελταστάς εδε'ξαντο οι βάρβαροι, και εμάχον 



Ι Τβ. THE TENSES. 91 

το• eW«i# εγγνς ήσαν, ot οπλΐται ετράπονζο, κα) οι πελτασταί 
ενΟνς tin ην τ ο. The barbarians received (aorist) the peltastce, 
and fought (import.) with them. Bat when the heavy-armed 
soldiers were near, they turned (aorist), and tlie peltastce imme- 
diately pursued them (iniperf.). 

Obs. 4. When the action represented by the imperfect as be- 
gun and continuing in past time, does not succeed, or fails to be 
completed, it expresses only the beginning of an action, or the 
attempt to accomplish it; as, Κλέαρχος δε zovg στρατιώτας 
εβιάζετο itvai, Clearchus attempted to force the soldiers 
to go. 

III. Tlie Future tense expresses what will take 
place in future time ; as, γράψω, I shall or will 
write. 

Bern. The future tense corresponds to the simple future in 
Latin and English ; and, in the passive voice, has two forms called 
the first and second. 

Obs. 5. Other varieties of future time are expressed by means 
of auxiliary verbs. See 199-1. 

IV. The Aoeist represents an action or event 
simply as past; as, έγραψα, I to rote. 

Rem. This tense, in all the voices, has two forms, caEed the 
first and second. It corresponds in meaning to the past tense in 
English, and the perfect indefinite in Latin. When the time to 
which the imperfect and pluperfect refer, is manifest from the 
context, the aorist is often used instead of them. 

Obs. 6. From the indefinite nature of this tense, it is used by 
the Greeks to express what is usually or always true ; and is ren- 
dered by the English expressions, ' usually ,' ' to be wont J ' to 
use ;' as, Τας των φαύλων συνη&είας ολίγος χρόνος διέλυσε, Α 
short time commonly dissolves the confederacies of the wicked. 
Σωκράτης εδίδαξε τους μαΰητάς άμισ&ί, Socrates was wont 
to teach his disciples without any charge. In this signification, 
however, it diners from the imperfect ( Obs. 2), inasmuch as the 
aorist denotes what is always customary; the imperfect, what 
was customary during a specified period of time. 

Obs. Ί. As the aorist does not, like the imperfect, express con- 
tinuance, it is often used to express momentary action, and that 
in the same construction in which the imperfect is used to ex- 
press continued action [Obs. 3). 



92 THE TENSES. § 76. 

Κ Β. -Though inthe paradigm of the verb the full form of both the 
first and second aorist is usually given, it must be observed that when 
the first aorist is in use, the second is usually -wanting, and vice versa. 
In a very few words only, are both forms to be found, and even in these, 
the two forms for the most part belong to different dialects, ages, or 
styles. 

V. The Peefect tense represents an action or 
event as completed at the present time, or in a 
period of time of which the present forms a part ; 
as, γεγραφα, I have written. 

Rem. In some verbs, this tense, in the active voice, has two 
forms called the Perfect and Second-perfect. It corresponds in 
meaning and use to the present-perfect in English, and the per- 
fect definite in Latin. 

Obs. 8. This tense implies that at or in the present time, the 
act expressed by the verb is completed, but does not indicate at 
what point or period of time prior to the present it was completed. 
Thus, γ έγραψα την επιβτολψ, /have written the letter, does not 
say when the letter was written, but only that it is now written. 
Hence it is, that this tense connects the action, either in its com- 
pletion, or, in its continuance as a completed act, with the present 
time ; thus, γεγάμηκα, in Greek, means not only, I have been 
married (without saying when the event took place), but that the 
married state still continues, i. e. / am married. Hence the per- 
fect is generally used to denote a lasting or permanent state or an 
action finished in itself, and therefore often occurs in Greek, 
where, in English, we use the present; as, άμφιβε'βηκας, thou 
protectest (i. e. thou hast protected and still continuest to protect). 
The continued force of the perfect accompanies it through all the 
moods; as, είπον τψ χϊνραν κεκλεΐσ&αι, they gave directions 
for the door to be shut, and to be kept so ; 6 μεν ληστής οντος ες 
τον Πνρκρλεγε&οντα εμβεβλησ&ω, Let this robber be cast into 
the Pyriphlegethon, and continue there. 

Obs. 9. In several verbs, the perfect tense is always used to 
denote only the finished action, whose effect is permanent, and 
therefore, in English, is translated by the present of some other 
verb, which expresses the consequence of the action expressed by 
the Greek verb. Thus, καλεω, I name, perfect passive κεκλη- 
μαι, I have been named, and continue to be so, but commonly 
rendered, / am named, or my name is. So also, from κτάομαι, 
I acquire for myself, κε'κτημαι, I possess (i. e. I have acquired, 
and the acquisition continues mine) ; μνάομαι, I call to my re- 
collection ; με'μνημαι, I remember. 



§ 77. THE TENSES. 93 

VI. The Pluperfect represents an action as 
completed at or before a certain past, time; as, 
έγαγράφειν, Iliad written (some time ago). 

Rem. This tense, like the perfect, in the active voice, has two 
forms called the Pluperfect and Second-pluperfect. In both, its 
meaning is the same, and corresponds to the pluperfect in Latin 
and English. 

Obs. 10. The pluperfect bears the same relation to the per- 
fect, that the imperfect does to the present ; and hence whenever 
the perfect is rendered by the present (Obs. 9), the pluperfect 
will of course be rendered as the imperfect ; as, δε'δοικα, I fear , 
id εδοίκειν, I feared. 

VII. The Future-Perfect, or Paulo-post-Future, as it is 
sometimes called by grammarians, is, both in form and significa- 
tion, compounded of the perfect and future, and denotes, 

1. The continuance of an action, or state, in itself, or conse- 
quences • as, η πολιτεία τελεως κεκοσμψεται,, The city will con- 
tinue to be completely organized ; γεγ ράψεται, He shall con- 
tinue enrolled. In thus expressing continuance, it agrees in sig- 
nification with the perfect, and hence, 

2. It is the natural future of those perfects which have ac- 
quired a separate meaning of the nature of the present ( Obs. 9) ; 
as, λέλειπται, he has been, and continues left, i. e. he remains ; 
Paulo-post-F. λελείψεται, he will remain; κεκτημαι, I have 
acquired and continue to retain, i. e. / possess ; Paulo-post-future 
κεκτήσομαι, I shall possess. 

3. It is frequently used to intimate that a thing will be done 
speedily ; as, φράζε και πεπράξεται, speak and it shall be done 
immediately. 



199.— §77. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE 

TENSES. 

1. Time is naturally divided into the Present, Past, and Fu- 
ture; and in each of these divisions an action may be represented 
either as incomplete and continuing, or as completed at the time 
spoken of; thus, 

5* 



94 THE TENSES. §77 

ρ . j Action continuing ; as, γράφω, I write or am writing. 

' \ Action completed ; as, γεγραφα, I have written. 

ρ j Action continuing; as, εγραφον, I was writing. 

( Action completed ; as, εγεγράφειν, I had written. 

ί Action continuing ; as, γράψω, I shall write. 

Future. 1 Action completed ; as, γεγράφως εσομαι, I shall 

( have written. 

Of these six divisions of time, it will be observed, that all ex- 
cept the last are expressed by distinct forms or tenses of the verb ; 
and this last is also expressed by a distinct *form in the passive 
voice, called the Paulo-post-future. It may also be noticed that 
in each of these three divisions of time, by means of an auxiliary 
verb and the infinitive, an action may be represented as on the 
point of beginning ; thus, 

Present, μέλλω γράφειν, I am about to write. 

Past. εμελλον γράφειν, I was about to write. 

Future, μελλησω γράφειν, I shall be about to write. 

2. Besides these, the Greek has the advantage of a separate 
tense under the division of past time, to intimate simply that the 
action is past without reference to any particular point of time at 
which it took place, and hence is denominated the Aorist, i. e. inde- 
finite. This tense is rendered into English by the past tense, and 
into Latin, by the imperfect and perfect tenses in an indefinite 
sense. 

3. The tenses, divided as above into three classes, in respect 
of time, are farther, with regard to their termination and use, 
divided into two classes or series, which may be denominated the 
Chief or Primary, and Secondary tenses ; thus, 

Chief or Primary. Secondary. 

Present. Imperfect. 

Perfect. Pluperfect. 

Future. 1 Aorist. 

Future-perfect, or P. P. Fut. 2 Aorist. 

The chief tenses are employed in the direct address, to express 
actions as present or future. The secondary are used in the reci- 
tal of these actions as past ; and hence are sometimes denomi- 
nated the Historical Tenses. 

4. In the English expression of the moods and tenses, &c, great 
precision cannot be expected. Their signification often varies accord- 
ing to the conjunctions and particles with which they are joined, and 
hence, a corresponding variety of translation becomes necessary. In 
consequence, also, of the number of independent forms being greater in 



g 78. AUXILIARY VERBS. 95 

the Gre^fc verb than in the English, it is necessary to express certain 
- and moods, in the former, by a circumlocution in the latter ; and 
sometimes, in order to give the precise idea of the Greek tense, a to- 
tally different construction must be adopted in the English sentence by 
which it is translated; thus, having no imperative in the past tense 
in English, the lull force of the imperative forms, in the past tenses in 
Greek, must either be lost in the translation, or preserved at the 
expense, often, of a clumsy circumlocution. (197, Obs. 5.) In like 
manner, if Ave were required to give a strict translation to an aorist 
participle, according to the idiom of our language, we must use, not a 
participle, but a tense of the verb ; thus, τοντο ποιήσας άπηλ&εν, is 
commonly rendered, having done this, he departed; when, in fact, it 
ehould be, when he did this, he departed. The ordinary rendering of the 
moods and tenses is the same in Greek as in Latin. This, as well as 
peculiarities of usage, is fully illustrated, §§75, 76. 



§78. AUXILIARY VERBS. 

200 — Although the Greek language is richer than any other in 
independent forms, nevertheless a circumlocution is frequently made 
use of, by means of the auxiliary verbs είναι,, κνρεΐν, νπάοχα,ν, εχει,ν, 
<fcc, in connection with a participle or infinitive, partly to supply defi- 
cient, or to avoid inharmonious forms ; partly to strengthen the signi- 
fication; and partly to express, with more minuteness and precision, 
the time and manner of action or state expressed by the verb ; thus, 

1. The subjunctive and optative in the perfect passive, are generally 
formed with είναι, and the perfect participle ; the independent forms 
being rarely used. The same construction is sometimes used in the 
active voice. 

2. To express a purpose of doing, or the proximity of an event, μέλ- 
λω, &έλυ>, and έ&έλο>, with the infinitive, are used ; as, ο,τι μέλλεις λέ- 
γειν, whatever you are about to say. 

3. Continuance, or a permanent state, combined with the various 
circumstances of commencement, simple existence, priority, energy, or 
accident, is expressed by γίνομαι,, ειμί, νπάρχο), κνρο), ε/ο), τυγχάνω, 
with a participle ; as, έγένετο άν&οοιπος απεσταλμένος, there was a man 
sent. 

4. The completion of an event is expressed by ειμί, with & past par- 
ticiple. AYith such a participle, ειμί in the past tense, is equivalent to 
the pluperfect, but is much more emphatical; as, τους σν/.οφάντας της 
πολέιος ή ν σΚύ$ας, he was after driving the informers from the city. 
In like manner, εσομαι in the future, with a past participle, expresses 
the future-perfect in the indicative ; the subjunctive and optative of 
which is supplied from the aorists and perfect ; as, πεποιημένον εσταν, 
it shall have been done, or it shall be done quickly. 

5. Anticipated performance is expressed by φ&άνο) or ποοφ&άνο)* 
with a participle ; as, ΣνντίΟενταν φ&άσαι, τι όράσαντες η πα&εϊν, they 
conspire to do something to avoid suffering. 

6. Secrecy, so as to escape not only the knowledge of others, but 
even a person's own consciousness, is expressed by λαν&άνω, with a 



96 PARTICIPLES. § 79. 

participle ; as, ελα&ον τίνες ξίνιάσαντ^ς αγγέλους, some persons enter- 
tallied angels unawares. 

1. A variety of other circumstances are expressed by joining appro- 
priate adjectives and participles, with ημί; as, φανί^ός ην ϋ-ϋων, he 
sacrificed openly. 

8. Strong and earnest desire is expressed by the imperfect or second 
aorist of οφείλω, agreeing with its subject, and commonly followed by 
the infinitive ; therparticle ίίτε is sometimes joined with it, and some- 
times not ; as, Μη όφιλον νιν.αν, I wish that I had not conquered. ΛΪ& 
οφίλον μεϊναν, Would to God I had stayed. 

9. Imperious duty or necessity is expressed by verbal adjectives in 
τέος (202), either agreeing with their substantives, or, what is more 
usual, having their agents in the dative, and governing their objects as 
the verbs do from which they are derived ; as, ό άγα&ός μόνος τ ν μη- 
τέος, the good man alone must be honoured. 

10. In some cases, there appears to be a pleonasm in the use of cer- 
tain auxiliaries, where there is really none ; for by analyzing the 
expressions, we shall find every word having its own distinct force ; 
thus, mow dvav επώαϋόμίνος, is incorrectly translated, forgetting will- 
ingly. The full force of the words may be expressed in English thus 
willing to be after forgetting — according to the ancient Celtic idiom. 
(See No. 4 ; also Construction of the Participle, § 1V7-IV.) 



§79. PARTICIPLES. 

201. — Participles are parts of the verb, and, 
without affirmation, express its meaning considered 
as a quality or condition of an object ; as, 

ί^λ'Φδ βλέπων, he came seeing. 

α τ ας κάτω&εν έπψε,ι αυτόν, standing below he praised him. 

Participles are varied like adjectives, by gender, number, and 
case, to agree with substantives in these accidents. If the idea 
of time be separated from the participle, it becomes an adjective. 

Every tense in Greek, except the imperfect and pluperfect, has 
its participle, — a circumstance which gives the language a decid- 
ed advantage over the Latin, which has no present participle pas- 
sive, nor past participle active. 



§ 80. VERBAL OR PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES IN τός 
AND τέος. 

202. — The Greeks have verbal adjectives, which, both in signi- 
rication and use, resemble participles. They are formed by adding 
the syllables τός and τέος to the first root of the verb ; thus, 



§80. PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 97 

Root. Verbal Adj. 

λέγω, I say λεγ τός λεχτός, said, 

γράφω, I write γραφ τός γραπτός, written, 

ψάεω, / love φίλε τεος φιλητε'ος, to be loved. 

Those derived from liquid verbs add τός and τεος to the sec- 
ond root ; as, 
τείνω, I extend, 2d R. ταν- τέος, τατεος, to be extended. 

Note. In those derived from pure verbs, the vowel preceding the ter- 
mination is sometimes lengthened, sometimes not ; thus, from φύ.ίω, the 
adjective is φιλητέος ; but from aioeo), αιρίτός. 

Obs. 1. The verbal adjectives in τός have commonly a pas- 
sive signification, and either correspond to the Latin perfect par- 
ticiple passive ; as, τΐοιητός, f actus, made ; χυτός, aggestus ; στρε- 
πτός, flexus ; or, they convey the idea of ability and capacity, 
expressed by the Latin adjectives in His ; thus, ορατός, visibilis, 
visible; ακουστός, audible, &c. Frequently, however, they have 
an active signification ; as, καλυπτός, concealing ; μεμπτός, blam- 
ing, <fec. 

Obs. 2. Those in τεος correspond to the Latin future partici- 
ple in dus, and convey the idea of duty, necessity, or obligation ; 
as, φιλητέος, amandus, who ought to be loved ; ποτεος, bibendus, 
μ which ought to be drunk." 

Obs. 3. The verbal τεον, in the neuter (among the Attics 
more commonly τεα in the plural), corresponds to the Latin ge- 
rund ; thus, ποτεον (Attic ποτέα) εστί, bibendum est ; πο\εμψεα 
εστί, bellandum est. 

Note. For the construction of these adjectives, see Syntax, § 147, 
Rules L and EL 

203. — ACCENTS OF THE VERB. 

In verbs, the accent is placed as far from the 
end of the word as the quantity of the final sylla- 
ble will permit (22 & 24). 

204. — EXCEPTIONS AND VARIETIES. 

1. Monosyllables, if long, are circumflected ; as, ω, εις, φης, 
βη, for εβη. 

2. A long syllable after the characteristic, unless followed by a 
long syllable, is circumflected — 

1st. In the active, and the middle voice in the future of liquid 
verbs ; as, σπερώ, σπερεΐς, σπερεϊν, σπερουμαι, &c, be- 
cause contracted for σπερέω, &c. 



98 CONJUGATION. §81. 

2d. In the passive voice, in the subjunctive of the aorists ; and 
in the subjunctive present of verbs in μι ; as, τνφ&-ώ, 
~ys> V — ννπώ, τνπζς, &c. — τι&ώ, τι&ώμαι. 

3. The third person of the optative in οι and ai has the acute 
accent on the penult; as, τετύφοι, άρέσαι, except in the futures, 
No. 2— 1st. 

4. The imperatives, ελ&8, είπε', ενρε, ίδε', λαβε, have the accent 
on the final syllable ; but the imperative, 2 aor. middle, 2d person 
singular, circumflects the final syllable ; as, τνπον — except γενον, 
τράπον, ενεγκον. 

5. The infinitive of the 2 aorist active circumflects the final 
syllable ; as, τνπεϊν. 

The infinitive of the 1st aorist active, 2d aorist middle, both 
aorists passive, all the perfects, and the infinitives of the active 
voice in the 2d conjugation, have the circumflex on the long pe- 
nult, and the acute on the short. 

6. The participles of the 2d aorist active, of the present active 
of verbs in μι, and all ending in ως or εις, have the acute accent 
on the final syllable ; as, τνπών, ιστάς, διδονς, τετυφώς, τνφ&είς. 

The participles of the perfect passive, have the acute accent on 
the penult ; as, τετνμμενος. 

*1. Ειμί and φημί have the acute accent on the final syllable 
in the indicative (except the 2d sing.) ; thus, εστί, φ-ησί, &c. 



§ 81. CONJUGATION. 

205. — The Conjugation of a verb is the regular 
combination and arrangement of its several voices, 
moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, according to 
a certain order. 

206. — Of regular verbs, in Greek, there are two 
conjugations ; viz., the first, of verbs in ω ; and the 
second, of verbs in μι. 

20 Υ. — Verbs of the first conjugation, in the ac- 
tive voice, end in ω, and in the middle and pas- 
sive, in ομαι. 



§82. THE BOOT. 99 

ANALYSIS OF VERBS IN 07. 

208. — Verbs of the first conjugation consist of 
the following parts ; viz., 

1. The root or stem, which is unchanged, except 
as modified by the rules of euphony ; and, 

2. Those parts which, by their changes, distin- 
guish the voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and per- 
sons. These parts are the tense-sign, the augment, 
and the terminations. 



82. 1. THE ROOT. 



209. — 1. The Εοοτ is that part of the verb 
which remains unchanged throughout, except as 
required by the rules of euphony, and serves as 
the basis of all the other parts. 

2. The final letter of the root marks the char- 
acter of the verb, and is therefore called the char- 
acteristic ; it is either a vowel, or a mute, or a 
liquid. 

When the characteristic is a vowel the verb is 
called pure ; — when a mute, the verb is called 
mute; — and when a liquid, the verb is called 
liquid. 

3. In regular verbs, the characteristic is the 
letter next the termination in the present indica- 
tive ; as, γ, in λέγω ; π, in τρέπω ; s, in φιλέω. 

Exc. But if of two consonants the last is τ or 
a liquid, the first is the characteristic; as, π, in 
τυπτω and μαρπτω ; μ, in τέμνω. 

FINDING THE BOOT. 

4. Rule. Strike off from the present indicative 
all that follows the characteristic ; what remains 

L 



100 the root. § 82 

is the root / thus, λεγ-ω, τερπ-ω, μάρπ-τω, τέμ- 
νω ; roots λεγ, τερπ, μαρπ, τεμ. 



OBSERVATIONS. 

210. — 055. 1. The letter τ is frequently added to the root be- 
fore the termination in the present and imperfect, apparently to 
strengthen the sound, as in τνπτω. The characteristic, if a mid- 
dle or aspirate mute, coming before this r, is of course changed 
into its own smooth (43-2) ; thus, βαφ before τω becomes βαπ, 
and the verb, βάπτω. Hence, in order to find the root, the char- 
acteristic changed by euphony must be restored as in the follow- 
ing words : 









Charac. 


Root. 


βλάπτω 
κρνπτω 
καλύπτω 


by euphony for 

11 

α 


βλάβτω 
κρνβτω 
καλνβτω 


ί 

β 


βλαβ 
κρνβ 
καλνβ 


απτω 

βάπτω 

&άπτω 

σκάπτω 

δρνπτω 


α 
α 
α 
u 

u 


αφτω 

βάφτω 

&άφτω 

σκάφτω 

δρνφτω 


φ 
φ 
φ 
φ 
φ 


αφ 

βαφ 

&αφ 

σκαφ 

δρνφ 


ρίπτω 


U 


ρίφτω 


φ 


ριφ 


ράπτω 


U 


ράφτω 


φ 


ραφ 



Also σμνχω and ιϋνχω have their roots σμνγ and \pvy. 
Note. The preceding list contains all the words to which this obser- 
vation is applicable. 

SECONDARY FORMS. 

211. — Obs. 2. Many verbs have a Secondary form in the pre- 
sent and imperfect, which has come into general use, while the 
original form or theme, has become obsolete, § 116. The root 
of the theme nevertheless remains the proper root of the verb 
in the other tenses, and will be found in the future by striking off 
coo. If the letter next preceding be a consonant, it is the charac- 
teristic of the verb. If it be a long vowel, either that or its cor- 
responding short vowel is the characteristic. But if it be a short 
or doubtful vowel, the characteristic is either that vowel itself, or 
a τ -mute, which has been rejected before σω for the sake of sound, 
44-8. This observation applies in the following cases ; viz., 

1st. Verbs in σσω (ττω) or ζω, are secondary forms, derived 
from primary, whose characteristic is a κ -mute (commonly y) 



§82. 



THE ROOT. 



101 



when the future ends in ξω ; or a τ -mute (commonly δ) when 
the future ends in σω. The characteristic being substituted for 
σσ (ττ), or ζ, gives the supposed primary form. Thus, 



Secondary form. 
πράσσω (ττω) 
κράζω 

πλάσσω (ττω) 
φράζω 

αρπάζω 



Future. Char. Primary form. 



πράξω 



πλάσω 

(ρράσω 

αρπάξω 

άοπάσω 






πραγω 

κράγω 

πλάδω 

φράδω 

άρπάγω 

άρπάδω 



Root. 

πραγ 

κραγ 

πλαδ 

φραδ 

άρπαγ 

άρπαδ 



Exc. The following are the verbs of this class which have not γ or 
δ for their characteristic ; viz., βήσσο), ορνσσο), φρίσσο), /.όρχ'σσο), and 
λίσσομαί, which have their roots respectively βηχ, ορνχ, φρι,χ, κορνθ-, 
hx, making the primary forms β ήχο), ορνχο), φρίχο), χορνάο), and λίτομαν. 

2d. Most verbs in σκω are secondary forms from pure verbs 
in ω (§ 116, I and II). The primary forms will appear by drop- 
ping σκ ; thus, γηράσκω, primary form γηράω, Root, γηρα. 

3d. Many verbs, irregular in the present and imperfect, are 
secondary forms from obsolete verbs which furnish the roots for 
the other tenses. See §§116 and 11 7. In nearly all such verbs, 
the first root will be found by taking σω or σομαι from the future 
as found in the Lexicons ; thus, 

Secondary form. 
λαμβάνω 
λαν&άνω 
πυν&άνομαι 
βαίνω 

Rem. In reducing secondary into primary forms in this manner, the 
vowel before σω and σομαι in the future, made long by § 96, R. 1, must 
be shortened; and the τ -mute, rejected by § 94, R. 2, must be restored, 
to give the proper form of the root ; as, βαίνο) and λαν&άνο), above. In 
all mute verbs, the proper characteristics concealed by combining with 
σο), &c. will always be seen in the 2 aorist, or 2 perfect. Thus in λαν- 
ϋ-άνο), the 2 aor. is ϊλαϋον, showing the characteristic to be &, and 1 root, 
consequently, ληθ•. Hence 

TO FIND THE ROOT IN SECONDARY FORMS. 

212. — Kule. From the future indicative active 
or middle as found in the Lexicons, strike off οω 
or οομαι ; what remains is the root, either in its 
simple form, or modified by the rules of euphony ; 
thus, 



Future. 


1 Root. 


Primary form 


ληιρομαι 
λι]σω 
πενσομαι 
βψομαι 


ληβ 
ληΰ- 
πεν& 

βα 


ληβω 
λήΟω 
πενΰ-ω 
βάω 



102 



THE SECOND ROOT. 



§8S. 



ondary form. 


Future. 




Root. 


πράσσω 


πράξω elide 


σω leaves 


πραγ, 44-7 


κράζω 


κράζω 


σω 


κραγ, 44-7 


πλάσσω 


πλάσω 


σω 


πλαδ, 44-8 


φράζω 


φράσω 


σω 


φραδ, 44-8 


γηράσκω 


γηράσω 


σω 


γηρα 


λαμβάνω 


ληψομαι 


σομαι 


ληβ, 44-6 


λανϋάνω 


λησω 


σω 


λη&, 44-8 


πνν&άνομαι 
βαίνω 


πενσομαι 
βησομαι 


σομαι 
σομαι 


πενΰ, 44-8 
βα 



213. — 3. Many verbs change the form of the root in the se- 
cond tense», i. e. in the second future passive, and second aorist ; 
and in the second perfect, and second pluperfect active. These 
forms, for the sake of distinction, are called the second and the 
third root — the root οι the present being the first root. 



§ 83. THE SECOND ROOT. 

214. — The second root is always formed from 
the first, according to the following 

RULES. 

1. A long vowel in the first root is changed in- 
to a in the second ; thus, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 

σήπω, σηπ σαπ 

τρώγω, τρωγ τραγ 

2. In diphthongs, a is retained and ε is reject- 
ed; as, 

Verb. IstR. 2d R. Verb. 1st R. 2d R. . 

φαίνω, φαιν φαν λείπω, λειπ λιπ 

καίω, και κα φεύγω, φενγ φνγ 

Exc. But liquid dissyllables change tc into ccj 
polysyllables into ε ; as, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 

Diss. χείνω, χειν ταν 

Polysyl. άγείρω, άγειρ άγερ 



§ 8-i. THE THIRD ROOT. 103 

3. In dissyllables not pure, ε before or after a 
liquid, is changed into a ; as, 

Verb. IstR. 2d R. Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 

τέμνω, τ εμ ταμ στέλλω, στελ σταλ 

βε'ρχω, δερχ δαρχ πλέχω, πλεχ πλαχ 

Exc. But ε remains unchanged after λ, in λέγω, βλέπω, φλέγω. 

4. Pure verbs in άω and εω reject the a and s 
(216, Exc. 1) ; as, 

Verb. 1st R. 2d R. 

μυχάω μυχα μνχ 

στνγεω στνγε οτνγ 



§ 84. THE THIRD ROOT. 

215. — The third root is always formed from the 
second, according to the following 

RULES. 

1. ε, of the second root, is changed into ο in 
the third ; as, 

Verb. IstR. 2d R. 3d R. 

λέγω, λεγ λεγ λογ 

άγει ρω, άγει ρ άγερ άγορ 

2. a, of the second root, from ε or ει in the 
first, is changed into ο in the third ; as, 

Verb. IstR. 2d R. 3d R. 

πλέχω, πλεχ πλαχ πλοχ 

σπείρω, σπειρ σπαρ σπορ* 

τείνω, τειν ταν τον 

τέμνω, τεμ ταμ τομ 

3. ι, of the second root, from ει of the first, is 
changed into ot ; as, 

Verb. IstR. 2d R. 3d R. 

λείπω, λειπ λιπ λοιπ 



σηπ 


GOLTt 


σηττ 


φαιν 


cpav 


φην 


ϋ-αλ 


ϋ-αλ 


&ηλ 


κλαγ 


κλαγ 


κληγ 



104 THE THIRD ROOT. §85. 

4. a, of the second root, from η or ac of the 
first, is changed into η in the third ; as, 

Verb. IstR. 2d R. 3d R. 

ΰΐ\πω, 
(ραίνω, 
likewise ΰάλλω, 
κλάζω, 



§85. VERBS WHICH WANT THE SECOND AND THIRD 
ROOTS. 

216. — Many verbs want the second tenses, and consequently 
the second and third roots. (198, Obs. *7, Ν. B.) These are as 
follows : 

Rule 1. Pure verbs want the second root. 

Exc. 1. The following primitives are excepted : γοάω, σπάω, 
μνκάομαι, γη&εω, δονπεω, κτνπέω, ρι,γεω, πιτνεω, στνγεω, τορεω, 
ληκεω, χϊορέω, στερε'ω, βχεω, δαίω,^καίω, and a few others. 
Λκουω has the third root άκο, but no second. 

Exc. 2. A few dissyllables in ίω and νω have the second and 
the third root the same as the first. 

Note 1. Several of these are reckoned with anomalous verbs, § 117 
Some verbs derive their second and third roots from obsolete presents ; 
such as, aloeo) and many verbs in άνω and άνομαυ, for which see the 
same section. 

Rule 2. Derivatives in εν ω, άζω, ίζω, αίνω, 
ννω, want the second root. 

Note 2. Primitives, in these terminations, usually have the second 
root. 

Obs.»l. Several verbs which have no second root, and conse- 
quently no second aorist in the first conjugation, derive the sec- 
ond aorist active and middle from forms in the second conjuga- 
tion ; thus, δνω, 2 a. εδνν, from ΛΤΜΙ; βαίνω, 2 a. εβην, from 
ΒΗΜΙ', γιγνωσκω, 2 a. εγνων, from FNQMI, derived from 
γνόω. 

Obs. 2. Many verbs not included under the above rules never 
use the second tenses ; others have them only in the passive 
voice ; others again are used in these tenses only by certain writ- 



§86. THE TENSE-KOOT. 105 

ers. — In such a variety of usage, it is proper to assume that all 
verbs not included in the above classes form the second and third 
roots according to the rules in §§ 83, 84. 



§ 86. THE TENSE-ROOT. 

217. — The Tense-Koot is that part which re- 
mains unchanged in all parts of the same tense. It 
consists of all that precedes the termination, ex- 
cept the augment. 

Obs. 1. In some of the tenses, certain letters are inserted be- 
tween the verb-root and terminations. These are called signs of 
the tenses to which they belong, because they serve to distinguish 
these tenses from others. 

The Tense-Signs added to the verb-root, form the tense-root 
in these tenses ; and, prefixed to the terminations, they form the 
tense-endings, 232-2. Hence, in the tenses which have no sign, 
the verb-root alone is the tense-root, and the termination alone is 
the tense-ending ; as, i -λιπ-ον. ( Obs. 4.) 

218. — The tense-signs, together with the tenses to which they 
belong, are exhibited in the following — 

TABLE OF TENSE-SIGNS. 

1. In mute and pure verbs, the tense-signs are as follows 

Act. 
Future, -c- 

1 Aorist, -o"- 

2 Future, — 
Perf. and Pluperf., - - or -κ- 

2. In liquid verbs, the tense-signs are as follows : 
Future, -s- 

1 Aorist, — 

2 Future, — -ψ- 
Perf. and Pluperf., -κ- — — 

Obs. 2. If the characteristic be a ^-mute or a κ -mute, the 
sign of the perfect and pluperfect active is the spiritus asper ('), 
which, combining with the mute before it (43-3), changes π or 
β into φ ; κ or γ into χ. But when the characteristic is φ or χ, 
the spiritus aspe: disappears. 



Mid. 


Pass. 


-σ- 
-σ- 




— 


-ψ- 


as follows : 




-8- 


■Φησ- 


— 


-ϋ•- 



106 



THE AUGMENT. 



§87 



Obs. 3. If the characteristic is a vowel, or a r-mute, or a li 
quid, the sign of the perfect and pluperfect active is κ. 

Obs. 4. In all the tenses, except those in the preceding table, 
i. e. in the second aorist through all the voices, — the second per- 
fect and second pluperfect active, and the perfect and pluperfect 
passive, — and also, in liquid verbs, the first aorist active and raid- 
die, the tense-root and the verb-root are always the same. So 
also in the present and imperfect in all voices. 

Exc. But irregular verbs, and those which fall under the Ex- 
ceptions and Observations, § 82, have the tense-root in the present 
and imperfect different from the verb-root; though, like other 
verbs, it consists of all that precedes the termination in the present 
indicative. Thus, for example, in πράσσω, the tense-root in the 
present and imperfect is πράσσ, while the verb-root is πράγ. In 
λαμβάνω, the tense-root of the present and imperfect is λαμβάν, 
while the verb-root is ληβ ; and so of others. 

219. WORDS FOR PRACTICE ON THE PRECEDING- RULES. 



[In the following list 
the kind of verbs — form 
give the rule for each.] 

τνπζω, I strike, 
λέγω, I say. 
χαίρω, 1 rejoice, 
σπείρω, I sow. 
τρέφω, I nourish, 
άγω, I lead, 
κράζω, I cry aloud, 
βάλλω, I cast, 
πεί&ω, I persuade, 
αίνέω, I praise. 
αμείβω, I change. 
άρόω, I plow, 
βλέπω, I see. 



of verbs, tell the characteristic, the root, and 
the second and the third root (if in use), and 



λείπω, I leave, 
τρώγω, I eat. 
πλέχω, I fold, 
οφείλω, I owe. 
μάρπτω, I seize. 
πράσσω, I do. 
φράζω, I say. 
φαίνω, I show, 
αρπάζω, I plunder, 
εγείρω, I awake. 
'άνω, I sacrifice. 
καλέω, I call, 
χειρ ω, I shave. 



δείδω, I fear. 
διδάσκω, I learn, 
τρέπω, I turn, 
μιαίνω, I pollute, 
πέμπω, I send, 
νέμω, I assign. 
μένω, I remain, 
ποιέω, I make, 
στέλλω, I send. 
μείρω, I divide. 
πειράζω, I try. 
ραίνω, I sprinkle, 
πρή&ω, I burn. 



220.— § 87. Π. THE AUGMENT. 

1. The augment is a prefix joined to the root in. 
the preterite tenses. 

2. There are two kinds of augments, the temporal and sylla- 
bic. 



§88. THE AUGMENT. 107 

3. The temporal augment is used when the root begins with 
a vowel or diphthong, and lengthens the initial vowel. 

4. The syllabic augment is used when the verb begins with a 
consonant, and prefixes a syllable to the root. 

AUGMENTED TENSES. 

5. The imperfect and aorists nave the augment 
in the indicative only. The perfect, pluperfect, 
and paulo-post-future, retain it through all the 
moods. 

6. The present and future have no augment. 



221.— §88. RULES FOR THE AUGMENT. 

1. If the verb begins with a consonant, the aug- 
ment ε is prefixed ; as, τύπτω, ετνπτον ; ρίπτω, 
ί'ρρίπτον, 43-5. 

2. The perfect reduplicates the initial consonant 
before ε ; as, τυπτω, perfect τετυφα. 

Exc. 1. The aspirate reduplicates its own 
smooth ; as, θαυμάζω, perf. τε&ανμακα ; φαίνω, 
perf. πεφαγκα, 43-4. 

Exc. 2. Verbs beginning with ρ, γν, φ&, or a 
before or after a consonant, do not reduplicate 
thus, 

ρ ρίπτω ερριφα da ζάω εζηχα 

γν γνόω εγνωκα σ π σπεύδω εσπενκα 

<ρ& φ&ίω εφ&ιχα στ στρέφω εστροφα 

πσ -ψενδω εψενκα 

Obs. 1. Sometimes also verbs beginning with κτ, and πτ, do 
not reduplicate ; as, 

κτ κτείνω εκταγκα κτίζω εκτικα 

πτ πτοέω επτόηκα 

And sometimes, though rarely, those beginning with γλ, βλ. 



108 THE AUGMENT. §88. 

3. When the perfect reduplicates the initial 
consonant, the pluperfect receives a new augment ; 
as, 

τυπτω τέτυφα ενεζύφειν 

Otherwise not ; as, ρίπτω ερριφα ερρίφειν 

4. If the verb begins with α, ε, ο ; or with av, 
at, oc, the initial vowel is changed into its own 
long, and c of the diphthong is subscribed ; as, 



άνυω 


ψυον 


αυξάνω 


ηυξανον 


ελπίζω 


ηλπιζον 


αίτεω 


ψεον 


όπάζω 


ώπαζον 


οίκίζω 


φκιζον 



Έχο. 1. Ε is often changed into its own diph- 
thong; as, 

εχω I have ειχον 

The verbs winch change ε into ει are the following: εάω, 
εζομαι, ε&ίζω, ελίσσω, έλκω, ελκέω, ελκύω, ελέω, ελω, έπομαι, 
έπω (this verb retains the augment through all the moods), εράω, 
ερεω, έρπω, ερπνζω, ερνω, εστήκω, εστιαω, εχω, and εω, 20. 

JExc. 2. If the verb begins with εο, the ε .is un- 
changed and the ο augmented ; 
εωρταζον. 

So also some 2d pluperf. active ; viz., from the 2d perf. εολπα, 
pluperf. εώλπειν ; — εοικα, εφκειν ; — έοργα, εώργειν. 

Exc. 3. Λω, I blow ; άίω, I hear ; άη&έσσω, I am unused ; 
άηδίζομαι, I loathe ; retain the initial vowel unchanged ; as also 
some verbs derived from οίκος, οίνος, οιωνός, and οΐαξ ; as, οίνίζω, 
I smell of wine, ο'Ινιζον ; and also the 2d perfect active when the 
root begins with οι ; as, οίοα, plup. οΐδειν. 

5. If the initial vowel is not α, ε, ο ; or αν, at, 
ot, it is not augmented : but. c and ν short are 
made long ; as. 



ι 


Ίκομαι 


c ϊκόμ,ην 


ει εικάζω ε'Ικαζον 


V 


'υβρίζω 


'ϋβριζον 


εν ευρίσκω ενρισκον 


V 


ηχεω 


ηχεον 


ον ουτάζω ουταζον 


ω 


ω&ω 


ω&ον 


See Exceptions, 224-4, 5. 



§89,90. THE AUGMENT. 109 

222.— § 89. AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. 

1. When the verb is compounded with a pre- 
position, the augment comes between the preposi- 
tion and the verb ; as, προς-φίρω, προς-δ-φίρον. 

Obs. 1. The prepositions drop their final vowel before the aug- 
ment e ; as, άποφαίνω, άπέφαινον ; καταβάλλω, κατεβαλλον : — 
But, 

Obs. 2. περί before ε remains unchanged ; προ usually com- 
bines with it by contraction; thus, προέβην becomes προνβην. 
116, II. 

Obs. 3. When v, in the prepositions σνν and εν, is changed 
into another consonant, by the rules of euphony, 46-15, it is re- 
covered when separated from that consonant, by the augment ε ; 
thus, συλλέγω, σννελεγον ; συγγράφω, σννεγραφον ; εμμένω, ενε• 
μενον. 

2. Verbs compounded with δνς or εν, take the augment after 
the particle, when the simple verb begins with α, ε, ο, or with 
av, at, οι ; as, δυσαρεστέω, δνσηρεστεον ; ενορκεω, ενώρκεον. 

3. But if the simple verb begin with any other vowel or con- 
sonant, δνς is augmented, and εν remains unchanged ; as, δνστν- 
χεω, εδνστνχεον, δεδνστνχηκα ; εντνχεω, εντνχηκα. 

4. Other compounds generally take the augment at the be- 
ginning. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

223. — The exceptions from these rules are but few, and will be 
best learned by practice. Some writers augment certain com- 
pound verbs in the beginning, and others in the middle ; while 
other verbs are sometimes augmented in both ; as, επίσταμαι, 1 
understand, ήπιότάμην ; άνορ&όω, I erect, ψώρ&οον ; κα&ενδω, 
I sleep, κα&ηυδον or εκά&ενδον ; ενοχλεω, I disturb, ψώχλεον. 



224.— §90. OBSERVATIONS ON THE AUGMENT. 

1. In the early Greek poets, the use of the augment is very 
fluctuating, the same word sometimes occurring with the aug- 
ment and sometimes without it ; as, εξέφερε and έκφερε, he car- 

6 



110 THE AUGMENT. §90. 

ried out ; έλαβε and λάβε, he took ; ηγεν and ay εν, he brought ; 
εδεδεκτο, δεδεκτο, and δεχτό, he had received. 

Obs. 1. From the antiquity of the Ionic, this has been usually- 
considered a peculiarity of that dialect ; but it occurs frequently 
in the Attic writers, particularly in choruses ; as, σν&η for εσν&η, 
he was driven ; γεγε'νητο for εγεγενητο, it had been ; ανάλωκα for 
άνήλωκα, I have spent. 

2. In Homer and Hesiod, aorists often receive the reduplica- 
tion, which remains through all the moods ; thus, κεκάμω for 
κάμω, I shall have laboured ; λελάβεσ&αι for λάβεσ&αι, to have 
received. 

3. In all dialects, verbs beginning with λ and μ frequently 
take «t or ει as the augment of the perf. ; as, εΐληφα for λεληφα, 1 
have taken ; εϊμαρται for μεμαρται, it has been decreed. 

4. The Attics often change the simple augment ε into η, and 
augment the initial vowels of verbs beginning with si and εν ; as, 
ηδννάμην for εδυνάμψ, I was able; γκαζόν for εΐκαζον, I assimi- 
lated ; ηνχόμην for ευχόμψ, I prayed ; ηδειν for ε'ίδειν, I knew. 

5. In verbs beginning with α, ε, ο, or with av, at, οι, the At- 
tics sometimes prefix £ instead of the usual augment ; i. e. they 
use the syllabic instead of the temporal augment; as, εαξα for 
?;£« ; εάλωκα for ηλωκα. Sometimes they use both ; as, όραω, 
J see, εώραον, εωρακα. 

ATTIC REDUPLICATION. 

6. When the verb begins with α, ε, or o, followed by a con- 
sonant, the first two letters are sometimes repeated before the or- 
dinary augment. This is called the Attic Reduplication ; thus, 

άγείρω I assemble ηγερκα Attice, άγ-ηγερκα 

εμεω I vomit ημεκα εμ-ημεκα 

οζω I smell ωδα οδ-ωδα 

ορνσσω I dig ωρνχα όρ-ώρνχα 

Obs. 2. Tfye pluperfect sometimes takes anew augment on the 
initial vowel of the reduplication ; thus, άκ-ήκοα, ψ-ηκόειν. 

Obs. 3. This form of the verb frequently changes a long vowel 
or diphthong into a short or doubtful vowel in the third syllable; 
thus, άλήλιφα for ηλειφα, and άλήλιμμαι for ηλειμμαι, from αλείφω ; 
άκήκοα for ηκοα, from άκονω. 

7. Mule. The simple augment is confined to the indicative 
mood ; the reduplication remains in all the moods. 



§91. 



TERMINATIONS. 



Ill 



225.— § 91. III. THE TERMINATIONS. 

1. The terminations are parts of the verb added immediately 
to the tense-root, and which, by their changes, serve to distinguish 
the voices, moods, numbers, and persons. These are different in 
the two conjugations. 

2. The terminations in the first conjugation consist of two 
parts — the mood-vowel, and final letters. 

The mood-vowel distinguishes the mood and connects the final 
letters with the tense-root. The final letters distinguish the voices, 
numbers, and persons. 

3. The mood-vowel is the first letter of the termination, and in 
the indicative, is always short or doubtful except in the 1st and 
2d pluperfect, which has always ει — in the subjunctive, it is al- 
ways long — in the optative, always a diphthong. 

4. The final letters are of two classes, — Primary and Second- 
ary ; the former are used in the indicative mood in the primary 
tenses, and the latter, in the secondary (199-3). Also, the pri- 
mary final letters are always used in the subjunctive mood, and 
the secondary in the optative. 

226. TABLE OF FINAL LETTERS. 







ACTIVE VOICE. 






Primary. 


Secondary. 






1. 2. 


3. 


1. 2. 


3. 


Sing. 


ο ig 


/ 


Sing, ν, μι—, ς 


— 


Dual. 


— τον 


τον 


Dual. — τον 


την 


Plural. 


μεν τε 


VT61 


Plural, μ,εν τε 


v y σαν, εν 






MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 






Primary. 


Secondary. 






1. 2. 


3. 


1. 2. 


3. 


Sing. 


μαι σαι 


ται 


Sing, μην σο 


το 


Dual. 


με&ον σ&ον 


σ&ον 


Dual, με&ον σ&ον 


σ&ην 


Plural. 


με&α σ&ε 


νται 


Plural, ιιε&α σ&ε 


ντο 



5. The mood- vowels and final letters combined form the ter- 
mination in the indicative, subjunctive, and optative moods through 
the whole verb, except in the perfect and pluperfect, middle and 
passive, which, having no mood-vowels, annex the final letters im 
mediately to the root. 

The following table shows the mood-vowels and final letters, 
both separate and combined. 



112 TERMINATIONS. 

227. ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Primary. 
Present and Future. 
Mood-vowels and final letters separate. The same combined. 

Sing, o-o 
Dual. — 
Plural, ο-μεν 

Sing, a- 
Dual. — , 
Plural, α-μεν 



§91. 



ε-ις 

ε -tov 

ε-τε 



ε-ι 

ε-τον 

ο-ντσι 



ομεν 

First and Second Perfect. 



εις 

ετον 

ετε 



α-ς 


ε• 


α 


ας 


α-τον 


α-τον 


— 


ατον 


α-τε 


α-ντσι 


αμεν 


ατε 



Secondary. 
Imperfect and Second Aorist. 



Sing, o-v 
Dual. — 
Plural, ο-μεν 

Sing, a- 

Dual. 

Plural. 



ε-τον 
ε-τε 



ε- 

ε-τψ 

ο-ν 

First Aorist. 



ον 



ομεν 



ες 

ετον 

ετε 



Sing. 
Dual. 
Plural. 



α-μεν 



ει-μεν 



ω-ο 



ει 

ετον 

ονσι(ν) 

ε 

ατον 

ααι 



«Μ 

ετψ 



α-ς ε- 


α 


ας 


ε 


α-τον ά-την 


— 


ατον 


άτην 


α-τε α-ν 


αμεν 


ατε 


αν 


First and Second Pluperfect. 






ει- ς ει- 


ειν 


εις 


ει 


ει-τον εί-τψ 


— 


ειτον 


είτην 


ει-τε ει-σαν 


ειμεν 


είτε 


εισαν 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 






All the Tenses. 






η-ις ψι 


ω 


VS 


V 


η-τον ψτον 


— 


ητον 


ητον 


η-τε ω-ντσι 


ωμεν 


ψε 


ωσι 


OPTATIVE MOOD. 






All the Tenses except the First Aorist. 




οι-ς οι- 


οιμι 


οις 


οι 


οι-τον οί-τψ 


— 


οιτον 


οίτην 


οι-τε οι-εν 


οιμεν 


οιτε 


οιεν 



Sing. 
Dual. 
Plural, ω-μεν 



Sing, οι-μι 
Dual. — 
Plural, οι-μεν 

The First Aorist Optative has ai> instead of ov for its mood-vowels. 

6. In this table the indicative mood-vowel o, and the subjunc- 
tive ω, combining with the final letter -o makes ω ; and with 
-ψτσι they make ονσι and ωσι ; § 6, Rules 8, 1β, and 18. 



§91. 



TERMINATIONS. 



113 



228. MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Primary. 

Present and Futures. 



Mood-vowels and final letters separate 
Sing, ο-μαι ε-ααι ε-ται 
Dual, ό-με&ον ε-σ&ον ε-β&ον 
Plural, ό-μεϋ-α ε-σ&ε ο-νται 

Secondary. 
Imperfect and Second Aorist Middle. 



The same combined. 



ομαι 

όμε&ον 

όμε&α 



s(») 

εσ&ον 
εσΰε 



Sing. 
Dual. 



ο-μην 
ό-με&ο* 



Plural, ο-με&α 



ε-σο 

ε-σ&ον 

ε~σ&ε 



ε-το 

ε-σ&ην 

ο-ντο 



ομψ 

όμε&ον 

όμε&α 



Sing. 
Dual. 
Plural. 



Sing. 
Dual. 



α-μην 

ά-με&ον 

ά-με&α. 



ω-μαι 
ώ-με&ον 



Plural, ω-με&α 



First Aorist Middle. 
α-σο α-το άμην 

α-σ&ον ά-σϋ-ην άμε&ον 
α-σ&ε α-ντο άμε&α 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
All the Tenses. 
η-σαι ψται ωμαι 

ψσ&ον η-σ&ον ώμε&ον 
η-σ&ε ω-νται ώμε&α 



ου(1) 
εσ&ον 
εσ&ε 

ασο 

ασ&ον 

ασ&ε 



ησ&ον 
ησ&ε 



εται 

εσ&ον 

ονται 



ετο 
έσ&ψ 



ατο 

άσ&ην 

αντο 



ψαι 

ησ&ον 

covtat 



OPTATIVE MOOD. 

Present and Futures, also 2d Aorist Middle. 

Sing, οί-μην οι-σο οι-το οίμην οιο (7) οιτο 

Dual, οί-με&ον οι-σ&ον οί-σ&ην οίμε&ον οισ&ον οίσ&ην 

Plural, οί-με&α οι-σ&ε οι-ντο οίμε&α οισ&ε οιντο 

The First Aorist Optative has αν instead of ot, for its mood-vowels. 

7. In the second person singular, εσαι, in combining, elides a, 
leaving εαι, and then contracts the concurrent vowels into y (116, 
Exc. 3). So also ησαι becomes ηαι, and then rj (116, K. viii). 
So εσο becomes εο, contracted ov (116, R. ii) ; ασο becomes ao, 
contracted ω (116, Κ. vii. 1) ; and οισο, eliding σ, becomes οιο, 
without contraction. 

8. In the passive voice, the perfect and pluperfect have no 
mood-vowels, but annex the final letters (which in this case are 
the terminations) immediately to the root, 270-10. Also, the 
first and second aorists, in the indicative, as a termination prefix 
η, and, in the optative, ειη, to the secondary final letters of the 
active voice, as will be seen in the table, 231. 

9. The final letters and mood-vowels of the imperative, infini- 
tive, and participles, will be seen combined in the following tables. 



114 



TABLES OF TERMINATIONS. 



92. 



§ 92. TABLES OF TERMINATIONS. 
229. — I. ACTIVE VOICE. 











INDICATIVE. 












Primary Tenses. 






Pres. and Fut. 


1st and 2d Perfect. 




s. 


-ω 


-εις 


-ει 


-α -ας -ε 




D. 




-ετον 


-ετον 


-ατον -ατον 




P. 


-OfJLSV 


-ετε 


-ουσι 


-αμεν -ατε -ασι 










Secondary Tenses. 




Imp erf. 


and 2d Aor. 


1st and 2d Pluperfect. 


1st Aor. 


s. 


-OV 


-eg 


-δ 


-ειν -εις -ει 


-α -ας -ε 


D. 




-ετον 


-ετην 


-ειτον -είτην 


-ατον -ατψ 


P. 


-ομεν 


-ετε 


-ον 


-ειμεν -είτε -εισαν 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


-αμεν -ατε -αν 


s. 

D. 

P. 


-ω 
-ω μεν 


-ψον 
-ψε 


-ψον 
-ωσι 


The same as first 
column. 

OPTATIVE. 


The same as first 
column. 


s. 

D. 

P. 


-οιμι 
-οιμεν 


-οις 

-οιτον 

-οιτε 


-οι 

-οίτψ 

-οιεν 


The same as first 
column. 

IMPERATIVE. 


-αιμι -αις -αι 

-αιτον -αίτψ 
-αιμεν -αιτε -αιεν 


s. 




-ε 


-ετω 




-ον -άτω 


D. 




-ετον 


-ετών 


The same as first 


-ατον -άτων 


P. 




-ετε 


-ετωσαν 


column. 


-ατε -άτωσαν, 






or 


-όντων 


INFINITIVE. 


or -άντων 






-ειν 




-tvai 

PARTICIPLES. 


\ -αι 


N. 


-ων 


-ονσα 


-ον 


Ι -ως -νια -ός 


-ας -ασα -αν 


G. 


-οντος 


-ονσης 


, &G. 


Ι -ότος -νιας -ότος 


-αντος -άσης -αντος 



Obs. In this table, the terminations in the first column belong to the 
present, imperfect indicative, future, and 2d aorist ; all those in the 
2d, to the first and second perfect and pluperfect ; and all those in the 
3d, to the 1st aorist. 



§92. 



TABLES OF TERMINATIONS. 



115 



230. — II. MIDDLE VOICE. 



INDICATIVE. 



Primary Tenses. 



MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 
Pres. and Fut 
8. -ομαι -η -εται 

D. -όμεϋον -εσβ-ον -εσϋον 
Ρ. -όμεϋα -εσϋε -ονται 



Secondary Tenses. 





Imperfect and 2d Aorist. 




1st Aorist. 


s. 

D. 
P. 


-όμψ -ov 
-όμεϋον -εσϋον 
-όμεϋα -εσϋε 


-ετο 

-εσϋην 

-οντο 


-άμην 

-άμεϋον 

-άμεϋα 


-ω -ατο 
-ασϋον -άσϋην 
-ασϋε -αντο 






SUBJUNCTIVE. 




s. 

D. 

P. 


-ωμαι -?/ 
■^όμεϋον -ησϋον 
-οψεϋα -ησϋε 


-ψαι 

-ησϋον 

-ωνται 


The same as first column. 



OPTATIVE. 



S. -οίμην -οίο -οιτο 

ΐ>. -οίμεϋον -οισϋον -οίσϋην 
Ρ. -οίμεϋα -οισϋε -οιντο 



-αιμην -αιο -αιτο 

-αίμεϋον -αισϋον -αίσϋην 
-αίμεϋα -atcr^fi -αιντο 







IMPERATIVE. 






S. 
D. 
Ρ. 


-ου 

-εσϋον 

-εσϋε 


-ε'σϋω 

-εσϋατν 

-εσϋωσαν 




-αι 

-ασϋον 

-ασϋε 


-άσϋω 

•άσϋων 

-άσϋωσαν 






INFINITIVE. 








-εσϋαι 


ι 

PARTICIPLES. 


-ασϋαι 




Ν. 
G. 


-ομενος -ομενη 
-ομε'νον -ομενης 


-όμενον 
-ομε'νον 


-άμενος 
-αμενον 


-αμενη 
-αμενης 


-αμενον 
-αμενου 



Obs. In this table of the middle voice, the terminations of the 
perfect and pluperfect are omitted, being the same throughout 
as those of the perfect and pluperfect passive on the next page. 



116 



TABLES OF TERMINATIONS. 



§92. 





,231 


. — III. PASSIVE VOICE. 








INDICATIVE MOOD. 










Primary Tenses. 






PASSIVE 


AND MIDDLE. 








Perfect. 










S. -μαι 


-σαι 


-ται 








D. -με&ον 


-σ&ον 


-σ&ον 








P. -με&α 


-σ&ε 


■νται 












Secondary Tenses. 






Pluperfect. 




1st and 2d Aorists. 


S. -μψ 


-σο 


-το 


-ην 


-ης 


% 


D. -με&ον 


-σ&ον 


-σ&ην 




-ητον 


-ητην 


P. -με&α 


-σ&ε 


-ντο 


-ημεν 


-ητε 


-ήσαν 






SUBJUNCTIVE. 






S. -μένος ω 

ΐ>. -μένω 

Ρ. -μενοι ωμεί> 


h 

ητον 
ητε 


i 

ητον 
ωσι 


-ώ 
-ώμεν 


-ητον 
-ητε 


1 
-ητον 

-ώσι 






OPTATIVE. 






S. -μένος εΐην εΐης 
D. -μένω ε'ίητον 
Ρ. -μενοι ε'ιημεν ε'ιψε 


εΐη 

είητην 

εΐησαν 


-εΐην 
-είημεν 


-είης 

-είητον 

-είητε 


-είη 

-είητην 

-εΐησαν 






IMPERATIVE. 






S. 


-σο 


-σ&ω 




■η&ι 


-ητω 


D. 


-σ&ον 


-σ&ων 




-ητον 


-ητων 


Ρ. 


-σ&ε 


-σ&ωσαν 




-ητε 


-ητωσαν 






INFINITIVE. 








-σ&αι 


ι 

PARTICIPLES. 


-ηναι 




Μ. 


F. 


Ν. 


Μ. 


F. 


Λ 


Ν. -μένος 
G. -μενού 


-μένη 
-μενης 


-μενον 
μενού 


-εις 
-εντός 


-εϊσα 
-είσης 


-εν 
-εντός 



For the terminations of the present, imperfect, 1st, 2d, and 3d 
futures of the passive voice, see the terminations in the first column 
of the table on the preceding page. 



93. FORMATION OF TENSES. Π 7 



232.— §93. FORMATION OF THE TENSES IN MUTE 
AND PURE VERBS. 

1. Each tense consists of its proper root, and 
tense-ending, together with the augment prefixed 
in the augmented tenses. 

Obs. 1. The 2 future passive and 2 aorist add the tense-end- 
ings to the second root, the 2 perfect and 2 pluperfect active, te 
the third root, and all others to the first. 

Exc. Τρέπω, τρέφω, and στρέφω, in the perfect and pluper 
feet passive, have the second root. Φενγω and κευ&ω, in the 2 
perfect active, have sometimes the first, instead of the third root. 
Πψπω, κλέπτω, τρέπω, λέγω, and τρέφω, in the perfect and plu- 
perfect active, change ε of the first root into o. 

2. The tense-endings consist of the tense-signs (218) and ter- 
minations united ; and when there is no tense-sign, the termina- 
tion alone is also the tense- ending, as exhibited in the following 
table. 

TABLE OF TENSE-ENDINGS. 

Tense. Active. Middle. Passive. 

1 Future, -σ-ω (liq. -/-ω) -σ-ομαι (liq. -ί-ομαι) -&ήσ-ομαι 

2 Future, -ησ-ομαι 

1 Aorist, -σ-α (liq. -α) -σ-άμην (liq. -άμψ) -ΰ-ην 

2 Aorist, -ov -όμψ -ην 
Perfect, -κ-α, or- -a, 235, R.l. -μαι -μαι 
Pluperf. -κ-ειν, or --ειν -μην -μην 

2 Perfect, -a 

2 Pluperf. -ειν 

Fut.-Perf. or Paulo-post-future -σ-ομαι -σ-ομαι 

233. — GENERAL RULES. 

Rule 1. The imperfect is formed from the pre- 
sent by prefixing the augment and changing ω 
into ov, and ο μαι into 6 μην ; as, τυπτω, ετυπτον, 
τνπτομαι, ετνπτομην. — 

Rule 2. All tenses except the present and im- 
perfect, add the tense-endings to the proper root 
(232, Obs. 1), and prefix the augment in the pre- 
terite tenses, as follows : 

6* 



Τ-Ί8 FORMATION OF TENSES. § 94 

234. — SPECIAL RULES FOR EACH TENSE. 

1. Active Voice. 
Future. Add α ω to the 1st root. 

1 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -σα to the 1st root. 

2 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -ov to the 2d root. 
Perfect. Augment, reduplicate, and add -κα or -a to the 1st root, 

235, R. 1. 
Pluperf. Augment, reduplicate, repeat the augment, and add 

-κειν or -ειν to the 1st root. 
2 Perf. Augment, reduplicate, and add -a to the 3d root. 
2 Pluperf. Augment, reduplicate, repeat the augment, and add 
-sir to the 3d root. 

2. Middle Voice. 
Future. Add -σομαι to the 1st root. 

1 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -σάμψ to the 1st root. 

2 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -όμψ to the 2d root. 
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future-perfect, are the same as in 

the Passive Voice. 

3. Passive Voice. 

1 Future. Add -ΰήσομαι to the 1st root. 

2 Future. Add -ψομαι to the 2d root. 

1 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -&ψ to the 1st root. 

2 Aorist. Prefix the augment, and add -ψ to the 2d root. 
Perfect. Augment, reduplicate, and add -μαι to the 1st root. 
Pluperf. Augment, reduplicate, repeat the augment, and add 

-μψ to the 1st root. 
Fut. Perf. Augment, reduplicate, and add -σομαι to the 1st root. 



235.— § 94. SPECIAL RULES FOR MUTES. 

Rule 1. When the characteristic is a π- mute or 
a #-mute, the perfect active is formed by adding 
--a, and the pluperfect by adding -sip; all 
others add -κα, -xttv (218, Obs. 2, 3) ; thus, 

λείπω Root λείπ- perf. λε-λειπ--α combined λέλειφα 

pluperf. ελε-λείπ- -ειν ελελείφειν 

πλέκω Root πλεκ- perf. πέ-πλεκ--α πε'ττλεχα 

pluperf. Ιπε-πλεκ- -ειν ίττεπλέχειν 



g95. 



FORMATION OF TENSES. 



119 



Eule 2. ΛΥηβη tlie characteristic is a r-mute, 
it is rejected before a consonant in the active and 
the middle voice, and changed into a in the pas- 
sive; thus, 

Active, πεί&ω. Root πεί&- Fut. πεί-σω perf. πεπει-κα 
Middle, Fut. πεί-σομαι 1 Aor. επει-αάμψ 

Passive, 1 fut. πεισ-ϋ~ψομαι 1 Aor. επείσ-^ψ perf. . πέπειο-μαι 

Exc. The τ -mute is rejected in the passive also, when it comes 
before σ (44-8) ; as, πεπεισαι. for πίπει&ααι, or after a liquid ; 
as, περ&-ω, 1 future passive περ-ϋ'^σομαι, perfect ηε-περ-μαι. 
Also, a TT-rnute, after a liquid, is rejected before μαι ; as, τέρπ-ω, 
perfect passive τε-τερ-μαι. 

Obs. Πεν&ω, σενω, τενχω, and χεω (239-2), have ν instead 
of εν before a consonant in the passive ; as, πνα-&ι]σομαι, συσ-^ζσ- 
ομαι (240, R. 2), &c. ; φενγω has either ν or εν ; as, πέφυγ-μαι, 
or πέφενγ-μαι. • 



236.— § 95. METHOD OF FORMING THE TENSES. 
1. Τίω, I honour. 

This verb, requiring no insertion or change of letters for the 
sake of euphony, affords the simplest example for showing the 
formation of tenses. A second and third root (τι), and the 
tenses formed from them, are here assumed, though they do not 
exist in the verb, to show the manner in which these tenses are 
formed. 



Active. 



Middle. 



Passive. 



Pres. 


τι-ω 


τι-ομαι 


τι-ομαι 


Imp. 


ε-τι-ον 


ε-τι-όμψ 


ε-τι-όμψ 


Fut. 


τί-σ-ω 


τί-σ-ομαι 


τι^&ησ-ομαι 


2 Fut. 






τι-ψ-ομαι 


1 Aor. 


ε-τι-σ-α 


ε-τι-σ-άμην 


ε-τί-ΰ•-Ί]ν 


2 Aor. 


ε-τι-ον 


ε-τι-όμψ 


ε-τί-ην 


Perf. 


τε'-τι-χ-α 


τε-τι-μαι 


τε-τι-μαι 


Pluperf. 


ε-τε-τί-κ-ειν 


ε-τε^τί-μψ 


ε-τε-τί-μψ 


2 Perf. 


τε^τι-α 






2 Pluperf. 


ε-τε-τί-ειν 






P. P. Fut. 




τε-τί-β-ομαι 


τε-τι-ϋ-ομαι 



120 



FORMATION OF TENSES. 



95. 



The following examples fall under 235, Rule 1. They are 
'exhibited with the parts divided, and then combined, to show the 
effect of the rules of euphony, § 6, in combining the parts. It 
will be a profitable exercise for the pupil to apply these rules for 
every change. 

2. The characteristic a 7r-mute. 

λείπω, I leave. 
Roots, 1. λειπ-, 2. λιπ-, 3. λοιπ-, 

ACTIVE VOICE. 





Parts divided. 


Parts combined. 


Pres. 


λείπ-ω 


λείπω 


Imperil 


ε-λειπ-ον 


ελειπον 


Fut. 


λείη-ΰ-ω 


λείψω 


1 Aor. 


ε-λειπ-σ-α 


έλειψα 
ελιττον 


2 Aor. 


ε-λιπ-ον 


Perf. 


λε-λειπ--α 


λέλειφα 
ελελείφειν 


Pluperf. 


ε-λε-λείπ- -ειν 


2 Perf. 


λε-λοιπ-α 


λελοιπα 


2 Pluperf. 


i -λε-λοίπ-ειν 

MIDDLE VOICE. 


εϊ$λοίπειν 


Pres. 


λείπ-ομαι 


λείπομαι 


Imperf. 


ε-λειπ-όμψ 


ελειπόμψ 


Fut. 


λείπ-σ-ομαι 


λείψομαι 


1 Aor. 


ε-λειπ-α-άμην 


ελειψάμψ 


2 Aor. 


ε-λιπ-όμψ 


ελιπόμψ 


Perf. 


λε-λειπ-μαι 


λελειμμαι 


Pluperf. 


ε-λε-λείπ-μψ 


ελελείμμην 


P. P. Fut. 


λε-λείπ-σ-ομαι 

PASSIVE VOICE. 


λελείψομαι 


Pres. 


λείπ-ομαι 


λείπομαι 


Imperf. 


ε-λειπ-όμψ 


ελειπόμψ 


Fut. 


λείπ-σ-ομαι 


λειψ&ήαομαι 


2 Fut. 


λιπ-ησ•ομαι 


λιπψομαι 


1 Aor. 


ε-λείπ-ΰ•-ψ 


ελείφ&ην 


2 Aor. 


ε-λίπ-ψ 


ελίπην 


Perf. 


λε-λειπ-μαι 


λελειμμαι 


Pluperf. 


ε-λε-λείπ-μψ 


ελελείμμην 


P. P. Fut. 


λε-λ*ίπ-σ-ομαι 


λελείψομαι 



95. 



FORMATION OF TENSES. 



121 



3. 


The characteristic a 

πλέκω, I fold. 


#-mute. 


Roots, 1. πλεκ•, 2. πλακ-, 


3. πλοκ-. 




ACTIVE VOICE. 






Parts divided. 


Parts combined. 


Pres. 


πλεκ-ω 


πλέκω 


Imperf. 


ε-πλεκ-ον 


επλεκον 


Fut 


πλε'κ-β-ω 


πλέξω 


1 Aor. 


ε-πλεκ-α-α 


έπλεξα 


2 Aor. 


ε-πλακ-ον 


επλακον 


Perf. 


πε-πλεκ--α 


πέπλεχα 


Pluperf. 


ε-πε-πλέκ- -ειν 


επεπλεχειν 


2 Perf. 


πε-πλοκ-α 


πεπλοκα 


2 Pluperf. 


ε-πε-πλόκ-ειν 

MIDDLE VOICE. 


επεπλόκειν 


Pres. 


πλεκ-ομαι 


πλέκομαι 


Imperf. 


1-πλεκ-όμψ 


επλεκόμψ 


Fut. 


πλέκ-α-ομαι 
ε-πλεκ-σ-άμψ 


πλε'ξθ(ΐαι 


1 Aor. 


επλεξάιιψ 


2 Aor. 


έ-πλακ-όμψ 


επλακομψ 


Perf. 


πε-πλεκ-μαι 


πέπλζγμαι 


Pluperf. 


ε-πε-πλεκ-μψ 


επεπλεγμψ 


P. P. Fut. 


πε-πλεκ-σ-ομαι 

PASSIVE VOICE. 


πεπλεξομαι 


Pres. 


πλε'κ-ομαι 


πλέκομαι 


Imperf. 


έ-πλεκ-όμψ 


επλεκόμψ 


Fut. 


πλεκ•&ψ-ομαι 


πλεχ&ϊ]σομαι 


2 Fut 


πλακ-ηϋ-ομαι 


πλακηαομαι 


1 Aor. 


ε-πλέκ-#-ψ 


επλεχ&ψ 


2 Aor. 


ε-πλάκ-ην 


επλάκψ 


Pert 


πε-πλεκ-μαι 


πεπλεγμαι 


Pluperf. 
P. P. Fut. 


ε-πε-πλεκ-μψ 
πε-πλεκ-α-ομαι 


επεπλεγμψ 
πεπλεξομαι 



122 FOKMATION OF TENSES. §96. 

4. The characteristic a r-mute. 

ττεί&ω, I persuade. 

This verb has the first root τιειϋ; the second m&, the third 
ttoi&j and its characteristic being a τ -mute, it comes under 235, 
Rule 2. 





Active. 


Middle. 


Passive. 


Pres. 


πεί&-ω 


τζείΌ'-ομαι 


πεί^-ομαι 


Imp. 


ε-τζειϋ-ον 


ε-τζει&-ομην 


ε-πειϋ'-όμψ 


Fut. 


πεί-β-ω 


τζεί-σ-ομαι 


τζεισ-Φήσ-ομα 


2 Fut, 






τηΰ-ήσ-ομαι 


1 Aor. 


ε-τζει-σ-α 


ε-ηει-α-άμψ 


ε-πεία-^-ψ 


2 Aor. 


ε-πιϋ•-ον 


ε-τζιΰ-όμψ 


ε-τζίϋ'-ην 


Perf. 


τιε-ηει-ν,-α 


πέ-ττεισ-μαι 


τζε-πεισ-μαι 


Pluperf. 


ε-πε-πεί-χ-ειν 


ε-ττε-τιεία-μψ 


ε-πε-πείΰ-μψ 


2 Perf. 


τζε'-ποιΰ'-α. 






2 Pluperf. 


ε-τζε-τζοίΦ-ειν 






P. P. Fut. 




τζε-πεί-σ-ομαι 


πε-τζεί-σ-ομαι 



§96. SPECIAL RULES FOR PURE VERBS. 

237. — Ν. Β. In the rules for the Moods and Tenses of verbs, 
let it be remembered, that — 

The three short vowels, a s ο 
have their own long, η η ω 

and their own diphthongs, at ει οι 

238. — Rule 1. Verbs in άω, εω, and όω, change 
the short vowel into its own long before a conso- 
nant; as, 

φιλεω, Root φίλε, fut. φιλι/σω, perf. ττεφίληκα, &g. 
239. — EXCEPTIONS. 

1. άω after ε or ι, retains a) and λάω and ράω 
after a vowel ; as, έαω, έάβω ; κόπιαω, κοπίτ 
άβω) γελάω, γέλαΰω. 

Likewise dissyllables in άω which do not pass into ημι ; as, κλάω, 
κλάσω. But those which pass into ημι have η, except φ&άω. 



§ 96. FORMATION OF TENSES. 123 

The following also retain a; viz. άκροάομαι, πετάω, δαμάω, 
κηεμάω, and νφάω ; διψάω lias a or η. 

2. Ten in έω retain ε ; viz. άκέω, άλέω, άρκέω, εω, έμέω, νειχέω, 

ξέω, όλέω, τελε'ω, τρε'ω. 
Likewise those which form new presents in νννω, ννυμι, and σκω ; 

as, εννυω and έυνυμι from εω, αρέσκω from άρέω ; retain ε. 
Sixteen in «ω have ε or 77 ; viz. αιδέομαι, αίνέω, άκέομαι, άλςρεω, 

άχ&έομαι, δέω, καλέω, κηδέω, κορέω, μαχέομαι, όζέω (όζω), 

πο&έω, ττονεω, στερέω, φορέω, φρονέω ; besides a few others 

seldom used ; as, κοτέω, βλέω, χορέω. 
Sir in έω have εν ; viz. πνέω, πλέω, χέω, ρέω, I flow ; &έω, 1 

run; and νέω, I swim ; but ρέω, I speak ; &έω, I place ; 

and νέω, I spin, have η. 

3. In primitive verbs, όω retains ο ; such as, άρόω, βόω, εδόω, 

ομόω, ονόω. Likewise those which form others in ννω and 
σκω, have ο ; but those which pass into ωμι, have ω ; except 
δίδωμι, which has ο in the 1 fnt. and 1 aor. passive ; as, δο&η~ 
σομαι, εδό&ην. 

4. The anomalous verbs καίω and κλαίω change ai into av ; as, 

καίω, fut. καναω ; κλαίω, κλανσω. 

5. ΑΙρέω, ενρέω, and σχέω (Tor έχω), retain ε before & only ; 

as, αιρψω, αιρε&ησομαι, αιρέ&ην, αΐρημαι, &c. 

240. — Rule 2. Pure verbs which have ε, or a 
doubtful vowel, or a diphthong before a conso- 
nant, in the active and the middle voice, insert e 
before a consonant in the passive ; as, 

Perf. Act. 1 Fut. Pass. 1 Aor. Pass. Perf. Pass. 

άλέ-ω ηλε-κα άλεσ-&ήσομαι ήλέσ-Φην ηλεσ-μαι 

γελά-ω γεγέλα-κα γελασ-ΰήσομαι έγελάσ-ϋψ γεγέλασ-μαι 

πρί-ω πέπρι-κα πρισ-ΰησομαι έπρίσ-θ'ην πεπρισ-μαι 

άνν-ω ψυ-κα άννΰ-&ί;σομαι ψνσ-&ην ηννσ-μαι 

παί-ω πέπαι-κα παισ-&ήσομαι έπαίσ^&ην πέπαισ-μαι 

κλαίω κέκλαν-κα κλανσ-ϋ-ήσομαι έκλανβ-#ψ κέκλανσμαι 

So also verbs in είω, εύω, οίω, and ονω. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

241. — To this rule there are many exceptions ; as, 

1. Five which have ε before a consonant do not insert <s ; viz. 

αίνέω, ανχέω, έμέω, έρέω, όλέω. 

2. Eight which have a ; viz. άκροάομαι, ΰεάομαι, ιάομαι, xo- 

νιαω, οραω, πειράομαι, περάω, φωράω. 



124 



LIQUID VEEBS. 



97. 



3. One which, has t ; viz. τίω. 

4. Eleven which have ν ; viz. άρτνω, βρνω, δνω, ϋνω, ιδρνω, 

κωκνω, κωλνω, λνω, μψνω, ρνω, τρύω. 

5. Seven which have εν] viz. δένω, νενω, νέω (νενσω), πνέω 

(τζνενσω), ρέω (ρενσω), σενω, χέω (χενσω). Also many verbs 
in ενω, derived from nouns ; as, βασιλεύω. 

6. One which has ov ; viz. λονω, as, λον&ήσομαι, <fec. 

7. Fourteen verbs sometimes insert σ before a consonant in the 

passive voice, and sometimes not; viz. άρνω, δράω, ζέω, 
ελάω, καίω, κεράω, κνάω, κορέω, μνάω, μηρνω, όνόω, τίανω, 
χνανω, \ράω. 

242. — Kule 3. Verbs in όω, forming verbs in 
μι, insert a before a consonant in the passive voice ; 
as, γνώμι, γνωϋ&ηΰομαι, &c. 

Except στρώνννμι from ΰτρόω, and δίδωμι from δόω, which 
have ατρω&ψομαι, δοϋήσομαι, &c. 

FOKMINO THE TENSES OF PUKE VEEBS. 

243. — The following example shows the method of forming 
the tenses in pure verbs. With few exceptions, having no second 
root (216), they have no 2d future, or 2d aorist; and in the ac- 
tive voice, no 2d perfect, or 2d pluperfect. 



Pres. 

Imperf. 
Fut. 
1 Aor. 
Perf. 
Pluperf. 
P. P. Fut. 



Active. 

τιμά-ω 

ε-τίμα-ον 

τιμή-σ-ω 

ε-ζίμη-σ-α 

τε-τίμψκ-α 

έ-τε-τιμη-κ-ειν 



Middle. 

ημά-ομαι 
i -ημα-όμην 

τι,μη-σ-ομαι 
ε-τιμη-σ-άμην 
τε-τίμψμαι 
ε-τε-τιμη-μην 
τε-τιμή-α-ομαί 



Passive. 

τιμά-ομαι 
ε-τιμα-όμην 

τιμη-&ψ-ομαι 
έ-ημ?ι-#-ην 
Τε-τίμη-μαι 
i -Τε-Τΐμψμην 
τε-ιιμψΰ-ομαι 



§ 97. LIQUID VERBS. 

244. — Liquid verbs differ from mute and pure 
verbs in forming some of the tenses, as will ap- 
pear by the following — 



§ 97 LIQUID VERBS. 125 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. The future active and middle shortens the 
root, if it contains a diphthong, by rejecting the 
last of the two vowels; and instead of οω and 
όομαι, adds aco and ίομαι, contracted ώ and ου 
μαι ; as, 

Verb. R. Fut. Act. Fut. Mid. 

μένω μεν μεν-έω contr. μεν-ώ, μεν-έομαι contr. μεν-ονμαι 

τείνω τειν τεν-έω τεν-ώ, τεν-έομαι τεν-ονμαι 

φαίνω φαιν φαν-έω φαν-ώ, φαν-έομαι φαν-ονμαι 

2. The first aorist active and middle lengthens 
the short root of the future by changing ε into 
u, and lengthening the doubtful vowels ; and in- 
stead of 6a and όάμην, adds a and αμήν ; as, 

Verb. Fut. 1 Aor. Act 1 Aor. Mid 

μένω μεν-εω ε-μειν-α έ-μειν-άμψ 

τείνω τεν-έω ε^ζειν-α ε-τειν-αμψ 

φαίνω φαν-έω ε-φάν-α ε-φάν-άμην 

Rem. The Attics often change a into η ; as, εφηνα, έφψάμψ. 

3. The perfect and pluperfect active, and all the 
the passive voice, except the present and imper- 
fect, add the tense-endings to the second root ; as. 

Verb. 2. R. Perf. Act. 1 Fut. Pass. 1 Aor. P. Perf. P. 

σπείρω, σπαρ, ε-απαρ-χα, ΰπαρ-Ήηβομαι, ε-σπάρ-&ην, ε-σπαρ-μαι 
φαίνω, φαν, πέ-φαγ-χα, φαν-ΰψομαι, έ-φάν-&ψ, πε-φαμ-μα 

Exc. Verbs in μω form the perfect and pluper- 
fect active and the 1 future, 1 aorist, perfect, and 
pluperfect passive, from the first root by interpos- 
ing η before the tense-endings ; as, 

Verb. 1 E. Perf. Act. 1 Fut. Pass. 1 Aor. Pass. 

νέμω νεμ νε-νέμ-η-κα νεμ-η^&ησομαι ε-νεμ-η-ΰην, &c 

So also, βάλλω and μένω. 



126 



TENSES OF LIQUID VEKBS. 



§97. 



Note. The tenses which interpose η are, probably formed regularly 
from obsolete forms in έο) ; thus, NEMEJl, ν(μήσο), νίνίμηκα, &c. ; 
but while these tenses, formed in this way, have remained, the others 
have given place to the liquid forms now in us*e. See 250. 

4. Dissyllables in είνω, ίνω, ννω, reject ν before 
a consonant ; as, 

τείνω, rav-, τε-τα-κα, τα-$ψομαι, ε-τά-ϋ-ψ, τε-τα-μαι, &c. 
κρίνω, κριν-, κέ-κρι-κα, κρι-ΰήσομαι, ε-κρί-ΰ-ην, κε-κρι-μαι. * 
&ννω, ΰυν-, τε-ΰν-κα, τυ-&ψομαι, ε-τύ-β-ψ, τε-ΰν-μαι. 

But κτείνω and πλύνω sometimes retain ν, sometimes not. 

245. — Obs. Verbs in αίνω and ννω commonly drop ν before 
the termination beginning with μ, and insert σ in its stead ; as, 
φαίνω, πλύνω, perf. pass, πεφασμαι, πεπλυσμαι. — They are in- 
flected thus : 

Singular, πεφασ-μαι πεφαν-σαι πεφαν-ται 

Dual, πεφάσ-με&ον πέφαν-&ον (54-1 7) πέφαν-ΰ-ον 
Plural, πεφάσ-με&α πέφαν -ds πεφασ-μένοι είσί(ν) 

Note. Liquid verbs want the paulo-post-future tense. 



FORMING THE TENSES OF LIQUID VEEBS. 

246. — The following examples show the method of forming the 
tenses of liquid verbs, according to the preceding rules. 

247. — Στέλλω, I send. 
1 R. στελ. 2 R. σταλ. 3 R. στολ. 



Active. 

Pres. στελλ-ω 

Imperf. ε-στελλ-ον 
Put. στελ-ε-ω, ώ 

2 Fut. 

1 Aor. ε-στειλ-α 

2 Aor. ε-σταλ-ον 
Perf. ε-σταλ-κ-α 
Pluperf. ε-στάλ-κ-ειν 
2 Perf. ε-στολ-α 

2 Pluperf. ε-στόλ-ειν 



Middle. 

στελλ-ομαι 
ε-στελλ-όμην 
στελ-έ-ομαι, οΰμαι 



ε-στειλ-άμην 
ε-σταλ-όμην 
ε-σταλ-μαι 
ε-στάλ-μην 



Passive. 

στελλ-ομαι 

ε-στελλ-όμην 
σταλ-&ήσ-ομαι 
σταλ-ησ-ομαι 

ε-στάλ-&-ψ 

ε-στάλ-ην 

ε-σταλ-μαι 

ε-στάλ-μην 



§^7. 



TENSES OF LIQUID VERBS. 



127 



Pres. 
Jmperf. 
Fut. 
2 Fut. 

1 Aor. 

2 Aor. 
Perf. 
Pluperf. 
2 Perf. 

2 Pluperf. 

Pres. 
Imperf 
Fut. 
2 Fut. 

1 Aor. 

2 Aor. 
Perf. 
Pluperf. 
2 Pell*. 

2 Pluperf 


248.- 

1 R. grtf/i•. 

Active. 
φαίν-ω 
ε-φαιν-ον 
φαν-ε-ω, ώ 


—Φαίνω, I show. 

2 R. φαν. 3 R 

Middle. 
φαίν-ομαι 
ε-φαιν-όαην 
φαν-ε-ομαι, 


φην. 

Passive. 
φαίν-ομαι 
ε-φαιν-όμην 
ονμαι φαν-&ησ-ομαι 


ε-φάν-α 

ε-φάν-ον 

πε'-φαγ-χ-α 

ε-πε-φάγ-κ-ειν 

πε-φην-α 
ε-πε-φην-ειν 

249.- 

1 R. τειν. 

Active. 
τείν-ω 
ε-τειν-ον 
τεν-ε-ω, ώ 


ε-φάν-άμψ 
ε-φάν-όμην 
πε-φασ-μαι 
ε-πε-φάσ-μην 


ε-φάν-ίϊ-ην 
ε-φάν-ην 
πε-φασ-μαι 
ε-πε-φάσ-μην 






-Τείνω, I stretch. 

2 R. ταν. 3 R. τον. 

Middle. Passive. 
τείν-ομαι τείν-ομαι 
έ-τειν-όμην ε-τειν-όμην 
τεν-ε-ομαι, ονμαι τα-ϋησ-ομαι 


ε-τειν-α 

ε-ταν-ον 

τε-τα-κ-α 

ε-τε-τά-κ-ειν 

τε-τον-α 
ε-τε-τόν-ειν 


ε-τειν-άμην 
ε-ταν-όμην 
τε-τα-μαι 
ε-τε-τά-μψ 


ε-τά-&-ην 
ε-τάν-ην 
τε-τα-μαι 
ε-τε-τά-μην 











250. — Νέμω, 1 distribute (244, Note). 
1 R. νεμ. 2 R. ταμ. 3 R. νομ. 



Pres. 
Imperf. 
Fut. 
2 Fut. 

1 Aor. 

2 Aor. 
Perf. 
Pluperf. 
2 Pen. 

2 Pluperf. 


Active. 

νέμ-ω 
ε-νεμ-ον 

νεμ-έ-ω, ώ 


Middle. Passive. 
νεμ-ομαι νεμ-ομαι 
ε-νεμ-όμην ε-νεμ-όμην 
νεμ-ε-ομαι, ονμω. νεμ^η-^ησ-ομαι 


ε-νειμ-α 
ε-νάμ-ον 
νε-νεμ-η-κ-α 
ε-νε-νεμ-η ν.-ειν 

νε-νομ-α 
ε-νε-νόμ-ειν 


ε-νειμ-άμψ 

ε-ναμ-όμψ 

νε-νεμ-η-μαι 

ε-νε-νεμ-η-μηρ 


ε-νεμ-η-δ-ψ 
ε-νάμ-ην 
νε-Λ-εμ-η-μαι 
ε-νε-νεμ-η-μην 











128 CONTRACTED VERBS. §98. 

§98. CONTRACTED VERBS. 

251. — Verbs in -άω, -εω, and -όω, contract the concurrent 
vowels in the present and imperfect in all the voices, according 
to the general rules of contraction, 116. See paradigm, § 100. 

All the concurrences of vowels to be found in these verbs, are 
the following ; viz. 

1. Verbs in -άω, -άω, -αε, -άο, •άη, -άει, -άη, -άοι, -άου, = 8. 

contr. -ώ, -α, -ώ, -α, -α, -α, -φ, -ώ* 

2. Verbs in -έω, -έω, -εε, -έο, -έη, -έει, -έΐβ, -έοι, -έου, = 8. 

contr. -ώ, -ει, -ου, -η, -ει, -ij, -οι, -ου. 

3. Verbs in -όω, -όω, -οε, -όο, -όη, -όει, -ότβ, -όοι, -όον, = 8, 

contr. -ώ, -ου, -ου, -ώ, -οι, -οι, -οι, -ου. 

Obs. 1. Of the above concurrent vowels (No. 2), dissyllables 
in δω contract only εε and εει ; thus, πλέε, πλέειν, πλέετε, <fcc, are 
usually contracted πλεϊ, πλεΐν, πλεϊτε, &c, but πλέω, πλε'ομεν, 
&c, are never contracted. Exc. Αεω, to bind, commonly con- 
tracts all. 

Obs. 2. Four verbs in άω contract αε into η, and αει into ψ 
These are ζάω, πεινάω, δνψάω, and χράομαι ; thus, 

Indie, ζάεις, ζάει, ζάετον, εζαες, εζαε, &c. Inf. ζάειν. 
contr. ζής, ζ%, ζψον, ίζης, ίζη, " ζψ, &C. 

And so of the others. 

252. DORIC AND IONIC FORMS. 

Obs. 3. The Dorics, who in other cases use a for η, in verbs 
make use of η, without ι subscript, instead of all contractions of 
αει and εει ; as, όρην for όραν ; κοσμην for κοσμεΐν. Also, αε 
was usually contracted by them into η ; as, τολμψε for τολμάετε. 

The Ionic dialect often converts a, in verbs in άω, into ε ; as, 

ορεω, ορέομεν, for οράω, όράομεν ; χρέεται for χράεται. 

253. HOMERIC FORM. 

Obs. 4. The Epic writers, on account of the metre, often insert 
the kindred long or short vowel before the contracted vowel ; as, 

οράειν, contr. όραν, Poet, όράαν ; όράω, contr. ορώ, Poet, οροω. 
Participle fern, ηβάουσα, contr. ηβώσα, Poet, ηβώωσα, <fcc. 

This, from the frequency of its occurrence in Homer, is some- 
times called the Homeric form. 



§98. EXPLANATION OF TABLE. 129 

Note. — By a little attention to practice, and applying the rules 
(116) to the preceding contractions, a paradigm of contract verbs is 
unnecessary ; still a table of contract verbs is inserted in its place, 258, 
§100. 



254.— EXPLANATION OF THE FOLLOWING TABLE. 

1. The tense-root in the subjunctive (being the same as in the indica- 
tive, but without the augment), is to be prefixed to the " terminations" 
in the optative, imperative, infinitive, and participles. 

2. Whenever the accent (') falls on the termination, it is marked in 
the following table in its proper place. When it does not fall on the 
termination, its place will be the third syllable from the end of the 
word, if the last syllable be short, or the diphthong at, which is con- 
sidered short. But if the last syllable be long, the accent will be on 
the syllable next the last ; as, τέτνφα, πτΰφω, &c. 

3. In the perfect and pluperfect passive, the characteristic π in all 
the moods is put with the termination, to show the changes it undergoes 
by the laws of euphony, when combined with the initial consonant of 
the termination. In combining the root in these moods with the termi- 
nation, Rules 2, and 6, and 17 of § 6, must be observed. See also § 101, 
10. But if the tables of terminations, § 92, and the method of forming 
the tenses, § 93, are perfectly committed to memory, and rendered fa- 
miliar to the pupil by thorough drilling, it will hardly ever be neces- 
sary to take him into this table at all. 

4. The numbers 1, 2, 3, &c, to be found in the following table, refer 
to the same numbers, § 101. 

Ν. B. By inspection of the table, it will be seen that the termina- 
tions of the subjunctive mood are the same in all the tenses, and those 
of the optative and imperative are nearly the same in alL except in the 
1 aorist. Attention to this will greatly lessen the labour of committing 
the verb to memory. 



130 



TABLE OF THE VEKB 



99. 



255.— §99. I. TABLE OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 







INDICATIVE. 








SUBJUNCTIVE. 




Tense-root. Terminations 




T-root. 


Terminations. 






1. 


2. 


3. 




1. 2. 


3. 


Pres. 


S. 


τύπτ -ω, 


-eis, 


-et, 


τύπτ 


-». -??s, 


Ά» 




D. 
P. 




-€TOV, 


-eTov, 




-ητο^, 


-7JTOV, 




-ομεν, 


-ere, 


-ουσι. 




-ωμεν, -»}Τ6, 


-Wffi. 


Imp. 


S. 
D. 


e -τυπτ -ov, 


-es, 

-€TOV, 


-γ 

-4την, 










P. 


-ομεν, 


-€Te, 


-ov. 








Fut. 


S. 


τυψ -ω, 


-eis, 


-«, 


τι$ψ- 








D. 




-erou, 


-CTOV, 




Wanting. 






P. 


-ομεν, 


-€Te, 


-ουσι. 








1 Aor. 


S. 


e -τυψ -α, 


-OS, 


-6, 4 


τύψ 


-«, -77s, 


-??, 




D. 




-ατον, 


-ατην, 




-ητον, 


-ητον. 




P. 


-αμεν, 


-are, 


-αν. 




-ωμεν, -ητε, 


-ωσι. 


2 Aor. 


S. 


I-TU7T -ον, 


-es, 


-β, 4 


τνπ 


-co, -7?s, 


'V' 




D. 




-eTov, 


-ετην, 




-ητον, 


-ητον, 




P. 


-ομζν, 


-ere, 


-ov. 




-ωμζν, -ητ€, 


-ωσι. 


Perf. 


S. 


τ4-τυψ -α, 


-as, 


-6, 


τς-τνφ 


-ω,. -7?s, 


V 




JL>. 




-ατον, 


-ατον, 




-γτον, 


-ητον, 




P. 


-αμςν, 


-are, 


-ασι. 




-ωμ*ν, -ητ€, 


-ωσι. 


Plup. 


S. 
D. 


i-re -τνφ -etv, 


-eis, 
-eiTov, 


-€LT7)V, 










P. 


-et/xev, 


-ene, 


-eiffav. 








2 Perf. S. 


T6-TU7T -a, 


-as, 


-e, 


re -τιιπ 


-», -77S, 


~ν> 




D. 




-ατον, 


-ατον, 




-ητον, 


-ητον. 




P. 


-αμςν, 


-ατ6, 


-ασι. 




-ωμεν, -ητ€, 


-ωσι. 


2 Plup 


. S. 
D. 


i-Tc -τύπ -€IV, 


-eis, 
-enov, 


-ςίτην, 










P. 


-et/xej/, 


-etre, 


-ςισαν. 









§99. 



IN THE ACTIVE VOICE. 



131 



TABLE OF THE ACTIVE VOICE, CONTINUED. 



OPTATIVE. 

Terminations. 
1. 2. 3. 

-οιμι, -ois, 1 -οι 

-οιτον, -οίτην, 
-oiuev, -one, -oiev- 


IMPERATIVE. 

Terminations. 

2. 3. 

-e, -άτω, 
-€τον, -άτων, 
-ere, -άτωσαν?• 


IKF. 

Term. 
-eiv, z 


PARTICIPLES. 

Terminations. 
Μ. F. Ν. 

Ν. -ων, -ούσα, -ον, 
G. -ovtos, -ούση5, -ovtos, 
D. -οντι, -ούση, -οντι,&,Ο. 




• 






-οιμι, -ois, -οι, 

-οιτον, -οίτην, 
-οιμςν, -oiTe, -otev- 


Wanting. 


-CIV- 


Ν. -ων, -ούσα, ~ον, 
G. -ovtos, -οΰση5, -ovtos, 
D. -οντι, -ούση, -ΟϊΤί,&Ο. 


-αιμι, -ais, -ai, 

-αιτον, -αίτην, 
-αιμεν, -αιτε, -aiev. 


-ον, -άτω, 
•ατον, -άτων, 
-are, -άτωσαν. 


-αι. 


Ν. -as, -ασα, -αν, 
G. -avTos, -άση5, -avTos, 
D. -αντί, -άση, -αντι,&,Ο. 


-οιμι, -ois, -οι, 

-οιτον, -οίτην, 
-οιμςν, -one, -oiev- 


-e, -άτω, 
-€Τον, -άτων, 
-€Te, -άτωσαν. 


-€«/, 


Ν. -ών, -ονσα, -όν, 
G. -Ovtos, -ούση5, -ovtos, 
D. -όντι, -ούση, -οντι, &.C. 


•οιμι, -ais, -οι, 6 

-οιτον, -οίτην, 
-οιμ^ν, -οιτΐ, -oiev. 


-e, -άτω, 
-ςτον, -άτων, 
-ere, -άτωσαν. 


-άναι. 


Ν. -as, -νια, -6s, 
G. -otos, -vias, -6tos, 
D. -ότι, -via, -ότι, Sec 






-άναι. 




•οιμι, -ois, -οι, 

-οιτον, -οίτην, 
-οιμςν, -oits, -oiev. 


-€, -άτω, 
-(τον, -άτων, 
-6Τ€, -άτωσαν• 


Ν. -as, -via, -os, 
G. -otos, -vias, -Otos, 
D. -ότι, -via, -ότι. 











V 



132 



TABLE OF THE VEEB 



§99 



256. II. TABLE OF THE IV 

INDICATIVE. 

Tense-root. Terminations. 

1. 2. 3. 

Pres. S. τύπτ -ομαι, -ν, 8 -ere», 
D. -6μ&ον, -eff&ov, -efffrov, 
P. -όμς&α, -eofte, -ovrai. 


IIDDLE VOICE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

T-root. Terminations. 

1. 2. 3. 

τυτττ -ωμαι, -ν, 8 -νται, 
-ώμ&ον, -ησ&ον, -ησ&ον, 
-ώμ&α, -ησθβ, -ωνται. 


Imp. S. 
D. 
P. 


i -τυπτ -όμην, -ου, 8 -ςτο, 

-όμε&ον, -βσθον, -4σ&ην, 
-όμ&α, -ea&e, -οντο. 


• 


Fut. S. 
D. 
P. 


τύφ -ομαι, -η, 8 -ctcu, 
-6μ&ον, -εσθοι/, -evdov, 
-όμ&α, -ea&€, -ονται. 


τνφ- 


Wanting. 


1 Aor. S. 
D. 
P. 


i -τυφ -αμήν, -α;, 8 -ατο, 

-άμε&ον, -ασ&ον, -άσ&ην, 
-άμ&α, -ασφε, -αντο. 


τύφ 


-ωμαι, -ν, 8 -νται, 
-ώμ&ον, -ησ&ον,-νσ&ον, 
-ώμ&α, -ησθε, -ωνται. 


2Aor.S. 
D. 
P. 


i -τυπ -όμην, -ου, 8 -€το, 

-όμ&ον, -ea&ov, -4σ&ην, 
-όμς&α, -ςσ&β, -οντο. 


τνπ 


-ωμαι, -η, 8 -νται, 
-ώμ&ον, -ησ&ον, ~νσ&ον, 
-ώμ&α, -ησ&€, -ωνται. 


Perf. S. 
D. 
P. 


τ4-τυ -μμαι, -φαι, -πται, 10 
-μμβ&ον, -φ&ον, -φ&ον, 
-μμε&α, -φ&ε, -μμ4νοΐ€ΐσί. 
10(5) 


τ€-τυ -μμενος &, ys, 0, 11 

-μμ4νω , %τον,%τον, 

-μμ4νοι 2>μ*ν, ί}τ€, 2>ο~ι. 


Plup. S. i-re -τύ -μμην, -φο, -τττο, 
D. -μμ&ον, -φ&ον, -φ&ην, 
Ρ. -μμς&α, -φ&€, -μμίνοι ήσαν- 

10(5) 




P.P.F.S. 
D. 
Ρ. 


Γ€-τυψ -ομαι, -ν, -εται, 

-όμ&ον, -ςσ&ον,-ςσ&ον, 
-όμ&α, -eo&e, -ονται. 


Τ6-Τ1 


Wanting. 



99. 



IN THE MIDDLE VOICE. 



133 



TABLE OF THE MIDDLE VOICE, CONTINUED. 



OPTATIVE. 

Terminations. 

1. 2. 3. 

-οίμην, -οιο, 8 -οιτο, 
-οίμε&ον, -οισ&ον, -οίσ&ην, 
-οίμ&α, -ο<σθε, -οιντο. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Terminations. 

2. 3. 

-ου, 8 -ε'σ&ω, 
-εσθον, -4σ&ων, 
-εσθε, -έσ&ωσαν. 


IXF. 

Term 
-εσθ-αι. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Terminations. 

Μ. F. Ν. 

Ν. -όμςνος, -η, -ον, 
G. -ομάνου, -ης, -ου, 
D. -ομενψ, -ρ, -ω. 










-οίμην, 

-οίμς&ον, 

-οίμ&α, 


-οιο, 8 -οιτο, 
-οισ&ον, -οίσδην, 
-οισδε, -οιντο. 


Wanting. 


-εσθαί. 


Ν. -όμ^νος, -η, -ον, 
G. -ομ4νου > -ης, -ου, 
Ώ.-ομένφ, -η, -φ. 


-αίμην, 

-αίμε&ον, 

-αίμε&α, 


-cuo, 8 -αιτο, 
-αισ&ον,-αίσάην, 
-αίσθε, -αιντο. 


-αι, -άσ&ω, 
-ασ&ον, -άσωτων, 
-ασθε, -ίσιωσαν. 


-ασ&αι. 


Ν.-άμενο$, -η, -ον, 
G. -αμ4νου, -ης, -ου, 
Ώ.-αμενψ, -η, -ω. 


-οίμην, 

-οίμ&ον, 

-οίμ&α, 


-οιο,ζ -οιτο, 
-οισ&ον,-οίσ&ην, 
-οισ&β, -οιντο. 


-ου, 8 -ε'σθω, 
-εσθον, -ίσδων, 
-εσθ-ε, -ίσιωσαν. 


-ε'σθ-αι. 


Ν. -όμενος, -η, -ον, 
G.-OjUeVov. -ης, -ου, 
D. -ομ4νψ, -η, -ω. 


-μμίνος έίην, eiVjs, €Ϊη, η 

-μμένω , βϊητον, εϊήτην, 

-μμένοιέίημεν, εϊητε, έίησαν. 


-ψο, -φ&ω, 
-(pSrov, -φ&ων, 
-cp&e, -φ&ωσαν. 


-Φ&αι. 


~Ν.-μμ4νος,-η, -ον, 
G. -μμένου, -ης, -ου, 
Ό.-μμένφ, -η, -ω. 










-οίμην, 

-οίμ&ον, 

-οίμ&α, 


-οιο, 8 -οιτο, 
-οισ&ον, -οίσ&ην, 
-οίσθε, -οινι ο. 


"Wanting. 


-εσ-θαί. 


Ν. -όμςνος, -η, -ον, 
G. -ομίνου, -ης, -ου, 
Ό.-ομένφ } -η, -ω. 



TABLE OF THE VERB 



99 



257. III. TABLE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 



INDICATIVE. 

Tense-root. Terminations. 

1. 2. 3. 

Pres. S. τύτττ -ομαι, -η. 8 -erai, 
D. -όμ&ον,-Εσ&ον,-εσ&ον, 
P. -όμς&α, -εσ"θε, -ovrui. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

T-root. Terminations. 
1. 2. 3. 

τύττΓ-ωμαι, -rj, 8 -ηται, 
-ώμ&ον, -ησ&ον, -τησ&ον 
-ώμεθα, -ησ&€ -ωνται. 


Imp. S. ε-τιπττ -όμην, -ου, 8 -ero, 

D. -όμ6&ον,-*σ&ον,-4σ&ην, 
P. -ό^ε^α, -εσθε, -οντο. 




1 Fut. 8>.τυφ&ησ-ομαι, -ρ, 8 -εταί, 
D. -ο'μεθΌΓ,-εο-θΌΐ/,-εσθ-οΐ', 
Ρ. -όμβ&α, -εσ&ε, -ονταί. 


τνφ&ησ- 

Wanting. 


2 Fut. S. τυττ-ησ -ομαι, -rjP -εται, 
D. -ό'μ.εθ-οζ', -εσΦοϊ',-εσθΌϊ', 
Ρ. -όμεθα, -εσΦε, -ονται. 


Wanting. 


1 Aor. S. 4-τύφ&-ηι/, -ης, -η, 

D. -τντον, -•ϊγη\ν, 
Ρ. -ημεν, -ητε, -ήσαν. 


τυφ&-ω, -rjs, -i}, 

-ητον, -ητον, 
-ωμςν, -ητε, -ώ<τ:. 


2 Aor. S. Ι-τυΐΓ -τ?)/, -77S, -77, 

D. -TjTov, -ήτην, 
P. -ημ^ν, -ητε, -ήσαν. 


τυττ -ώ, -jjs, -?;, 

-ητον, -ητον, 
-ωμζν, -ητε, -ώσι. 


Perf. S. τε-τυ -μμαι, -ψαί, -ττταί, 10 

D. -μμ&ον, -φ&ον, -ώ&ον, 

Ρ. -μμεθα, -φθε, -μμ4νοΐ€Ϊσί. 
10(5) 


τξ-τυ-μμίνο5 2>, fs, 9, 11 
-μμ4νω — , ^τον, ^toz>, 
-μμενοι&μεν, ^τε, δσί. 


Plup. β.ε-τε-τύ-μμην, -ψο, -7ττο, 
D. -μμ&ον,-φ&ον, -φ&ην, 
Ρ. -μμ&α, -φ&ε, -μμένοι ήσαν- 
10(5) 




P.P.F- S. τε-τόψ -ομαι, -τ? , 8 -εταί, 
D. -όμ&ον,-ζσδον, -εσθ-ον, 
Ρ. -όμβ&α, -εσθ-ε, -ονταί. 


τε-τυψ- 

Wanting 



99. 



IX THE PASSIVE VOICE. 



135 



TABLE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE, CONTINUED. 



OPTATIVE. 

Terminations. 
1. 2. 3. 

-οίμην, -οιο? -οιτο, 
-οίμ&ον, -otcr&ov, -οίσ&ην, 
-οίμΐ&α, -οισ&ς, -υιντο. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Terminations. 
2. 3. 

-ου, -6σθα>, 
-*σ&ον,-4σί&ων, 
-εσθε, -4σ&ωσαν. 


JJNF. 

Term, 
-ςσ&αι. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Terminations. 
Μ F. Ν. 

Ν.-<ίμ6ίΌϊ, -η, -ον, 
G. -ομένου, -η$, -ου, 
D. -ομίνω, -η, -ω. 










-οίμην, -οιο? -οιτο, 
-οίμ&ον, -οισ&ον, -οίσ&ην, 
-οίμε&α, -οισ&€, -οιντο. 


Wanting. 


-εσθαί. 


N.-oVevos, 
G.-o/xeVou, 
D.-o/xeVo>, 


-77, -ov, 
-77s, -ου, 
-V, -ω. 


-οίμην, -οιο? -οιτο, 
-ο'ιμ&ον, -οισ&ον, -οίσ&ην, 
-οίμεδα, -οισ&β, -οιντο. 


Wanting. 


-εσθ-αί. 


N.-ojueiOS, 
G.-o^ueVou, 
D. -ομένφ, 


-η, -ov, 
-77s, -ου, 


-ζίην, -eiys, -en?, 

-ΐίτττον, -^ιήτην, 
-είημςν, -eir/re, -ζίησαν. 


-τγτι, --ητω, 
-ητον, -ητων, 
-τ?τε, --ητωσαν. 


-ηνα,ι. 


If.-efe, 

G.-eVros, 
D.-evTi, 


-e?o~a, -eV, 
•ζ'ισ-ης,-ίντος, 
■eiarj, -Ιντι. 


-είην, -είης, -ειη, 

-(ίητον, -ζι-ητην, 
-ζίημ^ν, -et'rjre, -ζ'ιησαν. 


-η&ι, --ητω, 
-ητον, -ητων, 
-ητε, -ητωσαν- 


-ηνα,ι. 


N.-ef», • 
G.-eWos, ■ 
D.-eVrt, • 


•*ΐσα, -iv, 
e'iaris,-evTos, 
eia~n, -evrt. 


-μμένος efyv, en/s, eftj, 11 

-μμζνω , βϊητον,ζΐ-ητην, 

-μμένοι έί•ημ€ΐ>,&τ\τε, ςϊησαν- 


-ψο, -φ&ω, 
-φ&ον, -φ&ων, 
-φ&ΐ, -φ&ωσαν- 


-φ&αι. 


Ν.-μμε'ϊΌϊ, 
G. -μμένου, 
Ό.-μμςνω, 


-77, -ov, 
-77s, -ou, 










-ο'ιμνν, -οιο, -οιτο, 
-οίμ&ον, Όΐσ&ο*, -ο'ισ&ην, 
-οί/ιεθο, -οίσθ€, -οιντο. 


Wanting. 


-εσθαί. 


Ν.-όμενοε, 
G.-o/zeVoy, 
D.-o^eV^, 


-η, -ov, 
-77s, -oy, 
-p, -p. 



136 



CONTEACT VERBS. 



§100. 





258..— § 100. CONTRACT VERBS.- 


—Active. 




Present. 


τψ- 




φιλ- 


δηλ- 




s. 


άο) -ω 


έω 


-ω 


00) 


-ω 






αεις -ας 


εεις 


-εις 


οεις 


-οις 






αει -α 


£έ£• 


-ει 


Oft 


-οι 




D. 












Ind. 




αετον -ατον 


εετον 


-ειτον 


OfTOf 


-ουτον 






αετον -ατον 


εετον 


-ειτον 


οετον 


-ουτον 




P. 


αομεν -ο)μεν 


εομεν 


-ουμεν 


OO^f^ 


-ουμεν 






αετέ -ατε 


εετε 


-είτε 


OfTf 


-ούτε 






αουσι -ωσν 


εουσι 


-ονσο 


οο υσι 


-ουσι 




S. 


αο) -ω 


εω 


-ω 


όω 


-ώ 




D. 


α/(\ς -ας 
άη\ -α 


inrfi 


-ψ 

"?3 




-οις 
-οΓ 


Subj. 




αητον -ατον 


εητον 


-ητον 


οητον 


-onov 






αητον -ατον 


εητον 


-ητον 


οητον 


-onov 




P. 


αο)μεν -ο>μεν 


εωμεν 






-οψεν 






αητε -ατε 


εητε 


-ητε 


οητε 


-one 






awo~o -ο)θ~ι 


εωβν 


-Ο)0~0 


οο)σι 


-ο)σι 




S. 


άοι^μΐ/ ■ -φ μι 


εοιμοι 


-οϊμν 


ΟΟίμι 


-οϊμν 






αοις -ως 


εοις 


-οις 


οοί•ς 


-οΐς' 






αοι -ω 


εον 


-οι 


001 


-οι 




D. 












Opt. 




αοιτον -onov 


to ντον 


-οιτον 


οοιτον 


-οΐτον 






αοιτην -ωτην 


εοιτην 


-οιτην 


οοιτην 


-οιτην 




Jt\ 


αοιμεν -ω μεν 


εοιμεν 


-ουμεν 


οοιμεν 


-οιμιν 






αοντε -ωτε 


εοιτε 


-οιτε 


οοιτε 


-οιτε 






«otci' -ωεν 


εοιεν 


-οιεν 


οοιεν 


-ObfV 




S. 


αε -α 


εε 


-ει 


οε 


-ου 






αετοί -ατω 


εετω 


-ειτο) 


οετω 


-οΐ'τω 


Imp. 


i>. 


αετον -ατον 


εετον 


-ειτον 


οετον 


-ουτον 




αετών -ατών 


εέτων 


-ειτων 


οετων 


-ουτο)ν 




Jf. 


αετέ -ατε 


εετε 


-είτε 


οετε 


-ούτε 






αέτο)σαν -άτωσαν 


εετωσαν -ειτωααν 


οετωβαν 


-ουτο)σαν 


Inf. 




άειν -αν 


εειν 


-εΐν 


οεΐ/ν 


-ουν 




M. 


άων -ων 


ίων 


-ων 


6ων 


-ων 


Part. 


h\ 


αουσα -ωαα 


έονσα 


-ούσα 


οουσα 


-ούσα 




N. 


αον -ων 


εον 


-ουν 


οον 


-ουν 



Imperf. 


ετψ- 


εφιλ- 


εδηλ- 




S. 


αον -ο)ν 


εον 


-ουν 


οον 


-ονν 






αες t -ας 


εες 


-εις 


οες 


-ους 






αε -α 


εε 


-ει 


οε 


-ου 




D. 












Ind. 




άετον -ατον 


εετον 


-εΐτον 


οετον 


-οΰτον 






αέτην -άτην 


εετην 


-ειτην 


οέτην 


-ουτην 




Κ 


άομεν -ώμεν 


εομεν 


-ουμεν 


οομεν 


-ουμεν 




αετέ -ατ« 


έεπ 


-είτε 


οετε 


-οντε 






αον -ων 


tov 


-ουν 


οον 


-ονν 



§100. 



CONTRACT VERBS. 



137 



CONTRACT VERBS.— Middle and Passive. 



τιμ- 


ψλ- 


δηλ- 


άομ cu 


-ώμαι 


ίομαι 


-or/tea 


όομΟΛ 


-οϊμαΛ 


°ifl 


-α 


V' 


'V 


°Ί1 


-οι 


CtfTCtl 


-α rat 


«τα» 


-ειται 


otrat, 


-οι<ται 


αόιιε&ο% 


-ώμε&ο> 


εόμε&ον 


-οΐμε&ον 


οόμε&ον 


-οναε&ον 


άεσ&ον 


-άσ&ον 


έεσ&ον 


-εΐσ&ον 


όεσ&ον 


-οΐσ&ον 


άεσ&ον 


-άσ&ον 


έεσ&ον 


-εϊσ&ον 


όεσ&ον 


-οΐσ&ον 


aouf&cu 


-ώιιε&α 


εόμε&α 


-οΐαε&α 


οόιιε&α 


-οΐμε&α. 


άεσ&ε 


-άσ&ε 


έεσ&ε 


-εΐσ&ε 


όεσ&ε 


-οΐσ&ε 


aovTcti 


-ιονται 


εονται 


-OVVTCU 


όονται 


-ουνται 


άιομαι 


-w»ca 


ίωμαΛ 


-ωιιαι 


οο)μαι 


-ωμαι 


?a 


-α 


fa 


"3 


°71 


-οι 


αηται 


-area 


εηται 
εώμε&ον 


-/;ται- 


οτ\χαι 


-oretxl• 


αώμε&ον 


-ώμε&ον 


•ώιιε&ον 


οώμε&ον 


-ώμε&ον 


άησ&ον 


-άσ&ον 


έησ&ον 


■ησ&ον 


όησ&ον 


-ωσ&ον 


άησ&ον 


-άσ&ον 


έησ&ον 


-ησ&ον 


όησ&ον 


-ωσ&ον 


αώιιε&α 


-ώμε&α 


εοΗ'.ε&α 


-οχιε&α, 


οώυ.ε&α, 


-ώιιε&α 


άησ&ε 


-άσ&ε 


έησ&ε 


-ησ&ε 


όησ&ε 


-ώσ&ε 


αωνται 


-ιονται 


εο)νται 


-οη•ται 


00>VTCU 


-ωνται 


αοίμην 


-ώμην 


εο'ιμην 


-olurv 


οοίμην 


-οίμην 


αοίΟ 


-too 


εοω 


-οιο 


OOLO 


-οιο 


αοιτο 


-ω το 


εοιτο 


-οιτο 


οοιτο 


-οιτο 


αοίκε&ον 


-ιόμε&ον 


εοϊαε&ον 


-οΊί'.ε&ον 


οοίμε&ον 


-οί^θθ^ον 


άοισ&ον 


-ωσ&ον 


έοισ&ον 


-οΐσ&ον 


όοισ&ον 


-οϊσ&ον 


αοΊσ&ην 


-ώσ&ην 


εο'ισ&ην 


-οίσ&ην 


οοίσ^ν 


-οίσ&ην 


αοίαε&α 


-ύίΐε&α 


εοΐμε&α 


-οΐκε&α 


οοίιιε&α 


-οίιιε&α 


άοισ&ε 


-οΐσ&ε 


έοισ&ε 


-οΐσ&ε 


όοισ&ε 


-οΐσ&ε 


αοιντο 


-ω ντο 


έοιντο 


-οιντο 


οοιντο 


-οι ντο 


άον 


-ώ 


έου 


-οΰ 


όον 


' -ου 


αέσ&ιο 


-άσ&ο) 


εέσ&ο) 


-είσ&ο) 


οίσ&ω 


-ονσ&ο) 


άεσ&ον 


-άσ&ον 


έεσ&ον 


-εΐσ&ον 


όεσ&ον 


-οΐσ&ον 


αΐσ&ων 


-άσ&ο)ν 


εέσ&οίν 


-είσ&ο)ν 


οε'σθ-ων 


-ονσ&ο)ν 


άεσ&ε 


-άσ&ε 


έεσ&ε 


-εΐσ&ε 


όεσ&ε 


-οΐσ&ε 


αέσ&ωσαν 


-άσ&ωσαν 


εέσ&ο)σαν 


-είσ&ωσαν 


οέσ&ίοσαν 


-οίσ&ο)σαν 


άεσ&αι 


-άσ&αι 


έεσ&αι 


-εΐ<τ&<χι 


όεσ&αι 


-οΐσ&αι 


αόμ ενός 


-ώμενος 


εομενος 


-ονμενος 


οομενος 


-ονμενος 


αομινη 


-ο) μένη 


ιομενη 


-0 ν μένη 


οομενη 


-ονμένη 


αομενον 


-ω μ ενόν 


εομενον 


-ονμενον 


οομενον 


-ονμενον 



ετιμ- 




8<τιλ- 


έδνλ- 


αόμην 


-υ') μη ν 


εόμην 


-οίμην 


οόμην 


οι μην 


αου 


-ω 


tov 


-ου 


OOV 


-ου 


αετό 


-ατο 


έετο 


-ίίΤΟ 


οετο 


-οντο 


αόιιε&ον 


-ώκε&ον 


ΐόκε&ον 


-ονμε&ον 


οόαε&ον 


-ονμε&ον 


άεσ&ον 


-άσ&ον 


έεσ&ον 


-εΐσ&ον 


όεσ&ον 


-οΐσ&ον 


αέσ&ην 


-άσ&>-ν 


εέσ&ην 


-ε'ισ&ην 


οίσ&ην 


-οίσ&ην 


αόμε&α 


-ώμε&α 


εόυε&α 


-ονμε&α 


οόκε&α 


-οίαε&α 


άεσ&ε 


-ασ&ε 


έεσ&ε 


-εΐσ&ε 


όεσ&ε 


-οΐσ&ί 


αοντα 


•ωντο 


ιοντο 


-οιντο 


οοντο 


-οιντο 



138 OBSEKVATIONS ON" § 101. 



§ 101. OBSERVATIONS ON THE THREE VOICES. 

259. — The following observations are designed to point out 
more particularly, certain changes in the terminations of these 
parts which frequently occur, and which, without explanation, 
might perplex and retard the student in his progress. Further 
information respecting these and other changes will be found in 
the table of dialects which follows. See 274. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
260. — OPTATIVE. 

1. In the optative mood, instead of the usual terminations -οιμι, 
-οις, -οι, &c. the Attic dialect has the following : 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

-οίην, -οίης, -οίη ; -οίητον, -οιήτην; -οιημεν, -οίητε, -οίησαν. 

This form is also used by Ionic and Doric writers. 
In the optative of the 1 aor. active, instead of the common 
termination -αιμι, -aig, -ai, &c. the ^Eolic has as follows: 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 

sia, -ειας, -ειε ; -είατον, -ειάτην ; -είαμεν, -είατε, -ειαν. 

The Attics, as well as the Ionians and Dorians, use this form 
in the 2d and 3d persons singular, and in the 3d person plural. 

261 . IMPERATIVE. 

2. In the 3d person plural of the imperative, in Attic writers, 
the termination όντων is more common than έζωσαν ; thus, in 
the present, τυπτόντων for τνπτε'τωσαν. For other varieties, see 
Table of Dialects, 2*74. This form is also met with in Doric 
writers. 

262 . — INFINITIVE. 

3. The infinitive, in the ancient dialects, ended in εμεναι. It 
was changed, in the Ionic, into εμεν ; and afterwards, the μ being 
rejected, was contracted by the Attics into ειν. 

263. IMPERFECT AND AORISTS. 

4. The '^Eolians and Dorians use a peculiar form of the im- 
perfect, and first and second aorists, which is made by adding the 
syllable κον, to the usual form of the 2d person singular, and then 
inflecting them like the imperfect ; thus, instead of εζνπτ-ον, -ες,. 



§ 101. THE THREE VOICES. 139 

-ε, &c ; it makes ετνπτεσχ-ον, -ες. -ε, &c. ; in the 1 aor. ετνχρασκ- 
oi', -ες, -ε, &&, and in the 2d aor. ηυπεσχ-οΐ', -ες, -ε, <fcc. Hence 
the same tenses in the middle voice, and the imperfect, in the 
passive, make ετυπτεσκ-όμψ, -ου, -ετο, 3d plural οντο. 

Obs. 1. But before the endings -χον, -κες, -κε, &c. in con- 
tracted verbs, diphthongs reject the subjunctive vowel, and in 
verbs in μι, the long vowels are changed into their own short ones ; 
as, 2 sing, εηοιεϊς, εποίεσκον ; ετί&ης, ετί&εσκον, &c. 

Obs. 2 . This form is used only in the indicative mood ; it usu- 
ally rejects the augment, and is scarcely to be found, except iit 
the singular number and 3d person plural. It is used only to ex- 
press repeated action. 

264. FUTURE, ACTIVE AND MIDDLE. 

The Future in the dialects has the following varieties . 

(1.) The Attics often reject σ from άσω, έσω, ίσω, όσω, con- 
tracting the remaining vowels when that can be done ; as, ελάσω, 
Ι ιυ ill drive, reject σ, ελάω, contracted ελώ ; so ελάσεις, iXcmgj 
contracted ελας, &c. In like manner we have καλώ for καλέσω 
I will call; οίκτιώ for οίκτίσω, I will pity ; and in the middle 
voice, ομονμαι for ό,μόσομαι. 

(2.) Attic Futures in ιώ are inflected like contract verbs in 
έω (251, or 258), thus, -ίώ, -ιεΐς, -ιεΐ; -ιεϊτον, &c. 

(3.) Σ is sometimes elided from the future active and middle 
of pure verbs, especially among the poets, even when σω is pre- 
ceded by a long vowel or diphthong ; as, present χέω, future χεύ- 
σω, or χεύω. 

(4.) For σω, the Doric termination is £ω; as, γελάξω for 
γελάσω. 

(δ.) Verbs in μω, νω, have the future Ionic in εω uncontract- 
ed (see 273-1); as, νεμέω for νεμώ ; μενεω for μενώ. 

(6.) Verbs in ρω, in Homer, commonly insert σ ; as, ορσω 
for ορώ, I will excite ; sometimes also verbs in λω ; as, ελσω 
from ελω ; κέλσω from κέλλω. 

(Υ.) The Attic and Ionic termination, particularly of liquid 
verbs, is often ήσω ; as, βαλλησω for βαλώ, I will cast; χαιρησω 
for χαρώ, I will rejoice. 

In mutes, τνπτήσω is used for τύψω, I will strike. 

265. PERFECT INDICATIVE. 

5. a. Some verbs suffer a syncope in the perfect; thus, 
καλέω I call καλί\σω κεκάληκα κεκληκα 

In like manner δεδεμηκα δε'δμηκα 

κεκάμηκα κε'κμηκα, <fec. 



140 OBSERVATIONS ON §101. 

b. Some perfects in ηκα, from verbs in άω, strike out κ before 
a, and (except in the participles) change η into a ; thus, 

from βάω βεβηκα βεβαα 

from τλάω τετληκα τέτλαα, &c. 

c. Of the vowels thus brought together, the latter is sometimes 
rejected ; as, 

βεβηκαμεν βεβααμεν by syncope βεβαμεν 

τετληκεναι τετλάεναι by syncope τετλαναι 

In other verbs, the Attics sometimes change ε into ο ; thus, 

τρέπω I turn τρέψω τετροφα 

d. A similar change has taken place in the Ionic-Doric λε- 
λογχα, from (ληχω), λάγχω (λαγχάνω), analogous to ληβω, λάμβω, 
λαμβάνω. Thus also πετζοσχε is found for τζεπασχε. 

266. PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE, &C. 

6. The subjunctive and optative of the perfect are sometimes 
made by a periphrasis of the perfect participle and the verb ειμί, 
I am ; thus, subjunctive τετνφώς ω, ης, \ ; τετνφότε ητον, &α; 
optative τετνΓρώς εϊψ, εΐης, ειη. And sometimes the indicative ; 
as, τετνφώς εσομαι, I shall have struck. 

267. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

*7. The participles sometimes change η into a, and sometimes 
not. 

In either case, by a syncope of the former vowel, ηώς and αώς 
are changed into ώς, which remains also in the neuter ; and the 
feminine, which otherwise ends in via, becomes ώσα, and, in the 
oblique cases of the masculine and neuter, ω is retained ; thus, 



Uncontracted. 




Contracted. 






βεβηκώς βεβα-ώς -νια 


-ός 


βεβ-ώς -ώϋα -ώς 


G. 


-ώτος 


τε&νηκως τε&νη-ως -νια 


-ός 


τε&ν-ώς -ώσα -ώς 




-ώτος 


εστηκώς εστη-ώς -νια 


-ός 


' < 






or, 




τ εστ-ώς -ώσα -ως 




-ώτος 


εστακώς εστα-ώς -νια 


-ός 


; 







a. The Ionics and Attics insert δ before ως ; thus, εστ-εώς, 
-εώσα, -εώς, G. -εώτος. But in the poets, the ordinary termina- 
tions frequently remain after the contraction; as, εστε-οίς, -νια, 
-ός, G. εστε-ότος, &c. 

b. The perfects in which these changes most frequently occur 
are τετληκα, τε&νηκα, βεβηκα, εστηκα ; and in these the regular 



§ 101. THE THREE VOICES. 141 

form is more common in the singular, and the contracted form, 
in the dual and plural. 

MIDDLE AN T D PASSIVE. 
268. — 2d person singular. 

8. The 2d person singular of the present indicative originally 
ended in εσαι. Id the Ionic dialect, the σ being rejected, it be- 
came ecu, by diaeresis εαϊ, and was afterwards contracted into χι 
(116, R. III.) ; sometimes by the Attics into ει ; and in the same 
manner, in other moods and tenses. In the subjunctive ησαι be- 
came ψα, and then tj. In the imperative, the indicative imperfect, 
and 2 Aorist, εσο became εο, contracted ov ; and in the 1 aorist 
middle ασο became ao, contracted ω. In like manner, ία the 2d 
person singular of the optative, οισο became oio, aud, being inca- 
pable of further chauge by contraction, remains in this form. 

269 — imperative, 3d person plural. 

9. In the 3d person plural of the imperative, the Ionic, Doric, 
and especially the Attic writers, use the termination ων instead 
of ωσάν ; thus, τυπτεσ&ων for τνπτέσϋωσαν. See Table of Dia- 
lects, 274. 

270. — perfect and pluperfect passive. 

10. The terminations of the perfect and pluperfect passive, 
cannot be correctly represented in any paradigm of a mute verb, 
because the termination, combining with the final mute of the 
root, undergoes various changes, according to the laws of eu- 
phony (§ 6), which causes an apparent, but not a real variety in 
the terminations of these tenses. For the terminations alone, see 
231. 

(1.) The terminations preceded by a fir-mute, as in the para- 
digm, according to the laws which regulate the combination of 
consonants, combine with it as there exhibited ; viz. 

S. τετνμμαι, 45-9 ζετνψαι, 44-6 ζετντιζαι 

Ό.τετνμμε&ον " τε'τνφ&ον ζετνφ&ον, 43-2, 47-17 

Ρ. ζεζύμμε&α " ζε'τυφ&ε ζεζνμμενοι είσί 

(2.) Preceded by a κ -mute, they combine as follows: 

S. λελεγμαι λελεξαι, 44-7 λελεχται, 43-2 

D. λελεγμεΰ-ον Ιελεχ&ον λελεχ&ον, 43-2, 47-17 

Ρ. λελέγμε&α λέλεχ&ε λελεγμενοι είσί 

(3.) Α τ -mute before a consonant in the passive voice, is 
1* 



142 OBSERVATIONS ON § 101. 

changed into σ, and combines with the terminations of the per- 
fect and pluperfect without change, except where the termination 
begins with σ, in which case the r-mute before it is rejected 
(47, 17. Obs. 9) ; thus, πεί&ω for example in the perfect indica- 
tive passive is inflected as follows : 

S. πεπεισμαι, 46—11 πεπεισαι, 44-8 πεπεισται 

D. πεπείσμεΰ-ον πεπεισ&ον πέπεισ&ον, 44-8 

Ρ. πεπεισμένα πέπεισ&ε πεπεισμένοι είσί 

(4.) Liquid verbs whose characteristic is λ or ρ, in the perfect 
passive, add the terminations to the root without change, except 
that those beginning with β&, drop the σ (47-17). Those whose 
characteristic is μ insert η before the terminations (§ 97, 3, Exc). 
Of those whose characteristic is ν dissyllables in βίνω, ίνω, ννω 
reject ν (244-4), and then annex the terminations without change. 
But when ν is retained it is changed sometimes into μ — more 
commonly into σ before the terminations beginning with μ, and 
is rejected before those beginning with cd: Before the other ter- 
minations it remains unchanged ; thus, φαίνω in the perfect indi- 
cative passive is inflected as follows : 
S. πεφαμμαι, or πέφασμαι πεφανσαι πεφανται 

Ό. πεφάμμεΰον πεφάσμε&ον πέφασ&ον πε'φασ&ον 
Ρ. πεψάμμε&α, πεφάσμε&α πέφασ&ε περασμένοι είσι 

Note. Before the terminations beginning with σ&, ν sometimes re- 
mains, and σ is rejected ; as, πέφαν&ον πέφανϋ -a <fec. for πέφασθον, πέ- 
φασ&ί, <fcc. 

(5.) In all mute and liquid verbs, except some dissyllables in 
είνω, ίνω, ννω (244-4), as the terminations νται in the third per- 
son plural of the perfect, and ντο of the pluperfect, cannot coa- 
lesce with the root, the circumlocution of the perfect participle 
with είσί and ήσαν, are substituted ; thus, τετνμμενοι (αϊ) είαί for 
τέτνπνται ; ηγγελμενοι (αή είσί, for ηγγελνται. — But in pure verbs, 
this circumlocution is unnecessary, as the terminations νται and 
ντο readily unite with the characteristic vowel of the root preced- 
ing ; as, τετίμψται, from τιμάω ; επεφίλψτο from φιλε'ω. To 
these are to be added those liquid verbs which drop ν before the 
terminations of the perfect ; as, τετανται from τείνω ; κε'κρινται 
from κρίνω, &c. (244-4). 

271. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE OF PERFECT PASSIVE. 

11. The subjunctive and optative being distinguished from the 
indicative only by the mood-vowels, and there being no mood- 
vowels in the termination of the perfect passive, it is necessary, 



§ 101. THE THREE VOICES. 143 

for the sake of distinction, to adopt the circumlocution of the 
perfect participle with the subjunctive and optative of ειμί, as in 
the table of terminations 231, or in the paradigm of the verb 25*7. 

But if the termination in the perfect and pluperfect passive is 
preceded by a vowel, the circumlocution in the subjunctive and 
optative moods, as exhibited in the paradigm, becomes unneces- 
sary ; and these moods are formed as in observations 3 and 4, 
following. 

Obs. 3. In the Subjunctive, the vowel preceding the termina- 
tion is dropped, and the terminations of the present subjunctive 
annexed ; thus, perfect πεφίλη-μαι, subjunctive ττεφίλωμαι, -y, 
ηται, &c; perfect κεκριμαι', subjunctive κεκρ-ωμαι, -tj, -ηται" 

Exc. But verbs in όω, frequently retain ω, as a mood-vowel, 
through all the numbers and persons ; as, δεδηλώμαι, -φ, -ώταί, 
&c. 

Obs. 4. The Optative adds the terminations μην, ο (viz. from 
σο), το, to the characteristic of the tense, with ι interposed after a, 
and subscribed with η or ω ; thus, 

κεκρί-μην κεκρι-ο κεκρι-το, &c. 

λελν-μην λελν-ο λελν-το, &c. 

εκταί-μην εκται-ο εκται-το, &c. 

πεψλψμψ πεφίλψο πεφίίψτο, &α 

δεδηλοό-μην δεδηλφ-ο δεδηλφ-το, &c. 

In a few instances, the subjunctive ωμαι is made ώμην in the 
optative, and the ω retained throughout ; thus, μεμνημαι has the 
subjunctive με'μνωμαι, and the optative μεμνώμψ, μέμνωο, μέ- 
μνωτο, &c. 

Note. Both in the subjunctive and optative, however, these forms 
are but seldom used, the circumlocution being generally preferred. 

272. IONIC AND DORIC FORMS. 

12. In the Ionic and Doric dialects, ν before -ται and -to, in 
terminations of these tenses in the 3d person plural, is changed 
into a, so that νται becomes αται ; and ντο, ατο ; thus, λελννται 
becomes λελναται ; λελυντο, λελνατο, &c. 

Obs. 5. A 77-mute or a κ -mute before αται and ατο, for νται 
and ντο, is changed into its own aspirate ; as, τετνφ-αται, λελεχ- 
αται, for τετνπ-νται, λελεγ-νται, <fec. 

Obs. 6. As the circumlocution τετνμμενοι εισί is used to avoid 
the cacophony of the regular termination, τετνφνται (10. (5) 
above), this being removed by the change of ν into a, the circum- 
locution in the indicative, of all such verbs, becomes unnecessary. 



144 DIALECTS OF VEKBS IN ω AND μι. § 102. 

Thus, τετνμμενοι είσί, is changed into τετνφαται ; λελεγμενοι είσί, 
into λελεχαται, &c. 

Obs. 7. If a (changed from a τ -mute, 235, R. 2,) precedes the 
termination, it is changed into δ or & before αται and ατο ; thus, 
σκευάζω, perfect passive εσκενασμαι ; 3d person plural Ionic 
εσκενάδαται ; πλή&ω, perfect passive πεπλησμαι, 3d person plu- 
ral τζεπλή&αται for πεπλησμένοι είσί. 

Obs. 8. In pure verbs, η or ει before μαι is usually changed 
into ε before the Ionic αται and ατο ; thus, πεφίλ-ψται and -ψτο 
are usually changed into τζεφιλ-εαται and -εατο. In like manner, 
a before αται and ατο is changed into «, to avoid the duplication 
of the a ; thus, άναπέτανται, from ά^αίΤδτάω, becomes αναπετε- 
αται. 

Obs. 9. In like manner, ν before the termination το, seldom 
before ται, in the indicative and optative of the other tenses, but 
never in the subjunctive, is changed into a ; thus, for τνπτοιντο 
we have τυπτοίατο ; for γένοιντο, γενοίατο, &c. So also in verbs 
in μι', as, τι&εαται for τί&ενται ; ιστεαται for ϊστανται. In these 
forms, a and ο before i> are usually changed into ε ; as, εβονλεατο 
for εβονλοντο, &c. 



273.— §102. DIALECTS OF VERBS IN ω and μι. 

1. A principal difficulty in learning Greek, arises from the va- 
riety of terminations in verbs, according to the different dialects. 
These can hardly be reduced to any general principles ; but a 
pretty clear idea of them may be formed from the following table. 
It must be observed, however, that many of the same terminations 
occur in all the dialects, although that one only is mentioned in 
which they are most usual. Besides the final syllables, of which 
this table chiefly consists, the Ionians used to insert a vowel be- 
fore the last syllable, which the poets often changed into a diph- 
thong; as, Subj. 2 aor. active or passive τντιώ, Ι. τυπέω, P. r• - 
πείω. So φνγ-εΐν, Ι. φνγ-ε'ειν ; βό-ωσι, Ι. βο-όωσι ; ορ -ag, Ι. ό - 
άας. But as this does not aifect the inflection of the final syll - 
ble, it is not noticed in the table. § 98, Obs. 4. 

2. These moods and tenses of the middle and the passr 
voice, which agree in termination with the active, and are η 
here specified, are subject to similar changes, in the different di: 
lects, with those having the same terminations in the active voice, 
The same is true respecting the terminations of verbs in μι ; so 



§ 102. DIALECTS OF VERBS IN ω AND μι. 145 

that this table is general, applying to the terminations here spe- 
cified, whether they belong to verbs in ω or μι. The dual is 
omitted in the table, as it but seldom occurs. For other changes 
by dialect, see § 101 throughout. 

Λ Table exhibiting the most usual Dialects of the terminations 
of Greek Verbs. 

274.— I. ACTIVE VOICE. 

FINITE MOODS. 

SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. -ημι, Μ. -εμμι ; Ό. -ειμί and (if from άω) -αμι ; 

as, τ'ι$-εμμι for -ημι ; ϊστ-αμι for ϊατ-ημι. 
-ειν, Ι. -εα, D. Α. -η ; as, εκεχήν-η for -ειν. 

-οΐμι, Α. -οίην, ΐ>. -φην ; as, φιλ-οίην for -οΐμι. 

-φμι, Α. -φην ; as, τιμ-φην for -φμι. 

-οίην, Α. -φην ; as, διδ-φην for διδ-οίην ; and so 

on through all the persons. 

2 Pers. -εί?, D. -ες, Μ. -ης ; as, άμελγ-ες for -ει?. 

-α?, -ί /ff, Α. -ασ&α, -ησ&α ; as, εφ-ησ&α for -??? ; ο$- 

ασ&α, contr. οΊσ&α, for οίδα?. 
-at?, ^ίΕ. Α. -ε/α? ; as, τύψ-ειας for -at? 

-a?, A. D. -ης ; as, ψοιτ-ης for -α?. 

3 Pers. -ει, Ι Ρ? 8 ' ?• "* f^ ^ ' as ' !**?* fo /" €i - 

( plup. Α. -77, Ι. -εε ; as, ετετνφ-η for -εί. 

-αι, Μ. Α. -ειε ; as, τν-φ-ειε for -at. 

-q, Ι. -τ^σί ; as, τνπτ-ησι for -77. 

-a, -a, D. -jj, -J ; as, 6ρ-η for -«!•. 

-σί, D. -τι ; as, τίϋη-τι for -σί. 

PLURAL. 

1 Pers. -μεν, D. -με? ; as, τνπτο-μες for -με? ; tvxp-ov- 

μες or -είμε? for -ομεί' ; φιλ-ενμες for 
-ονμεν ; δηλ-ονμες for -ονμεν. 
-ημεν, Α. -μεΐ' ; as, τνφ&ει-μεν for τνφ&εί-ημεν. 

2 Pers. -ί^ε, Α. -τε ; as, τίκρ&ει-τε for τνφ&εί-ητε. 

3 Pers. -σι, D. -m ; as, φδηκ-αντι for -ασι ; εχ-ωντι 

for -ωσί ; λε^-ο^τί for λεγ-ονσι ; τελει^ί 
for -ονσί; φιλ-ονντι for -owrt; τίϋ-εντι 
or -jym for -είσί ; OV^-awr* for -ονσ*. 



146 DIALECTS OF VEKBS IN ω AND μι. §102. 

3 Pers. -σι, B. into ν ; as, τετνφ-αν for -ασι. 

-άσι, -νσι, -εϊσι, Ι. -εασι, -νασι, -εασι ; as, δεικν-νασι for 

-νσι ; τι&-έασι for -«σί. 
-ονσί, Γ. -δνσί ; -όασι, D. -οΓου, ; as, διδ-όασι for 

-ονσί ; φιλέ-οισι for -ot> σ(. 
-ο?>, Β. -οσαν ; as, εσχάζ-οσαν for -ο?. 

-εσαν, -ήσαν, -οσαν, -ωσάν, P. -w, -αί>, -or, -aw ; as, τί&- 

εν for -εσαν ; έ'5-ο^ for -οσαί' ; εγν-ων 

for -ωσάν. 
-εισαν* Α. Ι. -fierce ; as, είληφ-εσαν for -εισαν. 

-ήκαοι, -άκασι, Μ. Α. -ασί ; as, τε&ν-άσι for -ηκασι. 
-αιεν, JE. Α. -«tew ; as, τν\ρ-ειαν for -ats^. 

1. 2. 3. 3. 3. 

-άτωσαν, -ετωσαν, -είτωσαν, -ότωσαν, -οντωσαν, Α. 

into 

1. 2. 3. 

-άντων, -όντων, -ονντων; as, τν\ρ-άντων 
for -at ωσάν ; λί^-ό^τω^ for -ετωσαν ; 
λνπ-ονντων for -είτωσαν. 



■αον, 


contr. 


■εον, 


contr. 


■ειν, 


-εναι, 


•αι, 




■αν, 


# 



V JJ. 1. -£w ; as, ήγαΛ-ευν tor -aw. 



INFINITIVE. 



Ι. -εμεν, A. D. -εμεναι, -ενν, Μ. -εν, -ψ', 

as, ελ&-ε'μεναι for -ety ; άμελγ-εν for -«w ; 

τί$-εμεν and -εμεναι for -spch. 
Α. D. -εμεναι ; as, τνψ-εμεναι for -c«. 
Α. D. -άμεναι, -ψ, Μ. -ψ, -ης, -αις ; as, 

ζξν for £α*>. (§98. Obs. 2.) 
-οίί', Α. D. -όμεναι, Ε. -«w, -aw, JE. -οΐς, -οϊν ; 

as, ριγ-ών for -ow. 

PARTICIPLES. 

-οίσα, D. -οΐσα, -ενσα ; as, £ατ-«ΐ>σ« for ζψ-ονσα. 

-ας, -ασα, -αν, D. -αις, -αΐύα, -αιν ; as, ρίχρ-αις for -<*ff, 

&α 
-ηκ-ως, ) -νια, -ός, Α. -ως, -ώσα, -ως ; as, εστ-ώς for 
-cw-wt,•, f -ηκώς, § 101. Τ. Ι. -£α>£. 

-ω?, Μ. -ων ; as, τετνφ-ων, G. -ον^ος, for -α>£, 

-oros'. 



§103. 



SECOND CONJUGATION". 



Ul 



II. MIDDLE AND PASSIVE 
FINITE MOODS. 

SINGULAR. 

1 Pers. -Ofiaif f. D. -ονμαι ; as, τνχρ-ονμαι for -ομαι. 

-ονμαι, D. -ενμαι ; as, μαΰ•-ενμαι for -ονμαι. 

-μην, D. -μαν ; as, ετνπτό-μαν for -μ/ρ. 

2 Pers. -r d , A. -««, I. indie, -εαι, subj. -jyat ; as, βούλ-ει 

for -5, &c. 
-ov, I. -εο, D. -ει» ; as, μάχ-ευ for -ot/. 

-ω, I. -ao : as, ελνσ-αο for -ω. 



1 Pers. -c#a, D. -εσ&α ; as, ίκόμ-εσ&α for -εθ*α. 

3 Pers. -νταί, -ενοι είσί, I. -area or -έαται ; as, κέαται for κείνται ; 

είρν-αται for -vzat ; λελέχ-αται for -J7*«- 

*Όί «W, (§101. 12.) 
-rro, -£ίΌί //σαν, Ι. -ατο or -«ατο ; as, πεν&οί-ατο for 

-οιντο ; εγεν-εατο for -ο^το ; « σταλ-ατο 

for -μ«>θί ϊ/σαν, (§101. 12.) 
-ήσαν, JUL -εν] as, δννη&εϊ-εν for -ί^σαν ; ετυφ&-εν 

for -ί^σα^. 
-ωσάν, Α. I. D. -ων; as, ?•.β£άσ#-ων for -ωσάν. 



-i^CM, 



-ονμενος, 



INFINITIVE. 

D. -ημεναι, Μ. -ημεν ; as, λειφ&-ημεν for 



PARTICIPLES. 



D. ./Ε. -ενμενος ; as, φιλ-ευμενος for -Ον- 



§103. SECOND CONJUGATION. 

2 Υ 5. — Verbs of the second conjugation end in 
μ^ and are formed from pure verbs of the first, 
as follows : 

1. ω is changed into μι, and the short vowel 



li.8 SECOND CONJUGATION. ^ § 103. 

before it is clianged into its own long, or tlie 
doubtful vowel lengthened ; thus, 

From ϋβεω is formed ϋβημι I extinguish 

γνόω γνώμι I know 

φάω φημί I say 

» κλνω κλνμι I hear 

2. Regular verbs in άω, εω, όω, reduplicate the 
initial consonant with ι in the present and imper- 
fect; thus, 

From δεω is formed δί-δημι I bind 

■&εω τί-β-ημι I place 

δόω δίδωμι I give 

But πλέω makes πίμπλημι I fill, 47-19 

3. Verbs beginning with a vowel, prefix ι, 
which is called the improper reduplication ; thus, 

From εω is formed ΐ-ημι I go 
εω ϊ-ημι I send 

Obs. 1. Also verbs beginning with at or πχ prefix ι with the 
aspirate; thus, 

From ΰτάω is formed ϊ-στημι 
τζτάω ϊ-πτημι 

4. The reduplication is not used in verbs in νμι, 
nor in those whose radical primitive has more 
than two syllables ; thus, 

From κλνω comes κλνμι I hear 

ισάω ϊσημι I know 

ονεω ονημι I assert 

Likewise some other verbs ; as. 

φάω φημί I say, &c. (No. 1.) 

Obs. 2. Some verbs which begin with a vowel repeat the first 
syllable, after the manner of the Attic reduplication (224-6) ; 
thus, άλημι and άλάλημι ; αχημι and άκάχημι. 

Obs. 3. Some pure verbs add vvv to the root before μι, and 
some mute and liquid verbs add vv in order to pass into μι ; as, 

σκεδάω R. σκεδα ακεδά-ννν-μι 

δείκω δεικ δείκ-νν-μι 

αρω άρ ΛΡ-ΝΤ-ΜΙ, άρ-νυ-μαι 



§ 104, 105. φ THE TERMINATION. 149 

5. Verbs in μι have only three tenses of that 
form ; viz. the JPr&sent, the Imperfect, and the 2 
Aorist The other tenses are taken from the 
primitive in ω, and are of the first conjugation, 
296. Verbs in υ μι want the second aorist, and 
also the subjunctive and optative. When those 
moods are needed, they are borrowed from forms 
of the first conjugation in ν ω. 

Obs. 4. Several verbs form only the 2d aorist according to this 
conjugation, 216, Obs. 1; in such cases, verbs in νω have the 
2d aorist in w ; as, 

βαίνω from βάω Root βα 2d aor. ψην 

γιγνώσχω γνόω yvo εγνων 

δύω δν εδνν 

Obs. 5. Many verbs of this conjugation are deponent, having 
only the passive form, while their signification is active ; such are 
δνναμαι, I can ; χεΐμαι, I lie ; δίζημαι, I seek ; οϊομαι, I think. 



276.— §104. THE ROOT AND AUGMENT. 

1. The Root of verbs in μι has but one form, and is the same 
with the first root of the verb from which it is derived ; thus, 
ϊστημι from στάω, R. στα ; τί&ημι from. #£ω, R. #ε, &c. 

2. In Verbs that reduplicate (275-2), the reduplication is pre- 
fixed to the root in the present and imperfect only. 

3. The imperfect and 2d aorist are augmented in the same 
manner as in verbs of the first conjugation. 



211.— § 105. THE TERMINATION, OR FINAL LETTERS. 

1. In the first conjugation, the terminations consist of two 
parts, the mood-vowels, and final letters, 225-2. In the second, 
the mood-vowels are wanting, and their place supplied by the 
last letter of the root, which sufficiently distinguishes the moods 
by the changes which it undergoes in combining with the final 
letters. 



150 



FOKMATION OF MOODS AND 



tens: 



ES. 



§106. 



2. The Final letters in all verbs belonging to this conjugation, 
are the same. They are divided into two classes, Primary and 
Secondary. The primary belong to the present indicative only ; 
the secondary to the indicative of the imperfect and 2 aorist, and 
to the optative in all the tenses. They are joined immediately 
to the root, and, so far as they can be separated from it, are as 
follows : 

278. — I. ACTIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Dual. 
Plur. 



Primary Tenses. 
-μι -ς -σι 



-μεν 



-τον 
-τε 



-τον 
-ντσι 



-μεν 



Secondary Tenses. 

-ς 

-τον 

-re 



-την 
-σαν 



Sing. 
Dual. 
Plur. 



Imperative. 

— -&ι -τω 

— -τον -των 

— -τε -τωσαν 



Ν. 



Infinitive. 
-ναι 
Participles. 
-ντς -ντσα -ν G. -ντος, &α 



279. — II. MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICES. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Secondary Tenses. 
μην 



Primary Tenses. 
Sing, -μαι -σαι -ται 
Dual, -με&ον -σ&ον -σ'&ον 
Plur. -με&α -σ&ε -νται 



-με&ον 
-μεΰ-α 



-σο 

-σ^ον 

-σ&ε 



-το 

-σ&ην 

-ντο 



Imperative. 

Sing. -σο -σ&ω 

Dual. -σ&ον -σ&ων 

Plur. -σ&ε -σ&ωσαν 



Infinitive. 
-σ&αι 
Participles. 
Ν. -μένος -μένη -μενον 



§ 106. FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES IN THE 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

280. — In the present and imperfect, through 
all the moods, prefix the reduplication, in verbs 
that reduplicate, and then — 



§ 106. FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES» 151 

1. For the Indicative. 

281. — Rule. Change the short vowel of the root 
into its own long (237) in the singular of the 
present and imperfect, and in all the numbers of 
the 2 aorist, and then add the final letters, 277-2 ; 
thus, 

PEESENT. IMPERFECT. 2d AORIST. 

ΐστη-ν -ς — εστη-ν -ς — 
ϊστα — -τον -την εστη — -τον -την 
ϊστα-μεν -τε -σαν εστη-μεν -τδ -σαν 

Exc. 1. In the 2 aorist, τί&ημι, δίδωμι, and ϊημι, have the long 
yowel in the singular only. 



S. ιστη-μι -ς -σι 
D. ϊστα — -τον -τον 
Ρ. ϊστα-μεν -τε -σι 



2. For the Subjunctive. 

282. — Rule. Change the final vowel of the 
root into the subjunctive terminations, ώ, fjg, rj, 
&c, 229 ; thus, 

ΐστημι, R. στα- Subj. Pres. tVr-co, -rjg, -rj; -ητον, -ητον, &c. 
2 Aor. στ-ώ, -ης, -rj; -ητον, -ητον, &c. 

Obs< These terminations, in the subjunctive, combine with the reg- 
ular subjunctive terminations (229) the final vowel of the root, forming 
a sort of mixed vowel or diphthong, and consequently they always 
have the circumflex accent, as here. 

Exc. 2. But verbs in ω μι retain ω through all the persons and 
numbers; as, 

δίδωμι from δόω, R. δο, Subj. Pres. διδ-ώ, -φς, -φ ; -ώτον, &c. 

2 Aor. δ-ώ, -φ ς, -φ ; -ώτον, &c, 

3. For the Optative. 

283. — Rule. Change the final vowel of the 
root into its own diphthong, and add the second- 
ary final letters with η prefixed ; thus, 

Pres. ισταί-ην -ης -η, &c. τΦεί-ην -ης -η, &c. διδοί-ην, &α 
2 Aor. σταί-ην -ης -η, &c. &εί-ην -ης -η, &c. δοί-ην, &Q. 



152 FOEMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES. §107. 

4. For the Imperative. 

284. — Kule. In the present tense, add the final 
letters to the root ; but in the 2 aorist, change the 
short vowel into its own long ; thus, 

Present, ϊστα-&ι, -τω, -τον, -των, -τε, -τωσαν. 
2 Aorist, στη -&ι, -τω, -τον, &α 

Epc. 3. In the 2 aorist, τί&ημι, δίδω μι,• mid ΐημι, retain the 
short vowel, and add ς instead of &i in the 2d person singular ; as, 
Όε-ς, -τω ; -τον, -των, &c. ; δό-ς, -τω ; -τον, -των, &c. So also 
σπημι, φρημι, and σχημι, in the present, have στιες, φρες, σχες. 

5. For the Infinitive. 

285. — Rule. In the present tense, add the final 
letters to the root, and in the 2 aorist, change the 
short vowel into its own long ; thus, 
Present, Ιστά-ναι, 2 aor. στη-ναι. 

Exc. 4. In the 2 aorist, τί&τιμι and ΐημι change the short 
vowel of the root into ει, and δίδωμι changes it into ου ; as, 
&εϊ-ναι ει-ναι δοΰ-ναι 

β. For the Participles. 

286. — Rule. Add the final letters to the root, 
and then combine by the rules of euphony, § 6, 
18 : thus. 



ιστά-ντς, 


-ντσα, 


-ν, 


combined 


ιστ-άς, 


-ασα, 


-άν. 


τι&έ^τς, 


-ντσα, 


-ν> 




τιϋ•-είς, 


-εΐσα, 


-εν. 


διδό-ντς, 


-ντσα, 


-ν, 




διδ-ονς, 


-ονσα, 


-όν. 


δεικνν-ντς, 


-ντσα, 


-ν, 




δεικν-νς, 


-νσα, 


-νν. 



§107. FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES IN THE 
MIDDLE AND THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

287. — Prefix the reduplication in the present 
and imperfect in verbs that reduplicate (275-2), as 
in the active voice ; and then, in all the tenses, — • 



§107. FORMATION OF MOODS AND TENSES. 153 

1. For the Indicative, Imperative, Infinitive, and 
Participles. 

288. — Kule. Annex the final letters (2 Υ 9) to 
the root ; as, 

Indicative, ίστα-μαι, -σαι, -ται, &c. Imp. ιστά-μην, -σο, -το, arc. 

Imperative, ιστά-σο, -σ&ω, -σ&ον, -σ&ων, &c. 

Infinitive, ιστα-σ&αι. 

Participles, ιστάμενος, -μένη, -μενον. 

2. For the Subjunctive. 

289. — Kule. Change the last letter of the root 
into the subjunctive terminations, ώμαι, f h ήται, 
Ac, 230, and 282, Obs. ; as, 

ΐστημι, R. στα- Subj. Pres. ιστ-ώμαι, -ij, -ηται, &c. 

2 Aor. στ-ώμαι, -rj, -ηται, &c. 

Exc. Verbs in ωμι retain ω through all the numbers and per- 
sons, as in the active voice, 282, Exc. 2 ; as, 

δίδω μι, R. δο- Subj. Pres. διδ-ώμαι, -φ, -ώται, &c. 

2 Aor. δ-ώμαι, -φ, -ώται, &c. 

3. For the Optative. 

290. — Rule. Change the last letter of the root 
into its own diphthong, and add the secondary 
final letters ; as, 

Ϊστημι, R. στα- Opt. Pres. ίσταί-μην, -σο, -το, &c. 

2 Aor. σταί-μην, -σο, -το, &c. 

Obs. Σ is usually rejected in the 2d person singular ; mak- 
ing— 

ίσταί-μην, -ο, -to, &e. σταί-μην, -ο, -το, &c, 295-8. 

291. — Ν. Β. As the root of verbs in μι ends in α, ε, ο, or ν, 
these vowels, combining with the final letters, cause the appear- 
ance of four different forms of termination, and for this reason 
four paradigms have usually been given, though there is in fact 
only one. The following tables will show, that, in whate\ r er vowel 
the root ends, still there is but one form of inflection. 



154 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN ui. 



108. 



Singular. 
ϊστη λ 

δείκνυ ) 



§ 108. PARADIGM OF VERBS IN MI.* 
292. — ACTIVE VOICE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Indicative Mood, 281. 

Dual. Plural. 




ιστ 
τι& 



ισται 
τι&εί 
διδοί 



■ω -ης -?/ 
■ώ -φς -φ 

■ην -ης -η 



ιστα -&ι 3 \ 
τίΰε -τι 4 \ (_. 
δίδο 
δείκνν 



■W ( 

-&1 ) 



τω 



-τον -τον 



Subjunctive, 282. 
-ητον -ητον 
-ώτον -ώτον 

Optative, 283. 

-ητον -ητην 
Imperative, 284. 
-τον -των 



•μεν -τε 
(-ντσι 1 ) 



ιστασι 
τί&εισι 
δίδουσι 
δείκννσι 



-ωμεν -ητε -ωσι 
-ώμεν -ώτε -ώσι 

-ημεν* -ητε -ήσαν 
-τε -τωσαν 5 



Infinitive, 285. 



ιστα 
τι&ε 



-ναι 



δεικνν 



ιστ- ας 
τι&-είς 
διδ-ονς 
δεικν-νς 

IMPERFECT TENSE, 294-6 (2). 

Indicative, 281. 



Participles, 286. 
-άσα 



-εισα 
-ούσα 
-υσα 



-αν 
-εν 

-όν 

"VV 



ιστη 
ετί&η 
εδίδω 
εδείκνϋ 



-τον -την 



-μεν -τε -σαν 7 



ιστα 
ετί'Θ'έ 

εδίδο 

εδείκνυ 

The other moods in the imperfect are wanting. 
Note. The numbers 1, 2, 3, <fcc, refer to the same numbers in § 109 



* For the accents, see 254-2. 



f 43, Obs. 5 



§108. 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN μι 



155 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN ML 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

SECOND AORIST. 

Indicative Mood, 281. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 



ε στη ) 
ε&η > -ν 
ίδω ) 


-g — 


εστη ) 
ε&ε > -τον 
εδο ) 


-την 


-μεν -τε -σαν 7 








Subjunctive, 282. 


στ) ~ 
δ -ώ 


■is -5 




-ητον -ητον 


-ώμεν -ήτε -ώόι 


-φς -φ 




-ώτον -ώτον 


-ώμεν -ώτε -ώσι 








Optative, 283. 


σταί ) 










&εί > -ην 
δοί ) 


-ης -η 




-ητον -ητην 


-ημεν -ητε -ήσαν 








Imperative, 284. 


στη-ϋι 3 ) 
&έ -ς > -τω 
δό -ς ) 




-τον -των 


-τε -τωσαν 


Infinitive, 


285. 


Participles, 286. 




στη) 
ϋ-εΐ [ ■ 
δοϋ) 


■^αι 




στάς 
ϋ-είς 
δονς 


στάσα στάν 
■&εΐσα &εν 
δονσα δον 



Note 1. The numbers 1, 2. 3, cfec, refer to the same numbers in 
§109. 

Note 2. For the accents in these tables, as in the tables of the first 
conjugation, see 254-2*. 



156 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN μι. 



§108. 



PAEADIGM OF VERBS IN ML 
293. — MIDDLE VOICE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Indicative Mood, 288. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 



lata \ 

dido l•^ -"»-*«« 

δείκνυ ) 



-με&ον -a&ov -a&ov 

Subjunctive, 289. 



-με&α -α&ε -νται 



lat ) ~ ~ ~ 
tid* \ ~ ω ^ αί ~ v ~ 7ίΤαί 
did -ώμαι -φ -ώζαι 



-ώμε&ον -ηα&ον, &α 

-ωμεϋ-ον -ώα&ον, &c. 

Optative, 290. 



-ώμε&α -ηα&ε -ώνται 
-ώμε&α -ώα&ε -ώνται 



τι&εί f -μην -ο (σο 8 ) -to -μεΰ^ον -α&ον -α&ην 
Imperative, 288. 



-με&α -σ&ε -ντο 



lata 
τί&ε 



• -σο 9 -aft ω 
νιου 

δείκνν ) 

Infinitive, 288. 



-α&ον -α&ων 



icta 
τί&ε 
dido 
dείκvv 



-aftai 



lata 
tifti 



-α&ε -α&ωααν 
Participles, 288. 

-μένος -μένη -μενον 



dεικvυ 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Indicative, 288. 



iata \ 

[-μψ-αο^ο 



-με&α -ads -vto 



με&ον -α&ον -α&ψ 

idεικvv 

The other moods of the imperfect are wanting. 

Note. The numbers 8, 9, refer to the same numbers in § 109. 



§108. 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN [U. 



157 



ιστα ) 



PARADIGM OF VERBS IN MI. 

MIDDLE VOICE. 

SECOND AORIST. 

Indicative Mood, 288. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 

με&α -σ&ε -ντο 



ε&ε V -μην -σο -to 
εδό 



(■ -ώμαι ~rj 



-ηται 
■ωμαι -φ -ώται 



-με&ον -σ&ον -σ&ην 

Subjunctive, 289. 

-ώμε&ον -ησ&ον, &c. 
-ώμε&ον -ώσ&ον, &c. 



~ώμε&α -ψ&ε -ώνται 
-ώμε&α -ώσ&ε -ώνται 



σται ί 

&εί > -μην -ο (σο 9 ) -το 

δοί ) 



στα j 

&έ [ -σο 9 -σ&ω 

δό 



Optative, 290. 
-με&ον -σ&ον -σ&ην 

Imperative, 288. 

-σ&ον -σ&ων 



-με&α -σ&ε -ντο 



-σ&ε -σ&ωσαν 



Infinitive, 288. 

στα 

&ε ]•-σ&αι 

δό 



Participles, 288. 



τά ) 



στα 

&ε [• -μένος -μένη -μενον 

δό 



The present and imperfect passive are like the present 
and imperfect meddle. The second aorist passive is want- 
ing. 

Note. For the other tenses of verbs in μι,, see §§ 110, 111, and for 
the dialects, § 102. 

8 



158 OBSERVATIONS ON VERBS IN μι. §109. 

g 109. OBSERVATIONS ON VERBS IN μι. 
294. — ACTIVE VOICE. 

1. The final letters of the 3d person plural are properly ντσι ; 
and these, combining with the preceding vowel according to the 
rules of euphony (4Ϋ-18), become άσι, εισι, ονσι, ναι, ωσι. 

2. In the optative, η is often dropped before the final letters 
of the plural, making — 

-αιμεν, -aire, -αιεν ; -ειμεν, -είτε, -ειεν ; -οιμεν, -οιτε, -οιεν ; 

instead of — 

-αίημεν, -αίητε, -αίησαν ; -είημεν, &G. 

0. ϊστημι has sometimes ϊστίβ for ϊστα&ι in the imperative ; 
a.nd in compounds, στα is commonly used for στηΰι ; thus, ανά- 
στα for άναστηϋι ; παρ άστα for παραστεί, &c. 

4. So also τί&ημι, δίδω μι, and ϊημι, have sometimes τί&ει, 
δίδον, ΐει, for τί&ετι, δίδο&ι, ϊε&ι ; but these are properly con- 
tracted forms of the primitive verb with the reduplication, used 
in the Ionic and Doric dialects ; thus, τι&ε'ω, imperative τί&εε, 
contracted τί&ει. 

5. As in verbs in ω (261), so also in those in μι, εντων is used 
for ετωσαν in the imperative 3d person plural. 

6. The primitive in ω, with the reduplication, is sometimes 
used instead of the form in μι in the present and imperfect ; thus, 

(1.) Present. 

τι&εω, -εεις, -εει, contr.^ -ώ, -εις, -ει, for τί&ημι, -ης, -ησι, &G. 
ίστάω, -άεις, -άει, " -ώ, -ας, -α, " ϊστημι, -ης, -ησι, &c. 

through all the moods. 

(2.) Imperfect. 

ετί&εον, -εες, -εε, contr. -ovv, -εις, -ει, for ετίϋ-ην, -ης, -η, &c. 

« 7. The terminations -ασαν, -εσαν, <fcc, in the 3d person plu- 
ral, are frequently shortened by syncope ; as, ϊσταν for ϊστασαν ; 
ίτι&εν for ετίΰεσαν ; εβαν for εβησαν. 

295. — MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 

8. In the 2d person singular of the imperfect indicative, mid- 
dle, and passive, σ is often rejected, and the concurring vowels 
contracted ; thus, ΐστω for ΐστασο ; ζί&ου for τί&εσο, <fcc. So in 
the present indicative, sometimes ίστη for ϊστασαι. Also in the 



§ 110. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRIMITIVE. 159 

2d person singular of the optative, σ is rejected, but the vowels, 
being incapable of contraction, remain unchanged. 

9. The same contraction takes place in the imperative ; but 
in the 2d aorist Ό ίσο is contracted into &ov only in compounds ; 
as, παραλού, νπο&ον, etc. 



§ 110. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRIMITIVE. 

296. — Verbs in μι have only three tenses of that form; viz. 
the present, imperfect, and 2d aorist. All the other tenses are 
formed from the first root of the primitive, as in the first conjuga- 
tion (232-2), and are inflected as the same tenses in verbs in ω ; 
as, 

τι&ημι, from Φέω, has fat. xh /σω, Όησομαι, &c. 

δίδωμι, from δόω, has fut. δώσω, δώσομαι, &c. 

ΐστημι, from στάω, has fut. στήσω, 1 aor. έστησα, &c. 

297. — EXCEPTIONS. 

1. Future. Some verbs occasionally retain the reduplication ; 
as, διδώσω from δίδωμι ; and verbs from derivatives in νυω and 
νννω form the future from their primitives ; thus, δείκννμι from 
δεικνύω, has the future δείξω from δείκω.. 

2. First Aorist. Τίϋ-ημι, δίδωμι, and ΐημι, have κα and κάμψ 
instead of σα and σάμψ in the 1st aorist indicative ; as, 1 aor. 
ε&ηκα, έ&ηχάμην ; έδωκα, ίδωκάμην, &c. In these verbs, the 
other moods of this tense are wanting. 

3. Perfect and Pluperfect Active. Verbs in μι from ea> com- 
monly have ει before κα of the perfect ; those from άω have η or 
a ; as, τίϋημι from Όε'ω, perf. τεΰεικα ; ΐστημι from στάω, perf. 
εστηκα, or Ίστακα. In these tenses, ΐστημι aspirates the augment, 
and, except in the singular of the indicative, has a syncopated 
form which resembles the present ; thus, first person plural εστη- 
καμεν, by syncope, εσταμεν, &c. infinitive εστηκεναι, by syncope 
εστάναι; participle, as 267. 

Obs. The perfect active of ΐστημι has a present signification ; 
thus, εστηκα, I stand, pluperfect εστηκειν, I stood. In the pre- 
sent, imperfect, future, 1 aorist, active, it signifies to place, to 
cause to stand. In the passive throughout, to be placed. The 2 
aorist middle is not in use. 

4. Passive voice. The short vowel of the root remains short 
before a consonant in the passive voice; as, δίδωμι, future passive 



160 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. §111,112. 

δο-ΰησομαι, 1 aorist εδό-Φην, perfect δεδο-μαι, &c. But ει before 
κα in the perfect active returns before μαι in the perfect passive ; 
as, perfect active τε'&ει-κα, future passive τε-ΰήσομαι (43-4), per- 
fect passive τέϋει-μαι. 

5. Tenses wanting. Verbs in μι want the second and third 
roots, and consequently the tenses derived from them ; viz. the 
second future passive, the 2d perfect and 2d pluperfect active, 
and the 2d aorist passive. 



298.— §111. TABLE EXHIBITING ALL THE TENSES OF 
VERBS IN MX 





ACTIVE. 


MIDDLE. 


PASSIVE. 


Present. 


ΐστημι 


ΐσταμαι 


ΐσταμαι 


Imperf. 


ϊστην 


ίστάμην 


Ιστάμην 


Fut. 


στήσω 


στησομαι 


σταϋήσομαι 


1 Aor. 

2 Aor. 


έστησα, 
εστην 


εστησάμην 
εστάμην 


εστά&ην 


Perf. 


εστακα or -ηκα 




ΐσταμαι 


Pluperf. 


εστάκειν or είστάκειν 


εστάμην 


Fut. perf. 






εστηξομαι 




299. — Verbs in 


ΜΙ to be conjugated. 




ϊημι from 


εω I send 


πίμπλημι, from πλέω 


I fill 


σβψι ) 
σβέννυμι \ 


σβέω /extinguish 


hence πλήϋ-ω 
όλλνμι δλέω I destroy 


ζενγννμι 


ζενγω, I join 


νίκη μι νικάω 


, I conquer 


διδημι 


δε'ω I bind 


φημί φάω 


I say 


ίπτημι 


πτάω I fly 


κλΰμι κλνω 


I hear 


Όνημι 


ονέω I help 


ρώννυμι ρόω 


I strengthen 


ψννμι 


όμόω I swear 




• 



§112. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS IN MI. 

300. — The irregular and defective verbs in μι are usually 
reckoned nine ; viz. ειμί, I am; εΊμι and ί%μι, I go ; ϊημι, I send ; 
είμαι, I clothe myself ; εισα, I did set ; ημαι, /sit; κεϊμαι, I lie 
down ; φημί, I say ; and οϊδα, I know. The parts in use are aa 
follows : 



§112. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



161 







301.— 


■Ι. Ειμί, lam. 








ACTIVE VOICE. 








PRESENT TENSE. 








Indicative. 




S. ειμί 




«t£ or εϊ 


εστί 


D. 




εστόν 


εστόν 


P. εσμεν 




εστε 

Subjunctive. 


είσί 


S. ω 




τ 


Ι 


D. 




ί /rw 


ητον 


P. ωμεν 




ητε 


ωσι 






Optative. 




S. ειψ 




jf 


Η 




«t^ 


ειη 


D. 




«Γτ/τον 


εϊψψ 


P. «r^fefiy 




ε'ιητε 


εΐησαν 


Imperative. 




Infinitive. 


Participles. 


S. εσο 


ifffZGJ 




είναι 


Μ. ων 


D. fjToy 


&X7Gof 






F. ονσα 


P. εστε 


Ιστωσαί' 




F. όν 






IMPERFECT TENSE. 








Indicative. 




S. ?/y 




1 


τ τ 




ης 


η or ην 


D. 




ητον 


ητην 


P. ημεν 




■y 

ήτε 
MIDDLE VOICE. 

IMPERFECT. 

Indicative. 


ήσαν 


S. ^jyy 




τ 

ησο 


ητο 


D. ημε&ον 




ησ&ον 


ησ&ην 


P. ημε&α 




ησ&ε 

FUTURE TENSE. 


ηντο 


Indie, εσομαι, Opt. 


εσοίμψ, 


Inf. εσεϋ&αι, Part, io 


όμενος, regular. 



162 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



§112. 



302.— THE CHIEF DIALECTS OF ειμί 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
PRESENT. 



1. 

Sing, ειμί, D. εμμί, 

J£u. ημν. 
Plur. εσμέν, είμές, 

P. έμέν, είμίν. 



Sing ω, Ι. ϊω, Ρ. εΐω. 

Plur. ώμεν, Τ), ώμες, 

Ρ. εϊωμεν, εϊομεν. 



Sing urjv, Ι. εονμν. 
Plur. εϊημεν, Ι, εϊμεν. 



Sing 
Plur. 



Indicative. 

2. 3. 

ε*ς, or εί, L ε? &ς, P. εε ν, Ι εστί, D. εντί, ενν. 

έσσί. 
Ιστέ, Ρ ετε\ ε tcrt, D. εϊ>τ/, JK εντυ, 

ενντί, Ρ. έ'ασ&, ϊασσν. 



Subjunctive. 

Ι ψ, Ι. ε^ς, Ρ. εΐ'^ς. 

5 



Optative. 

εϊης, Ι. εο^ς. 
εϊητε, I. εί/τε. 

Imperative. 

εσο, Ρ. εσσο, Α. ΓσίΗ. 
εστε. 



Υ τ >' ■>' 5 ν 

t\, 1. ε -rj, εΜ], ησν, ε//σ&, 
_ Ρ. εϊησι*. 
ωσν, Ι. εωσι. 



εΐη, Ι. εο&. 
εϊησαν, Ι. Α. ε£ει>. 



έστω. 

εστο)σαν, Α. εστο)ν, 
Ρ. εοντο^ν. 



Infinitive. 

είναι, Ι. εμει>, εϊμεν, D. έμεναν, ήμίν, ημίξ, είμες, JE>. εμμεναι, Ρ. ϊμμεν. 



Μ. ων, Ι. έών, JE. εις. 



Participle. 

Fern, ούσα, Ι. εονσα, D.l N~eut. oV, L εόν, ^Ε. 
ε t' σα, εο Γσα, εασσα, εν. 
τΕ. ε£σα, έασα. 



Smg ^ν, Ι. εα, ^α, Ρ. ετ/ν, 
ει^ν, ί/'^ν, εον, ^ον, 
εσκον. 

Du. 

Plur. ^μεν, D. ^μες, P. ϋμεν. 



IMPERFECT. 

Indicative. 

ης, Ι. εες•, εε«-ς, P. ψς. 

έ'ας, εσκες, jE. ^σ- 

θα, εησ&α. 
ητον, Μ. εστον, Ρ. 

ετοτ, η στον. 
ητε, Ι. εατε. 



^, or ^ν, Ι. D. ^ε, ^ς 
Ρ. εσκε. 

ητην, Α. ηστην, Ρ. 

εσττ/ί'. 
τ/σαν, Jr. εσαν, εσσαν, 

εσχον. 



§112. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



163 



MIDDLE VOICE. 



Plur 



IMPERFECT. 

Indicative. 

future. 
Indicative. 



Sing, ϊσομαι, D. εσοΰμαι-, εστ], Α. εσίο, Ι. εσ 



εσε~>μα.ν, Ρ. εσσομαι,. 
Plur. εσόμΐ&α, JE. εσόμίσ&α. 



εσσΐαν, D. εσΐ], έσ- 
σϊ\, Ρ. έ'σσί]. 
ϊσίσθ-ε. 



\ ηνχο, Ι. εατο, εϊατο. 



εσ^ταν, by syncope 
εσται,, Ό. εσηταν, 
εσσεϊται,, Ρ. εσσετα». 

έσονται,, D. εσοννται. 



Infin. εσεσ&α^ Ρ. εσσεσ&αν. Particip. εσό/«ίΐΌς, Ρ. εσσόμινος. 

303.— II. Ε//**, / ^6>. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Dual. Plurai. 

Indie, είμι είςοτεϊ εϊσι Ί'τον 'ιτον Ί'μεν 



ιτε 



Subj. ιω ιης 
Opt. Ί'οιμι ΊΌις 

Imper. Ί'χτι 

Infin. ίεναι Part ίων ίονσα ιόν, Gen. ιόντος ίονσης, &c. 



9 

1 01 

"τω 



ιητον ιητον 
ιοιτον Ιοίτψ 
ιτον Ί'των 



ι ω μεν 
Ί'οιμεν 



ισι or ιαβι 
Ί'ητε ιωαι, 
ϊοιτε Ί'οιεν 
'ιτε ίτωσαν 



Sing, ψιν or ζα 

Dual. 

Plur. ψιμεν or ^μέϊ' 



IMPERFECT. 

Indicative. 
$«£ or ψιβϋΌ. 



mi 



Ίβειτην or 777771- 
ψσαν, Ion. rjiiyai• 



#fc{T0J> or tj7oi> 

flfiWi Or 7J7£ 

Middle Voice .—Ιεμαε, to hasten. 

Indicative. 
Present, ΐ-εμαι -εσαι -εται -έμε&ον, &c. 

Imperf. ι-ψην -εσο -ετο -εμε&ον, &α 

Obs. 1. The Attics, and sometimes the Ionians, use the present 
of είμι, in the indicative, infinitive, and participles, in a future 
sense, " / will go." 

Obs. 2. The ancient grammarians have another form of tbe 
imperfect ; viz. είν, εις, ει — 'ιτον, Ί'την — Ί'μεν, 'ιτε, Ί'σαν ; — and of 
the second aorist, Ί'ον, "ες, ϊε, &c. ; but, except the third persons 
ίε, Ί'την, and Ί'σαν, peculiar to epic writers, no such forms are 
found. 



161 IBREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VEEBS. § 112. 

304.— III. α 1ημε, to .send, from α ΕΩ. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
PRESENT. 

Indie, ΐΐίμι ίης ϊησι ΐετον ϊετον ΐεμεν ϊετε ΐάσι, or Ίεΐσι 

Subj. ιώ ίης ifj ιψον ιψον ιώμεν ίητε ιώσι 

Opt. Ιείψ ίείης, &c. 

Imper. ϊει(ϊεϋ•ι) ίετωϊετον ιετων ϊετε lit ωσάν 

Infin. ίεναι Participles, ίείς ιεϊσα ίε'ν Gen. ιεντος, &c. 

IMPERFECT. 

Indie, ϊεον ΐεες ΐεε ) * < , « „ „ 

Contr.fow ϊεις ϊει \ l6t0V mr P "Ι™ ίεΤε ιεσαν 

FUTURE. 

Tndie. ψ-ω -εις -ει -ετον, &ο. 

1 AORIST. 

Tndie. ηκ-α -ας -ε -ατον, &ο. 

2 AORIST. 

Indie, ηκα ηκας ήκε είτον εϊτψ είμεν είτε εισαν 

Subj. ώ ης fj, &ο. 

Opt. ειην είης εΐη είτον εϊτψ είμεν είτε είεν 

Imper. ες ετω ετον ετών ετε ετωσαν 

Infin. είναι Participles, εις είσα εν Gen. εντός, &c. 
Perf. είκ-α -ας, &c. Pluperf. εϊκ-ειν -εις, &c. 

MIDDLE VOICE. 

PRESENT. 

Indie, ϊεμαι ϊεσαι ϊεται ίεμε&ον, &c. 
Subj. ίώμαι l.rj ίψαι ίώμεΰον, &c. 

Opt. ιοίμψ, &c. Imper. ϊεσο or ϊον. Infin. ΐεσ&αι. Part, ιεμενος, (fee- 
Indicative. 
Imperf. ϊεμψ ϊεσο, &c. Fut. ψομαι, &c. 1 Aor. ηκάμην, &o. 

2 AORIST. 

Indie, εΐμην εϊσο είτο εϊμε&ον είσϋ•ον εϊσ&ψ εϊμε&α, &c. 

Subj. ώμαι tj ψαι, &α 

Opt. οΐμην οίο οίτο, &c. rarely εΐμην είο, &c. 

Imper. ου εσ&ω, &c. Infin. εσ&αι. Part, ε μένος -η -ον 

Perf. Indie, είμαι είσαι, &c. Infin. είσ&αι 
Pluperf. Indie, ειμψ είσο, &c. 



§112. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 165 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
Future. Indie. ε&ί;σομαι. 1 Aor. Indie, εΐ&ην. Part, ε&είς. 

305. — IV. Είμαι, I clothe myself. 

This verb comes from εω, to r/o into, to be sent, or, pat into. — 
Middle, to put one's self into, to clothe one's self ; and it is the 
same in the present middle, and present and perfect passive ; thus, 

PRE». MID.. AND PRES. AND PERF. PASS. 

Indie. S. εϊ-μαι, -σαι, -ται and -στ αι. — 3d PI. εϊνται. Part, εϊμενος. 

FIRST AORIST. 

Indie, εισ (εσσ, εεισ) -άμην, -ω, ~ατο, &c. Part, εσσάμενος. 

PLUPERFECT. 

Indie, είμην,είσο and εσσο, είτο, εεστο, είστο, and εστο. 3d Ρ1. εατο. 

306. — V. Είδα, did -set, did place. 

Εϊσα (from εω, to put), a defective trans, verb, to lay a four* 
dation ; to erect (a building), has the following forms, viz. : 
Act. 1 aor. είσα, <fec. Mid. είσάμην, &c. 
The diphthong ει is properly the augmented root ε, which, 
rer, is retained in all the moods. The future είσομαι is sel- 
dom used. The defective parts are supplied from Ίδρνω. 

307.— VI. Ύ Ημαι, I sit. 

τ Ημαι is properly a perf. passive, with a present intrans. signi- 
fication, from the same εω, to put, to place, or to set ; thus, Perf. 
/ have been placed or set, and remain so ; i. e. / sit. It wants the 
subjunctive and optative except in the compound χά&ημαι, which 
has κά&ωμαι, χα&οίμην, arc. and is more common than ?)μαι. 

PRESENT. 

In lie. η-μαι -σαι -ται \-με&ον -σ&ον -σ&ον \-με&α -σ&ε -νζαι 

Imper. tj — -σο -σ&ω -σ&ον -σ&ων\ — -σ&ε -σ&ωσαν 

Inf. ησ&αι Part, ημενος -η -ον 

IMPERFECT. 

Indie, ψμψ -σο -το \-με^ον -σΰον -σ&ην \-μεϋα -σ&ε -rro 

Obs. 3. For ψται the Ionians use εαζαι, and the Poets ειαζαι ; 
and for ηντο in like manner tata and εΐατο. So also for χά&ηνζαι 
and χά&ηντο the Ionic forms are χαζίαζαι and χαζεαζο, 272. 

8* 



166 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



§112. 



308. — VII. Κ είμαι, I lie doivn. 

This verb may be regularly derived from κεεω, for εω by pros- 
thesis of κε ; κεεω becomes κεημι in the 2 conjugation, and in the 
middle, κεεμαι, by contraction, κεΐμαι. It has the Ionic forms, 
κέαται and εκεατο for κείνται and εκειντο, 272. 



PRESENT. 

Dual. 
-μεϋ-ον -σΰον -σ&ον 
-σΦον -σ&ων 



Plural. 
■με&α -σ&ε -νται 
— -σ&ε -σ&ωσαν 



Singular. 
Indie, κεΐ-μαι -σαι -ται 
Imp. κει — -σο -σ&ω 
Inf. κεΐσ&αι 
Part, κείμενος -η -ον 

IMPERFECT. 

Indie, εκεί-μψ -σο -το \-με&ον -σ&ον -σ&ψΥμε-Θ'α -σ&ε -ντο 

FUTURE. 

Indie, κείσ-ομαι -χι -εται, &c. regular. 

309.— VIII. Φημί, I say. 

Φημί, except φης, in the 2d person singular of the present in- 
dicative active, is like ϊστημι. It appears to have had an ancient 
form ijfu t whence, probably, we have the forms of the imperfect, 
ψ> ys, ?/> frequently used in familiar language with δ 1 εγώ and 
ό" ός ; as, ψ ο" 1 εγώ, " said I; " η δ 1 og, " said he" The infini- 
tive φάναι is always used in the sense of the past time ; as, φάναι 
τον Σωκράτη, " that Socrates has said" When the present in- 
finitive is required, it is supplied by λέγειν. 

310.— IX. OlSec 9 Ihnow. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 



Singular. 



PRESENT. 

Dual.. 



Ind. οϊδα οϊσ&α* οϊδε (ν) 
Subj^co είδης είδη, &c. 
Opt. ειδείψ είδείης είδείη, &c 
Imp. — ϊσ&ι ϊστω 



ιστον ιστον 



ιστον ιστών 



Plural. 
Ίσμεν ΐστε ΐσάσι 



— ιστέ ιστωσαν 



Inf. ειδεναι 



Part, ειδώς -νια -ός 



* 07$w;,jrith. the paragogic &α, οϊδασ&α, by syncope οϊσ&α. Old 
Attic form οϊσ&ας. 



§ 113. DEPONENT VERBS. 167 

IMPERFECT. 

Sing, ΐβειν (ιδείς (ΐβεισΟα, Att. ζδησ&α) "fist, Att. ηδη 

Dual. rfiuzov ηδείτψ 

Plur. \ i Γ ζδειτε (or ζστε) τβεισαν (or ήσαν) 

Future ε'ι'σομαι, more rarely ειδί;σω, I shall know, experience. 

Verbal adj. neuter ίστεον. 

The aorists and perfect are supplied from γιγνώσχω. 

Obs. 4. Οίδα is strictly a 2d perfect from εϊδω, I see ; perfect 
I have seen, or perceived, i. e. I know. In this sense it is used as 
a present only, and its pluperfect as an imperfect, as above. For 
Ίαμεν, the Ionians have ϊδμεν ; and for είδεναι, the Epic writers 
have ϊδμεναι, and ϊδμεν. 

Matthiae and the older grammarians derive the above forms, begin- 
ning with t, φν syncope from an assumed verb ϊσημι, of which in the 
Doric dialect the forme Χσαμν, ίσης, ϊσατν, and the part, ϊσας, are ex- 
tant. On the other Jiand, Buttmann, Kiihner, and others, think these 
forms all belong to ottfa, or ίϊδω — that Xautv, according to the ordinary 
method of derivation, is formed from the Ionic ϊό'μεν (§ 6, 11), which 
manifestly belongs to ίϊδφ, and not to ϊσημι>) while ϊστον, Ιστθ, are, by 
a similar analogy, from ϊδτον, ϊδτί, from the same, by dropping the 
mood-vowel ; and that the imperative termination, &t,, is substituted 
for the ordinary termination, as is usually done when the mood-vowel 
is omitted, as in v.h.qa-/Qt,, άνωχ&ι, &c. This is probably the true ori- 
gin of these forms. (See Bnttmann's Gr. § 109, III.) It is certain, how- 
ever, that, so far as usage is concerned, the above mixed paradigm of 
οίόα is the only correct one. 

For a catalogue of ^regular and defective verbs, see § 117. 



311.— §113. DEPONENT VERBS. 

1. Deponent verbs are those which under a 
middle or passive form have either an active or a 
middle signification. 

2. The perfect of deponent verbs has sometimes also a passive 
sense. 

3. Some of these verbs have also a passive form of the first 
future and first aorist, always used in a passive sense. 

4. The Tenses of deponent verbs are : the present, imperfect, 
perfect, pluperfect, and paulo-post-future of the passive form ; 
the future aud first aorist of the middle form; and the first fu~ 



168 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



§114,115. 



ture and first aorist in the passive form, and with a passive 
sense. A few have a second aorist middle. They are usually 
conjugated by giving the present, future middle, and perfect pas- 
sive ; thus, δέχομαι, δε'ξομαι, δεδεγμαι. 

812. SYNOPSIS OF DEPONENT VERBS. 



1 Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


Optative. 


Imper. 


Infin. 1 Part. ' 


Pres. 


δεχ-ομαν 


δέχ-ο)μαο 


-οίμην 


-ου 


-εσ&αι 


-όμενος\ 


* m P; 


εδεχ-όμην 












Perf. 


δέδεγ-μαι, 


δεδεγ-μένος ω 


-μένος ειην 


-σο 


-a&cu 


-μένος 


Plup. 


εδεδεγ-μην 












Fut. M. 


(5ε£-ο,«α£. 


wanting 


-οιμην 


wanting 


-εσ&αο 


-ομενος 


1 Aor. M. 


εδίζ-άμ-ην 


δεΊ--ωμαν 


-at/*?/v 


-αν 


-aa&ou, 


-αμενος 


1 Fut. P. 


δεχ&ήο~-θμαι 


wanting 


-οιμην 


wanting 


-εσ&α,ι 


-ομενος 


1 Aor. P. 


εδεχ&-ην 


δεχ&-ω 


-ειην 


-ηΤΙ 


-ηναι, 


-εις 


P. P. Fut. 

1 


δεδέξ-ομαι 


wanting 


-οιμην 


wanting 


-εσ&αι 


-ο,Μ-ίΐ/ος 



Note. In this table, the imperative and infinitive of the perfect 
δέδεγ-σο and δέδεγ-σ&αυ are changed by euphony into δέδε^ο and δέδεχ- 
&ou, § 6. 1. 17. 



§114. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

313. — Many verbs are occasionally taken impersonally; as, 

αρέσκει, it pleases ; αρκεί, it suffices ; σνμφε'ρει, it is profitable, &c. 

The following are those which are chiefly taken impersonally : 

1. πρέπει, it is becoming ; έπρεπε, it was becoming ; πρεπειν, 
to be becoming ; το πρέπον, that which is becoming ; pi. τα. πρέ- 
ποντα. 

2. μέλει, it concerns ; εμελε, μελησει, μεμεληκε and με'μηλε. 

3. δοκεϊ, it appears; εδόκει (from δοκε'ω); εδοξε (from 
δόκω) ; τα δοκονντα. 

4. δει, it behoves ; έδει, δεήσει, δεϊν, το δέον, τα δέοντα. 

5. χρη, it is necessary ; εχρην, χρήσει, χρηναι, and χρψ\ το 
χρεών, contracted for χρεαον. Subj. χρψ 



314.— J 115. DESIDERATIVE, FREQUENTATIVE, AND 
INCEPTIVE VERBS. 

1. Desiderative Verbs are those which denote a desire o* 
intention of doing. They are commonly formed by adding σείο* 
to the first root of the primitive ; as, 



§116. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 109 

γελάω, I laugh ; 1 R. /ελ«• γελασείω, I desire to laugh, 
πολεμεω, I make war ; " πόλεμε- πολεμησείω, I desire war. 

Another form of desideratives is that in άω or ιάω, properly from 
substantives ; as, from θάνατος, death ; ΰανατάω, I long for 
death ; στρατηγός, a general ; στρατηγιάω, I wish to be a general. 
Also from verbs, by first forming substantives from them ; as, 

ώνεΐσ&αι, to buy ; (ώνητης,) ώνητιάω, I wish to bug. 
κλαίω, I weep ; (κλανσις,) κλανσιάω, I am disposed to weep. 

2. Frequentatives are those which signify repeated action. 
These commonly end in ζω ; as, ριπτάζειν (from ρίπτειν), to 
throw from one place to another, Mid. to throw one's self this way 
and that, to be restless ; στενάζειν (from στε'νειν), to sigh much 
and deeply ; so, from αίτειν, to demand ; αίτίζειν, to beg ; 
ερπειν, to creep ; ερπνζειν, to creep slowly. 

3. Inceptives are those which express the beginning or con- 
tinued increase of an action. These commonly end in σκω ; as, 
γενειάσκω, to begin to have a beard ; ηβάσκω, to grow to man- 
hood (the same as γενειάζω and ηβάω) ; in part transitive ; as, 
με&νσκω, to intoxicate ; fr-om με&ύω, I am intoxicated. 



§ 116. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

315. — In many of the Greek verbs, a variety of forms appears, and 
also an apparent irregularity in the formation of different tenses. This 
is occasioned partly by the adoption of new forms of the present and 
imperfect tenses, which are used either jointly with their primitives, 
if they are still in use ; or in their stead, if they have become obsolete, 
while the other tenses continue as regularly formed from the primitive 
verb ; and partly by the use of tenses taken from synonymous verbs of 
a different theme, in the place of those which have become nearly or 
entirely obsolete ; and thus, as it were, out of the fragments of two or 
more verbs, whose other parts have disappeared, is formed a new whole. 
The parts of this whole, being all that remain in use of their respec- 
tive roots, considered by themselves are really defective verbs. And 
some of these, though regularly formed from their own themes, yet not 
being formed from the present to which they are attached, but from 
some other verb related to it in form or signification, the whole verb is 
not improperly termed anomalous or irregular. This appellation, then, 
properly belongs to all those verbs whose present, future, and perfect, 
do not follow the common analogy of conjugation. A few examples 
will illustrate these remarks ; thus, dim, to go under, has όννο), δνμί, 
and όόσ/.ο), all different forms of the present ; but the tenses of the first 
root are regularly formed from the primitive δύω, and the second aorist 

8 



170 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



§116. 



εδυν, from the form in μι. Again, πάσχο), I suffer, has the future ττα- 
■&ήσο), and perfect πΐπά&ηκα, from the obsolete present, παϋέω ; the 
2d aorist επα&ον, 2 perfect πέπη&α, from the obsolete πή&ο) ; and the 
future middle πάσομαι (§ 6. 18), and 2 perfect active πέπον&α, from 
the obsolete πίν&ο). In this latter example, πάσχω, the only present 
in use, with its imperfect ί'πασχον, is a defective verb, having no other 
tenses from that root ; in like manner, the other parts from their re- 
spective themes are so many defective verbs : but, taken together, and 
as attached to πάσχο), a theme from which they are not formed, accord- 
ing to the common analogy of conjugation, they form what is called 
an anomalous or irregular verb. 

In most irregular verbs, the irregularity is caused by the adop- 
tion of a new present and imperfect, formed by certain changes 
©n the root of the verb in these tenses, while the other tenses con- 
tinue to be formed regularly from the primitive root or theme. 
Thus from ΛΗΒΩ,* is formed the new present λαμβάνω, im- 
perfect ελάμβανον, while the future ληψω, and all the tenses 
following it, are formed regularly from the root AHB. 

316. — In this way new presents are formed from old roots as 
follows : 

I. By the addition of certain letters to the root ; thus, 



Theme. 


Hoot. 


let. add. 




New JPres. 


Fut. 


1 δόκω 


δοκ 


ε 


makes 


δοκε-ω 


δοξω 


2 τίω 


τι 


ν 


α 


τίν-ω 


τίσω 


3 άγω 


άγ 


νν 


α 


άγνν-ω 


άξω 


4 £03 


ε 


ννν 


ί( 


εννν-ω 


έσω 


5 ελάω 


ελα 


νν 


α 


ελανν-ω 


ελάσω 


6 ερεω 


ερε 


ειν 


α 


ερεείν-ω 


ερησω 


Ί γηράω 


γηρα 


σκ 


u 


γηράσκ-ω 


γηράσω 



Π. Of roots that end with a vowel, some drop it before the 
added letters ; some change ο into ω, ε into η, and others change 
soro into / ; thus, 



Theme. 


Boot R 


changed. 


let. add 


New Pres. 


Fut. 


1 άμαρτεω 

2 εριδεω 


αμαρτε 

εριδε 


αμαρτ 
εριδ 


αν 
αιν 


αμαρτ αν- ω 
εριδαίν-ω 


αμαρτήσω 
εριδησω 


3 ζόω 


ζο 


ζω 


ννν 


ζωννν-ω 


ζώσω 


4 άλδεω 


άλδε 


άλδη 


σκ 


άλδησκ-ω 


άλδησω 


b ενρέω 
6 Ά.ΛΟ'9. 


ενρε 
άλο 


ευρι 
άλι 


σκ 
σκ 


ενρισκ-ω 
άλίσκ-ω 


ενριισω 
αλώσω 


1 βιόω 


βιο 


βιω 


σκ 


βιώσκ-ω 


βιώσω 



* Primitive themes, now obsolete, are printed in capitals. 



§116. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 171 

III. Of roots that end with a κ -mute or a r-mute, the final 
mute is sometimes dropped before the added letters ; thus, 



77/• 


Root. R. 


changed. 


let. add. 


New Ρ res. 


Fut. 


1 π ο άγω 


πραγ 


πρα 


σσ 


πράσσ-ω 


πράξω 


'2 ι μ άδω 


ιμαδ 


ίμα 


σσ 


ιμάσσ-ω 


ιμάσω 


3 κ ρ άγω 


κραγ 


κρα 


ζ 


κράζ-ω 


κράζω 


4 ςρράδω 


φραδ 


qro« 


ζ 


φράζ-ω 


φράσω 


5 #τ/;κω 


&νηκ 


ϋνη 


σκ 


ΰνψκ-ω 


ΰνηξω 



IV. Some form a new present from the second root changed 
before the added letters by inserting v, which before a ^-mute 
becomes μ ; thus, 

Tlieine. 2 Root. 2 R. changed let. add. New Prcs. Fut. 

Ι λί,ίϊω λα& λαν& αν λαν&άν-ω λψω 

2 λήβω λαβ λαμβ αν λαμβάν-ω 7.ήχρω 

V. By Syncope or contraction ; as, 

New Fres. 

χΗλεω by syncope Φέλω Fut. &ελι]σω 

εγείρω " *ΕΓΡ& 2 Aor. Μ. ?)γρόμην 

οφελεω by double syncope οςρλω Fut. όφελήσω 

VL Bv Reduplication, viz. of the initial syllable ; — of the ini- 
tial consonant with ι ; — and of ι commonly called the improper 
reduplication ; as, 
Theme. 

άγω by Red. of initial syllable 
δε ω " " cons, with ί 

πλέω 
στάω by improper Red. 

VII. By Metathesis or transposition of letters, which, however, 
rarely occurs ; as, 

Theme. Root. New Fres. Fat. 

δερκω δερκ by Metathesis δρεκ δρεκ-ω , δέρξω 

VIII. By Aphaeresis, or cutting off the initial letters ; as, 

ε&έλω by Aphasresis becomes &ελω 
ερέω " " όέω 

IX. In several, two or more of these modes of variation com- 
bine to form the new present ; thus, 

1 By VI and Π, γνόω becomes γιγνώσκω, tut. γνώσω. 

2 By VI and Ι, δράω becomes διδράσκω, fut. δράσω. 



New Fres. 






Fut. 


άγάγω 

διδέω 

πιμπλεω, 


47- 


-19 


άζω 

δησω 
πλησω 


Ιστάω 






στήσω 



§ 117. 

3 By VI and III, δάχω becomes διδάσκω, fut. διδάξω. 

4 By VI, μένω becomes μιμένω, and by V, μίμνω, fut. μενεω. 

5 By VI, τεκω becomes τιτέκω, by V, τίτκω, and by VII, τίκτω, 

fut. τεζω. 

6 By Ι, ΐκω becomes [κάνω, by V, ϊκνω, by Ι, ικνέω, ικνέομαι, fut. 

ΐξω. 
Ί By VIII, σχεω becomes χέω, by VII, εχω, fut. both εξω and 



317.— §117. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF IRREGULAR 
AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

EXPLANATION. 

In the following Table, the words in capitals are the roots from which 
certain tenses are formed, but which are themselves either entirely ob- 
solete, or are merely supposed, in order to derive from them by analo- 
gy the forms in use. 

"When there is but one root, or one form of the root, the numbers 
1, 2, 3, are omitted, as in αγω ; — s. s. means same signification. 

The capital R after a tense indicates that the verb is conjugated re- 
gularly from the tense after which it is placed. 

A. 

Άάο), to injure ; (R. act.) pres. pass, άαται, 1 a. act. αασα, contr. ασα, 1 
a. pass, άάσθ-ην, mid. άασάμην. Horn. 

ν Αγαμαν, to admire; a passive form from αγημυ, Th. άγάο), (R. άγα,) ; 
pr. and imp. like ϊσταμαο ; άγάζομ au, s. 8. — fut. άγά- 
σομαι, R. 

'Ayvvw, α,γννμι, to break; from α,γω, (R. αγ,) f. αξοι, <fcc, R. 1 a. εαξα, 2 
a. p. εάγψ, 2 perf. εαγα, with a passive signification. It 
commonly takes the syllabic augment, probably owing to 
its having anciently had the digamma as the initial letter ; 
thus, pres. f -άγο), 1 a. εΡαξα, and then εαξα ; (fee. 

"u4yo), to lead ; (R. αγ,) f. aio_>, &c. R. It has a reduplication in the 2 a. 
ηγαγον, perf. ηχα, and with the reduplication, άγήοχα, 
(poetic άγνώ, άγίνο).) 1 a. ήξα, al -αι,, αξασ&αι,. 

"Λδο). See άνδάνω. 

Άίίοο), epic and poetic lengthened for αίρω. Regular. 

*Λεξω. See ανζάνο). 

ν Αημν, to blow ; (fr. ao), R. ct,) retains η throughout ; as, arjvat, pass. 
αημαι,; except the participle άείς, άέντος: the passive form 
has an active sense. 

Αιοέο), to take ; (1 R. αιρε, 2. ελ, ivom'EAIl,) f. αίρήσο), or -έσω, <fcc 
R. Attic fut. ελώ, 2 aor. εϊλον, mid. ειλάμην, Alexandrian 
form for εΐλόμψ (239-5). Sometimes with an Attic redu- 
plication in the perfect; as, άραίρηχα, άραίρημα^. 



§117. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 173 

, to raise; (R. άο, from ΆΡΙ1,) f. άοω, p. ?-qy.a, 1 a. r)qa, &c, R. 
Λισθ -avouau, to perceive ; (1 R. ahOt, 2 αίσΟ;) f. m. αίσθήσομαν, <fec 

R. from ΛΙΣΘΕΌΜΑΙ, % 116, II. 2 aor. ψΟόμην. 
'A/.c./uo), to trouble ; (1 R. ά/.α /f and ά/, 2 ά/,) f. άχαχησω, &e. R. 2 a. 

with redup. ηχαχον; pree. Mid. αχομαι; perf. pass, άκ>/- 

•/ii(cu, to be afflicted, to grieve. 
Αλδαίνο), tr. ίο ma&e ίο grow ; (R. a/oatr,) f. ct/.oWw, <fcc. R. imp. Λ/λία- 

rov from "ΑΑΑΪΙ. 
Άλδήσ/.ω, intr. ίο grow; (R. ά /tff,) f. άλδήσο), «fee. R. from "ΆΛΛΕ SI. 
Άλαίνο), άλέομαι, to shwt ; (R. ά /.fr, from 'AAEY'Sl,) 1 a. ///.ετσα, 1 a, 

m. ηλινάμ-ην and ηλεάμττν, by elision of σ for η&νσάμην. 
Άλέζιο, to avert ; (R. άλίζε and ά/εκ,) f. ά/εί-^σω, &e. from ΆΑΕΞΕΏ. ; 

1 aor. m. άλίξά /iiyv, &e. from' AAEK'Jl. 2 a. poet. ηλα?.- 

κο»' by redupl. and syncope for ηλί/.ον. 
Άλι,νδΙω, tr. ίο ί•ο^ ; (R. αλινδί, and άΛ, from 'AAI'Jl) f. άλίσω, &c. R. 

1 a, p. part, άλίνδη&ίΐς ; p. p. part, άλι,νδημενον Mid, 
sense, ίο wander, to roam. 

Άλίσχω, to take; (R. cUo,) f. αλώσω, <fcc. R. from ' AAO ' Sl y 2 aor. 
βόλων, or jp.wv, from "AAJIMI. This verb has a passive 
signification in the aorists and perfect active. 

Άλοταίνο), to be wanting, to sin; (1 R. άλντε, 2 άλί•τ,) f. cUi -τ^σω, <fcc. R. 

2 a. ηλι,τον. 

Άλλομα,ί, to leap ; (R. cU from "AAS1,) f. ά/.οΓ'^α^ 2 a. ηλόμην, R. 
Άλνσ/.ο), ά?.νσχάνω > ίο avoid; (R. cUux,) fut. cUv£a>, &c. R. from'AAY' * 

KJl, s. s. as ά/ε'ω. 
Άλφαίνο), (ά /.qcivo), άλφαίω,) to gain ; (1 R. άλφε, 2 άλφ,) fut. άλφησο), 

Ac R. from 'ΑΑΦΕΊΙ.^ 2 a. ^.ςρον. 
Άμαοτάνο), to err ; (1 R. ά/<αοτε, 2 ά/<αοτ,) f. άμαοτήσο), &c. R. 2 a, 

^iaorov, from AM ΑΡΤΕ JL ^ 
Άμβλίσ/.ο), to miscarry ; (R. άμβλο,) fut. άμβλώσω, &c. R. from άμ- 

Άμπέχιο, and αμπισχνεομαι. See ε/ω. 

Άμπλα/.ίσ/.ο), to miss, to err ; (1 R. άμττλακε, 2 αμ;τλακ,) f. άμττλακ^σω, 
ifce. R. 2 a. ημπλαν.ον. 

Άμφιίνννμν. See ϊνννμν. 

Άναγινώσ/.υ). See γννώσχυ). 

Άναλίσ/.ο), to read. See ά/ίσκο;. 

14ικϊάνω, ίο please ; (1 R. ά(5ε, 2 ά#, 3 άδ,) fut. άδήσω, &c. R. from 
ά(5εΌ), 2 a. tccoW for ηδον, 2 perf. έα<5α, with the syllabic 
augment, s. s. as ηδιο. 

'Avoiyvim, άνοίγννμο, ανοίγω, (am and οϊγω,) to open; (R. ο'ιγ,) f. ανοίξω, 
p. άνέωχα, <fcc. R. often with both temporal and syllabic 
augment ; as, imp. άνέωγον, 2 perf. άνέωγα, &c. 

Ανάγω, to order ; (R. άνωγ and άνοιγε,) f. άνώξο), <fec. R. or, άνογήσο), 
<fcc. R. from άνωγίω; hence, pres. imperative, άνωχ&ι, 
άνώχΘ-ω, <fec. by svneope for άνώγηϋ-ν, άνο)γέτο), &c as if 
from" ΆΝΙΪΓΗΜΙ, 2 perf. ψωγα. 

% Απανοάω, to take away ; (from από and "AYPSl, R. avg,) imperf. R. 
άπηύραον, contr. άπηνοων, 1 aor. άπήνοα, m. άπηνοάμην, 
from άπανςω. From this verb, or more probably from 
^AJIOYPJl, (the obsolete Th. of άπονρίζο), to dispossess,) 
comes 1 aor. inf. anovqat,, part, ct7rouoccc, and άπονοάμε- 
νος, used by Homer, Pindar, and Hesiod, in the sense of 



174 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117. 

"to rob;" "to plunder;" "to encroach on the limits, or 

property of another" 
Άτηχ&άνομαν. See εχ&άνομαυ. 
Απόλλυμυ. See ολλνμι*. 
Άραρίσχω, from "APSl, to fit, or adapt; (R. άρ,) fut. άρω and άρσο) 

(§ 101, 4, (6.)), p. ηρχα, &c. R. 2 perf. ηραρα, and άρηρα, 

with the Attic reduplication from τ/οα. 
Αρέσχο), to please ; (R. άρε,) fut. άρέσο;, ηρεχα, &c. R. from άρέω. 
_•4ί)|ο;, and αυξάνω, tr. to increase ; (R. ©tt»if,) fut. ανϊήσο), &c. R. from 

AYSESl; likewise, άέ£ο>, άί|?/σο>, &c. from 'AEaESI. 

Mid. intr. ίο increase. 
"Αχ&ομαν, to be indignant ; (R. άχϋ-ε,) fut. άχ&ήσομαι, or -έσομαι,, &c 

R. from άχ&ί,ομαν. 
*Άο). This verb has four significations in its different parts ; viz., 1. 

άω, to blow ; imp. «ov, commonly άημι. — 2. «oj, to sleep ; 

1 aor. άσα, and α^σα. — 3. άο), to satisfy ; f. άσω, 1 aor 

άσα, pres. pass, άταυ and άαταί-, inf. act. άμίναο. Horn. 

contr. for άέμεναν, for common form aW.— 4. άω, to in- 
jure ; see άάω. 



Β. 

Βαίνο), βάσχο), βνβάο), to go ; (R. βα, ) fut. βήσομαν, p. βεβηχα, &c. R. 
from Β A' SI ; 2 aor. εβψ, from BHMI ; imperat. βη&ν, in 
compounds shortened, as, χατάβα. Ή. B. This verb has 
also the causative signification, to cause to go ; the future 
βήσο), and 1 aorist active εβησα, have exclusively this sig- 
nification. 

Βάλλω, to throw ; (1 R. βαλ, and βαλε, 2 βαλ, 3 in compounds βολ,) fut. 
βάλω (Poet, βαλλήσοή, βίβάλψ.α, &c. R. as if from 1L4- 
AESl ; hence, by syncope, ΒΛΕ SI. Hence the synco- 
pated forms εβλην, ϊβλητο, βλησ&αι,, for εβάλην, έβάλητο, 
βεβαλήσ&αν, <fcc. Epic perf. pass, βίβόλημαι,, as if from 
ΒΟΛΕ SI. 

Βαστάζο), to carry ; (R. βαστα8, pass, βασταγ, 211,) f. βαστάσω, 1 a. ρ 
ε/9αστά/θ•^ΐ'. 

■Βιωαγ.ω, to live ; (R. βιο,) fut. βιωο~ω, &a. R. from /?ί.όω ; 2 aor. ίβίων, 
from ^tw^t- (all in use). 

Βλαστάνο), to bud ; (1 R. βλαστέ ; 2 βλαστ,) f. βλαστήσω, as if from 
ΒΛΑΣΤΕ SI, 2 a. εβλαστον. 

Βλώσχο), to go ; (R. μολ, as if from MOASl,) 2 a. «μ όλον, f. m. μολον- 
μαν, perf. μέμβλωχα (40-3d) for μέμλωχα, as if from μλόο) 
(by metath. 40-8th for μόλο)), whence βλόο) and βλώσχω. 

Βοάο), to cry out ; (R. βοα,) f. βοήσο), &e. R. The Ionics contract 0*7 
into o), making βώσομαν for βοήσομαι ; 1 a. ϊβωσα for 
εβόησα. 1 a. p. inserts σ, εβώσθην. 

Βόσχο), tr. to feed ; (R. βοσχί,) f. βοσχήσο), <fcc. R. from βοσχίο). 

Βονλομαί, to will ; (1 R. βουλΐ, 2 βονλ,) f. βονλήσομαν, &c R. from 
BOYAESl ; 1 a. p. εβονλήϋ-ψ, and with double augment 
ήβουλήϋ-ην ; hence also 2 perf. βέβονλα. 

Βρώσχω, βφρώσχω, to eat ; (R. /?(>o,) fut. βρώσω, &c. R. from /?ξ>όω ; 
2 aor. ϊβρο)ν, as if from βρώμι,. 



§117. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 175 



r. 

Γαμίο), to marry ; (R. γάμε, and γαμ,) fut. γαμήσω, and γαμέω, γαμώ, 
f. m. γαμέσομαι, <fcc. R. 1 aor. έγάμ-ησα, Ν. Τ. ; and εγημα, 
as if from VAMSl, or TH'MJL 

Γέντο, in Homer, Ae £oo& ; probably ./Eol. for έ'Αίτο ;_y being put for F, 
and ν for A, as in the Dor. ήν&ε for 7/A#-f ; thus, f -έλετο 
would become γένετο, and by syncope, γέντο. — Also γέντο 
2 a. m. of γίνομαι, by procope and syncope for έγένετο. 

Γη&έο), to rejoice ; (1 R. γηϋε, 3 γη&,) f. γηϋ-ήσω, 2 perf. γέγη&α, hav- 
ing the signification of the present. 

Γηράσχο), to grow old ; (R. γηρα, and y^o,) f. γηράσο), <fcc. R. from 
γηράο) ; 1 aor. εγηρα, from FH'PJl ; γηράναν, pres. inf. 
from γήρημι>. 

Τιγνο μαι, γίνομαι, to become ; (1 R. yfi>f, 2 yfr, 3 yov,) fut. γενήσομαν, 
Ac. R. from rENESl, 2 perf. yejOm. Ν. B. Allied to 
this verb is 

Γεινομαν, to be bom ; (R. γει,ν,) used in the present and imperfect ; the 
first aor. Ιγεινάμην is used actively, to beget, to bear ; hence, 
ol γεινάμενοι, parents ; η γειναμένη, a mother. 

Γι,γνώσχω, γννώσχω, to know ; (R. γνο,) fut. γνώσω, p. εγνο)χα,1ΐ\ϊί.'ρ. 
γνυ)σίτήσομαι, p. p. εγνωσμαι, R. from ΓΝΟ' SI ; 2 aor 
εγνων, from γνωμι, sub. j /νώ, opt. γνοίην, imper. γνώ&ι,, 
inf. yvfiivab, part, γνούς. 



Ααιω, to learn ; (1 R. <5af, 2 δα, 3 ία,) fut. δαήσω, <fec. R. from AAEsl, 
by epenth. from ίάω ; whence p. δέδαα (§ 101, 5), 2 aor. 
p. εδάην, or act. from δά-ημι,, from ίάω comes δάσχω, and, 
by reduplication, δι,δάσχο), ίο teac/a. 

Ααιω, to divide, to feast, to entertain ; (R. iat-, and ίαί,) f. δαίσο), more 
frequently δάσο), p. δέδαν.α, <fcc. R. from AAZSl. 

Ααίο), to burn ; (1 R. δαι, 2 ία, 3 δη,) second perfect δέδηα, regular 
through all its moods. 

Αάχνω, to bite ; (1 R. δη•/., 2 δαχ,) fut. <$7/£ομα&, «fee. R. from AHKS1 ; 
2 aor. έ'($ακοο\ 

Ααρ&άνο), to sleep ; (1 R. δαρ&ε, 2 ίαοθ•,) fut. δαρ&ησομαν, <fcc. R. from 
ΑΑΡΘΕΊΙ ; 2 aor. εδαρ&ον, poetic ϊδρα&ον. 

ΑεΙδω, to fear ; (1 R. &«$, 2 i«5, 3 <5W, also 2 &, 3 it, from AT SI,) fut. 
δίίσο), p. <5eoW.a, or ieoWa, 2 perf. δέδοι,δα ; also from 
Αΐ SI, 2 aor. έ'&ον, 2 perf. δέδ\α (poetice δείδια), pi. δεδία- 
μεν, by syncope δέδυμεν, &c. and imper. δέδι,&ι, with a 
present sense, to fear ; the middle δίομαυ, with its deriva- 
tives δεδίσχομαν, δεδίσσομαυ, <fec. have an active significa- 
tion, " to frighten." 

Αενχννω, δείχννμι, to show ; (R. δει,χ,) f. ifti-o), (fee. R. from AETKS1; 
Ionic AE'KSl, hence <5είο>, ε&£α, δέδεγμαι,, <fec. 

Αέομαν, to need ; (R. iff, from AEE'OMAT,) fut. δεήσομαν, cfec. R. In 
the active voice it is use*! impersonally ; as, δε Χ, δεήσει,, 
«fee. See Impersonal Verbs, § 114 



176 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117. 

Αέω, to bind; (R. δε,) f. δήσω, (fee. R. 3 fat. pass, δεδήσομαι, seldom 

δε &ή σομαι,. 
Ανδάσν.ω, to teach ; (R. δνδαχ, and δίδασκε,) f. διδάξω (and δίδασκήσοή, 

δεδίδαχα, (fee. R. § 116, IX. 3. 
Αιδράσ/.ω, to escape ; (R. δρα,) fut. δράσω, (fee. (R. from δράο), a regular 

verb in use) ; 2 aor. έδρην (from APHM1), for which also 

έδράν, ας, a, (fee. Subj. δρω, ας, a, (fee., Opt. δραίην, Imp. 

δραϋ-ν, Inf. δραναν, pt. <?οάς. 1ST. Β. This verb is \ised in 

composition only. 
Αοκεω, to think ; (R. δοκέ, and δοχ,) f. οο£ω, (fee. R. from AO'KSl ; — also 

fut. δοκήσω, (fee. R. but less in use than the other forms. 
Αΰναμαν, I can ; (R. δυνα,) like ϊσταμαν, f. δυνήσομαι*, (fee. R. from 

AYNAOMA1', 1 aor. pass. εδυνάσ&ψ and εδννή&ψ. 
Ανω, δννω, tr. ίο enclose, intr. ίο οό iwio ; (R. du,) fut. δύσω, δέδυχα, (fee. 

R. ; 2 aor. Μυι/, from AYMI. 



E. 

Εγείρο), tr. ίο wake ; (1 R. ej/fto, 2 eyfo, 3 εγορ,) R. Mid, intr. ίο awake , 
2 a. ηγξ>όμην, by syncope for ηγερόμην, 2 p. a. εγρήγορα, 
reduplication anomalous. 

"i?c5w, εσ&ω, and έσ&ίο), to eat ; (1 R. Ifo, 2 id", 3 εδ, also 2 R. φαγ, from 
ςοά^ω,) fut. εδέσο), p. pass, εδηδεσμαν for ηδεσμαι ; 1 aor. 
pass, ηδεσ&ην from εό"έο; ; f. m. ϊδομαι, and εδονμαν ; 2 perf. 
^'da, Attice ϊδηδα, p. a. ^ίοκα (by change of vowel for 
ηδεν.α), Attic ε^ίοκα, 2 aor. act. εςρα^ον, from φά^ω ; 
(είομοΜ- is rather the present used in the sense of the fu- 
ture.) 

Έ&ίλο), &έλω, &ελέο), I wish ; (R. εϋελε, and &ελε,) fut. ε&ελήσο), and 
&ελήσυ), τε&έληκα, R. 

*Έ&ο), I am wont ; only with Epic writers ; 2 perf. εϊω&α, Ionic εω&α, 
3I in the same signification. Plup. είώ&ενν, I was wont. 

EIAIl, to see ; (1 R. είδ, είδε, 2 ίδ, 3 οιδ,) an old verb, which, in the 
active voice, has only the 2 aor. εϊδον and ϊδον, used as a 
substitute for the aorist of o^ctco, ίο see — a verb which 
has only the present όράο), the imperfect wootor, Ionic• 
ώρο)ν, Attic εώρων, and the perfect loJoa /.α, perf. pass• 
ιώράμαυ; the other parts being made up from οπτομαι, 
and fi'ow, as here. In the middle and passive, εϊδω has 
the present εϊδομαι, the imperfect είδόμην, 1 aor. είσάμηι 
(εεισάμην), like the Latin videri, meaning to be seen, to 
seem, to appear, to resemble. Είδόμην, or ίδόμην, the 2 aor. 
mid. is also used in an active sense, particularly by the 
Attics, in the imperative ίδον, ϊδεσ&ε, as an interjection, 
see, lo, behold. 

Of this verb the 2d perfect οίδα, strictly / have seen, 
perceived, or comprehended, is never used as a perfect, but 
only as a present, meaning / know, having the pluperfect 
ηδειν, as an imperfect / knew, and the future m. εϊσομαυ, 
rarely είδήσω, I shall know, or experience. The other 
parts, viz. the aorists and perf. are supplied from γιγνώ- 
σχω. — For the parts of οίδα, see § 112, IX. 



§ 117. 



IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 177 



EJKJ1, 1 resemble, I Mem ; (1 R. ha, 2 J7v,_3 oi/.,) is used only in the 
2 perf. ot/.a, Ionic ϊοι,/.α, Attic ii/.a, employed as a present 
in the sense oi I am like, I seem, I resemble. Inf. tlxivcu, 
part. ιΙχώς 3 -νϊα, -ός. Hence the adverb ηχότως. From 
this verb comes πσ/.ιο and ισ/.ο>, to compare. 
EOm and ίΐλλο), to roll up, press togethi r, more commonly πλέω or tiXit» ; 
(R. ηλ, tu.c, or ft/?,) fut. -ήσο), &c. 1 aor. inf. ϊλσαν, it /.σαι, 
part, ε/.σα,', perf. pass, hkucu, 1 aor. ρ» έάλην, inf. άληναι,, 
or άληιαναι, part. «/.•-/..•, all of which have sometimes 
spiritus asper, and sometimes the spirit as lenis. 

Elui, I am ; (R. I,) from "Κ/ 2 ; fut. mid. έ'σοκοα, imperfect iyr. See SOL 
But 

£*,tu, 7 ^o, comes from "7i2;_f. m. fwrouat., p. ftoe, Attice ^tcc, imperf. 
7/n-j', Ion. ηϊα, ycc. See 303. 

ElIISl, or EJ1J1, to say ; used only in the aorists ; 1 aor. είπα, 2 tlnov, 
1 aor. mid. άπάμην. The initial ft- is retained through 
all the moods. Compounds used by the poets are ένέπο», 
ένέσπο), ένίσπο). The other parts are supplied from Ι^ω, 
which see. 

Εϊργο), to shut out ; (R. ειργ,) f. εϊρξο), &c. R. perf. pass. 3 pi. έίρχαται, 
Epic for ίίο'/μένοι, ίίσί, 272-12. But εϊργνί'μι*, f. εϊρξο), 
means to shat in. 

Έλαύνω, to drive ; (R. έλα,) fut. έλάσο), p. ηλα/.α, <fec. R. from έλάο), also 
in use. The Attic future is έλώ, ε/ας, έλα, &c. for έλάσω, 
ελάσεις, &c. 

ν Ελν.ο), and ελ/.νο), to draw ; (R. ΙΑκ and ελχυ,) f. ελξο) and ελ/.ΰσο), 1 aor. 
ft/Sa, &c. R. 

ΈνόΘ-ω, to shake, to agitate ; (R. ένο&,) 2 perf. tjvo&a, Att. ένήνο&α ; used 
chiefly in compounds ; as, παρ-ενήνο&εν, αν-ήνο&εν, &c. 

"Ενννμι,, to clothe ; (R. έ,) fut. 'ίσο) ; p. pass, είμαι*, and also ϊσμαι, from 
"£/2 ; άμφιένννμν has Attice άμφιώ for αμφνίσω ; άμφι,ά^ο) 
and άμφίσχω are rare forms of the same word. 

ν Επ«). See flVroj. 

"Επο), to be actively employed ; (1 R. ε;τ, 2 σττ,) 2 aor. εσπον and έσπό- 
μην, as if from ΣΠΕΙΙ. Mid. έπομαι,, to follow, fut. etyo- 
,«at. See t/o) ; to be found chiefly in compounds. 

"ΕΡΓΙΙ, and ε'οί-ο). See £έ»ω. See also in ft'oyoj. 

Έρίδαίνω, to contend; (R. ioodi,) fut. έριόήσο), &c. from 'ΕΡΙΛΕΙ1, per 
epenth. from ΈΡΐ All; hence ε 3 ο^ω, s. s. ; fut. εοϊσο>, 
&c. regular. 

"Ερομαι. See ϊίρω. 

ν Ερρω, ίο #0 away ; (R. ευ£ε,) f. έρρήσο), &c. R. from "EPPE'Jl. 

' Ερυ&αίνω, to make red; (R. έρν&ε, and έρευ&,) fut. έρνΟ-ήσω, &c. (R. 
from 'EPY&E'Jl), and also ερ«5σι«, as if from ΈΡΕΥ'ΘΙΙ. 

"Εογομαυ, to go ; (1 R. ελεν&, 2 ελ'νθ-, 3 έλνϋ;) fut. έλεΰσομαν, 2 perf. 
τ/Αί'5-α, Attice έλήλν&α, from 'ΕΛΕΥ'ΘΙΙ ; whencealso 2 
aor. act. ηλ&ον, by syncope for "ΗΛΥΘΟΝ. For ήλ&ον, 
έλ&εϊν, the Doric writers have rjv&ov, έν&εϊν. In some 
tenses ειμί is more in use than ερχομαο. 

"EPIl, by metathesis £ε'ω, and by epenth. εοεω; also εί'οω, by ep. ε<οε'ω, 
from one or other of which the tenses in use are regularly 
formed; (1 R. έρ, ρε, and έρε, 2. έρ,) thus, from ε'οω, 1 aor. 
m. ήράμην, from ρε'ο), fut. ρήσο), and 1 aor. p. έρρή&ην, 



178 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VEEBS. § 117. 

and c^qid -ην; from έρέυ), fut. ερέσο), p. εϊρηκα, p. pass, εϊ- 
ρημαο, fut. έρω, 2 a. m. ηρόμην; and. probably from είρέο), 
comes the fut. είρήσομαν. 

"^Ojtictl•, in the sense of to ask, occurs chiefly as an aorist to ερωτάο), 
soil, ηρόμην, subj. ερωμαϊ, imp. ερου, also f. ερήσομαι,. 

*Εσ&ίω, to eat ; used in the pres. and imp. for εόο). See εδώ. 

Εΐιόω, to sleep ; (R. ενδε,) fut. ενδήσω, &o. R. from EYJE'Jl, augments 
the initial vowel, thus, ηνδον; so in compounds, /.α&ηΰ- 
δον, &g. 

Ενρίσχο), to find; (1 R. ενρε, 2 ενρ,) f. ευρήσο), &o. R. from ΕΥΡΕ' Sl,bj 
epenth. from EY'PSl; whence a form of the 1 aor. m. 
ευράμην. This verb has ε before -ϋ-ήσομαν and -&ην ; as, 
ευρέθ-ην, 289-5. 

Έχ&άνομαν and απεχθάνομαι,, I am hated; (R. εχ&ε,) fut. εχ&ήσομαι, 
perf. p. ηγβημαν, R. from εχβέομαι, from I;^#oj, poetic, 
and used only in the present. 

"Εχω, to have ; (1 R. εχ, and σχε, 2 σ/,) fut. ε%ο> (with the aspirate), or 
αχήσω, p. εσχη/,α, &o. R. from ΣΧΕΊΙ, also σχέϋ-ο), 2 aor. 
εσχον, subj. σ/αί, opt. σχοίην, imp. σ/ές, inf. σ/ίϊν. This 
verb has another form of the present and imperf. ϊσχο) 
and ϊσχον, in the sense of ίο ZaoZoJ, which has the future 
σχησο), &q. ; so also σχέ,9ο), εσχε&ον. In the compounds 
observe the following varieties ; viz. άνέχο) (for which 
also άνασχέ&ο)), in the middle has a double augment in the 
imperf. and 2 aor. ήνενχόμην, ήνεσχόμην: άμπέχο), to en- 
close, has f. άμφέξο), 2 aor. ημποσχον; mid. άμπέχομαν or 
άμπισχνέομαι, to wear; fut. άμφέξομαο, Ζα,Οΐ.ήμπνσχόμην; 
νπνσχνεΌμαι, to 'promise, fut. νποσχήσομαι, &c. R. 

"Eyo), to cook ; (R. ί-ψε,) fut. εψήσυ), &c. Reg. from 'EWE'SL 

"ESI, to 'place ; (R. I,) Defective, 1 a. f ίσα, f. m. εϊσομαν, 1 a. m. είσάμην. 
The derivatives from this root are, 1. ημαι, I sit (perf. for 
εϊμαή, 30*7 ; 2. εί,ομαι, to set down (whence ϊζω and χαθί- 
ζο), R.); 3. εννυμν, to clothe; and, 4. t^/tt, to send, ήσο>, 
elxa, R. 304. 



Ζάω, ίο live ; (R. £<*,) f. m. ζήσομαν; 2 aor. εξϊγν, as if from ZHMI. 
For the contractions of this verb, see 251, Obs. 2. To 
supply the defective parts of this verb, tenses are bor- 
rowed from βι,όο). 

Ζενγνύο) and ζενγνυμι, to join ; (1 R. ζευγ, 2. ζνγ,) f. ζεύξω, <fefi. R. from 
ZEYTJl, 2 a. p. εΧνγψ: 

Ζωνννω, ζώνννμι, to gird ; (R. Co,) f. ξώσο;, &c. R. from ζόω. perf. pass. 
εζο)(Τμαι>. 

"Ηόω, ίο sweeten, to please ; (R. ^,) f. ψω, &c. R. s. s. as άνδάνω, 

which see. 
*Ημαι, to sit ; &ee"EJl, and 307. ? 

Ήμ/, by aphseresis for ψημί, I say ; likewise ην, η, for ϊφην, εφη. See 

309. 



§117. IRREGULAR ΛΧΌ DEFECTIVE VERBS. 179 



Θ. 

Θέλω. See ε θέλω. 

Θήφω, to be amazed; (1 R. &ηφ, 2 &αφ, 8 &ηφ\ used only in the 2 aor. 
ϊταφον, and "2 perf. τέθ*ηπα, in which the second aspirate 
is changed instead of the first* contrary to 43-4. 

θηγάνω, to sharpen ; (R. &ηγ,) f. #/yi(.>, <fcc. R, from θτ^ω, s. s. 

Θιγγάνο), to touch; (R. dty,) f. &ίξω, etc. R. from ,97;'''> ; 2 aor. εθι,γον. 

θνήσχο), to die; (1 K. Oraund Our, 2 &av,) f. m. &ανονμαι>) p. τέΟνη/.α, 
and by syncope, τεθναα, whence the common forms, τε#- 
ναμίν, τί&νασιν, τι&νάναι, <tc. (2t35-5, ό, c) ; from ΘΑ' Nil 
comes f. m. ϋανοϋμαν, and 2 aor. a. e&avov. From the p. 
a. τέθ-νηκα, comes a new present τί&νή/.ω, f. τιϋνηΐω. 
Parts also occur as if from a form in μι ; thus, τέ&να&ι,, 
τεΟναΐ^ν, as if from τέ&νημι. 

Θοοννο), Φόοννμι,, &οώσχο>, to leap, or spring ; (R. &ορ, from ΘΟ'ΡΙΙ,) 
f. m. {ropovueu. Ion. &oo£ou(*i,, 2 aor. {U9ooov. 

I. 

'IJPY'NJl, Ιίδονμυ, from ttfoi'oj, Reg. tr. ίο sei, or place ; (R 'Jo υ and 
iolouv,) f. Ιό'ρνσυ), &c. R. 1 aor. p. ίδξύν&ην. 

'Jtapo), tCwj ίο s<?i; (R. iCa, and tJ,) fut. ίζήσω, <fec. R. from t£cu/j ; and 
ί,'σω, &c. R. from ϊζω. In like manner χα&υΧάνω, χ<?4-ί£ω, 
&c. See"EIL 

'7ημι>, to go ; pres. m. uucu. See 308. 

'Ίημι>, to send ; (R. ε,) f. ? t ata, p. fi/.a, 1 aor. ηχα, from" ESI. 304. 

Ίχάνο), ι/.νεομαι, to come ; (R. ίκ,) from ϊχο), s. s. R. "whence they have 
f. m. ΐξομαυ, perf. pass, ίγμαι, 2 aor. ίχόμην. 

Ίλάσ/.ομαν, to propitiate ; (R. Uce,)£ Ιλάσομαι, <fec. R. from Uaw; whence 
JAHMI, intr. ίο be propitious, of which some parts occur 
in Homer. 

"Ιπταμαι. See πίτομαι. 

"Ιση μι,, to know ; m. Χσαμα,ι, used in the singular number by Doric wri- 
ters only. See eido). 

"Ισχω. See ε/ω. 

JC 

ΚαΟ-εΐ,ομα,ι, to sit; {/.ατά and εΐομαι, R. U,) fut. χα&εδονμαν, 1 aor. p. 

εκαθ-εσθ-τ/ί'. 
Κΰμ,ΟΛ. See 308. 

Κίλομαι, to order; (R. κε/ε,) f. χελήσομαν, <fec. R. from χελεομαν. 
KiQccvviiu), Mtoavvvuh to mix; (R. κεοα.) fut. χεράσο), &c. Reg. from 

κεοάω. Sometimes κε'κοακα, by syncope for κεκε'^ακα, in 

the perf. active. So also in the perf. p. κέ/.ραμαι and Ion. 

χεχρημαν. Sometimes it inserts σ before -ϋ-ήσουαν, in 1 f. 

pass., sometimes not. Hence also χιονάω, from which 

κΐονημι, s, s. imper. χίρνη for χΐρνα&ι. 
Κήδο), tr. ίο Mia&e omxious ; (1 R. κ^όε, 3 κ?/<)",) f. χηδησο), 2 p. χεχη&α, 

with a present intransitive sense, ίο oe anxious. Whence 

the Homeric future κεκαό^σομα*. 



180 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VEEBS. § 117. 

Κερδαίνω, to make gain ; (R. κερδαυν, and χερδα,) f. χερδανώ and xiq~ 

δήσο) ; perf. χεχέρόηχα, or -ana. 
Id/avo), to overtake; (1 R. χιχε, 2 κί•/,) f. χυχήσο), <fcc. R. from χνχίο)\ 2 

aor. εχιχον, and from Kl'XHMJ, εκίχην. 
Κίχρημι,, to lend ; (R. /(>a,) fut. χρήσο), &c. R. from χράο). 
Κίο), to go ; not used in pres. indie, but in the other moods and imperf. 

ind., and is accented like the 2 aor. 
Κλάζω, to cry aloud ; (1 R. χλαγγ, 2 χλαγ, 3 χληγ,) f. κλάγξ,ώ, &c. R. 

from χλάγγω ; 2 perf. χεχληγα, as if from χλήζω. 2 a. εκ- 

vla/ov. 
Κλνο), to hear ; (R. κλυ,) Reg. except the imperative pres. χλΐι&ϋ, as if 

from KA YMI, as well as χλνε, reg. 
Κορεννύω, χορενννμν, to satisfy ; (R. κοξ){,) f. KO£eao>and χορήσο), <fec. R. 

from κοοε'ο; ; p. p. χεχόρεσμαν. Κορεω, reg. ίο sweej?, is a 

different verb. 
Κράζο), to cry ; (R. χραγ,) f. χράξο), <fec. R. except the imperative per- 
fect χέχραχΌν, 2 a. εχραγον. 
Κρεμαννύο), χρεμάννυμι, and χρήμνημί, to hang ; (R. κρέμα,) f. χρεμάσο), 

&c. R. from KPEMA'JL Attic f. κ^μώ, «ς, a, <fcc. 264, 

(1). Perf. p. χρέμαμαυ without the augment. 
Κ,τείνω, to kill ; (1 R. χτενν, 2 χταν, 3 χτον,) fut. κτί^ώ, ώο. R. ; 2 aor. 

εχτανον, and εκτ^ν from ΚΤΗΜΙ. 
Κνλίνδο), to roll ; (R. κϋλ»,) fut. χυλίσο), &c. R. from κυλίω, s. s. 
Κννίω, to kiss; (R. χύνε, and κυ 3 ) fut. χννήσο>, &c. R. ; also χύσω, &c. R. 

from κύω. 



Λαγχάνω, to receive by lot ; (1 R. ληχ, 2 λα/, 3 λογχ,) f. λ^ξω, &c. R. from 
AH'XJL 2 aor. ϊλαχον, perf. λί,λογχα. § 101, 5. 

Λαμβάνω, to take; (1 R. A?//?, 2 λα/9, 3 Λ.?//?,) f. m. λήιρομαο, p. εϊληφα. 
<fec. R. from AH'JJJL Ionic perf. λελάβηκα; likewise f. 
λάμιρομαν, &c. R. as if from A A' MB SI. Also of the same 
signification, — 

Ααί,ομαι, λαΐ,νμαν, dep. Ionic and Doric forms for λαμβάνω. 

Αανϋάνο), to be hid ; (1 R. ληθ; 2 λα&, 3 ληθ;) ί λήσω, &c. R. from 
λήϋ -oy; in the middle voice, — 

Λαν&άνομαυ, sometimes λή&ομαν, to forget; f. λίβομαι, <fec. from the 
same. 

Αούο), to wash ; (R. λον,) in the Attic dialect generally omits by syn- 
cope the short vowel after ov ; thus, ελου, ελονμεν, λονμαν, 
λοΰσθ -at, <fec. for ελονε, ελονομεν, λούομαι λονεσϋαι,, &Q. 

Αονεο), in some of its tenses occurs in Homer. 

Αώ, to will ; found only in the sing, λώ, λης, λϊ[, plur. λώμες, λώντι, Doric 
as if from AA'Sl, contracted like ί,άω, 251, Obs. 2. 



M. 

Μαν&άνο), to learn ; (1 R. μα&ε, 2 μαϋ;) fut. μα&ήσομαι,, p. μεμά&ηκα, 

&g. R. from MA9ESI ; 2 aor. εμαϋον. 
Μάχομαι, to fight ; (1 R. μαχε, 2 μα/,) fut μαχήσομαι, and μαχέσομαί, 

&c. R. from MAXEOMAL 



§117. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 1S1 

Μάω, an old form from which arise the three following defective verbs ; 
viz. 

1. Feri'. fclucta, to strive; with a present signification. 

2. Pros. m. μάομαυ, contr. μώμαν, to desire, to seek. 

3. Fut. and 1 aor. m. μάσομαν, εμασάμην also from, μαίομαν, to 

seek. 
Mt&wr*<o, to intoxicate ; (R. μεΟι;) f. με&νσω, tfce. from με&ύο), s. s. 
Μ&λω, to care for ; (1 R. μίλε, 2 μελ, 3 μη).,) ί. μελήσο), from MEAE'Jl. 

2 aor. ϊμελον, perf. μέμηλα. In the active voice it is used 

mostly in the third person impersonally, μέλει, ϊμελε, ώα 

§1U,2. 
Μίλλω, to be about to be ; (R. μέλλε,) f. μελλ.ήσο), &c. R. from μελλίω. 
Μηκάομαι, to bleat; (1 R. μη/.αδ, 2 μα/., 3 μη•/.,) f. μη/.άσομαν, <fcc. R. 

(μη/.ά'Ζω, s. s.) 2 aor. ϊμα/.ον, 2 perf. μίμη/.α, from MH'KJl. 
Mtyvvo), μ'ιγννμο, μίσγο), to mix ; (R. wt-y,) f. «iiioj, &c. R. from «tyoj, 2 

aor. εμίγην from ΜΓΓΗΜΙ. 
Μιμνήσ/.ίο, to remember ; (R. «να,) fut. μνήσο), &c. R. from μνάω. 
Μοογννω, μόργννμι*, to ivipe off; (R. μοογ,) f. μόοξο;, <fec. from MO'PJTJL 
Mv/'CiouciL•, to bellow; R. Doric forms, 2 a. ϊμν/.ον, 2 p. μέμν/.α, as if 

from MY'IUL 



N. 

Καίω, intrans. to dwell ; (R. va,) f. νάσο), <fcc. R. from vao), trans, to cause 

to dwell. 
Nitw, to wash ; (R. vm,) f. νίψω, &c. R. from νίπτω, s. s. 
Νοέω, to think; reg. is contracted and accented by the Ionics like 

βοάω ; thus, f. νώσω, 1 a. ένωσα, ένένωτο, <fec. 



"θ£ω, to Rmell ; (R. ό<5, and ο^ε,) f. ό'σο), R. also οΐίσω and Σ>/σοΛ p. 
οκη/.α, <fec. R. from 'OZE'Jl, 2 perf. ωύα, with the Attic 
reduplication οδο)δα, with a present sense. 

Οί' /vvoi, οϊγννμο, to open; (R. οιγ,) f. olico, <fcc. R. from οϊγοκ See ανοίγω. 

θΐδα. See «<5'ω, and 810. 

Οίδαίνυι, οίδάνο), οίδίσχυ), to swell; (R. otdf,") f. οίδησω, <fec. R. from 
οίδέο), Th. s. s. 

Οϊομαι,, and οίμαυ, to think ; (R. otf,) f. οΐήσομαι*, (fee. R. from οίέομαο] 
imperf. ωόμην; οίοι, with the diphthong resolved, is re- 
tained in some dialects. 

Οΐγοααι, to go; (R. οίχε,) f. οίχήσομαν, p. ωχημαι,, R. as if from OIXE'O- 
MAJ\ 

ΌλισΘ-αΐνο), ολι,σ&άνο), to glide ; (1 R. Ιλ.ισ&ε, 2 ολ.ι,σϋ;) f. ολ.ισ&ήσο), etc. 
R. from ολνσ&εω, s. s. ; 2 aor. ωλισ&ον. 

Όλλύυί, ολλνμο, to destroy; (1 R. όλί, 2 ο/, 3 ο/,) f. ο/έσω, etc, R. from 
'OAE'Sl ; Att. fut. a. oXrTi, m. ο).οΤ<μαι, 2 aor. ώλόμην, p. ώλα, 
Attice oAo>J.oc. Other forms are ολλ.ω, ολέ/.ο), ολίσ/.ω. 

Όμνίω, ομννμι, to swear ; (1 R. 6uo, 2 6μ, from "OMJl,) £ ομόσω, etc. 
'R. from 'OMO'Sl, commonly with the reduplication in the 
perfect; f. m. ομονμαι from "OMJL 
9 



182 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VEEBS. §117. 

Όμοργνύω, ομόργνυμι,, to wipe off; (Ε. δμόργ,) f. δμόρξο), (fee. R. s. s. as, 

μοργννο), which see. 
"Ονημν, ονίνημν, to help ; (R. ova,) f. δνήσω, (fee. R. from "ON All. 2 a. 

οη>ήμην. ' 
*Ορμαίνω, to rush ; (R. ορμά,) f. δρμησο), (fee. R. from δρμάο), s. 8. 
Όρνύω, οοννμι,, to excite ; (R. όο,) f. οοσ<«, (§ 101. 4. (6.) ) from "OP/2 ; 

f. ορω from οςχ», 2 perf. 6'ξ»ωξ>α; hence a new present, 

ορσο), s. s. and also ορο')ρο). 
ΟσφραΙνομαν, to smell ; (R. οσψραιν and δσφρα,) fut. οσφρανονμαν, R. 

and οσψρήσομαι, «fee. R. from ΌΣΦΡΕΌΜΑΙ, by epenth. 

from οσψρομαι,, from which ώσφρόμην ; hence also δσφράο), 

and οσφράομαί, s. s. 
Οντάο), ούτάζο), οντάσχο), OY'THMI, to hit, to wound; (R. οντά,) fut. 

ουτάσο) and ουτήσυ», (fee. R. from οντάω, infin. ουτάμεναν, 

Horn, for οντάναν. 
Οφίίλο), οφλο), οφλοσχάνω, to owz ; viz. money, punishment, i. e. ίο δβ 

guilty ; (1 R. οφείλε and οφλί, 2 δφελ,) f. οφει,λήσο) and 

όφλήσω, (fee. R. from οφει-λίο) and οφλίω ; 2 aor. wqpfAor, 

used only in the expression of a wish ; thus, ft^-' ωφελον, 

Ο that Ι, εϊ& ωφελες, Ο that thou, (fee. 
Οφλι,σχάνω, to forfeit ; (1 R. οφ/ίί, 2 όφΑ,) f. δφλήσο), p. ώςρλι/κα, 2 aor. 

ίΐ. 

Παίο), to strike ; (R. 7rai. and πάω,) f. πα'ισω and πανησω ; the remain- 
ing tenses are from the root Trat. 

Πάσχο), to suffer ; (1 R. ττενθ-, seldom πα&ε, 2 7Γα#, 3 πον&,) fut. m. 
πείσομα,ν, § 6, 18 ; 2 perf. πίπον&α ; both from ΠΕΝΘ11 , 
2 aor. επα&ον, also fut. παϋ-ήσο), (fee. R. from ΠΑΘΕΊΙ. 

Πατίομ,αν, to taste, to eat ; (R. 7r«, from Π All,) 1 aor. επασάμην, p. p. 
πίπασμαο. 

Πέσσο), to digest ; (R. 7Tf?r,) f. πέψω, (fee. R. from πίπτω, s. s. 

Πετανννο), πετάνννμν, to expand ; (R. ττθτα,) f. πετάσω, R. from πετάω, 
exc. p. p. πίπταμαι, which is from the syncopated form 
2ττά(Α). Other forms are πιτνάω and πίτνημν, s. s. 

Πί,τομαι*, πίταμαι, πετάομαν, to fly ; (R. 7Τ?τα,) f. πετήσομαν, (fee. R. 
from πετάομαν ; 2 aor. ϊπτην from ϊπτημν ; also p. p. 7Ti- 
πότημαι, from ποτάομαν ; by syncope έπετόμην becomes 
έπτόμην, and so of other tenses. 

Πίφνον. See φίνο). 

Πήσσο), πηγνύο), πνγννμι, to fasten ; (1 R. 7r?/y, 2 yraj/, 3 ττ^/,) f. πήΐω, 
(fee. R. from ΓΙΗ' Γ11 ; 2 perf. πίπηγα, 2 a. pass, επάγην. 

Τΐιλνάω, πίλνημο, to approach ; same signification as πελάζο), from 
which the other tenses are taken. 

ΪΙιμπλάνω and πίμπλημν, to fill ; (R. ΤΙΛΑ, whence πίμπλημι,,) f. ττλτ/- 
σω ; (fee. R. from Π A All = π?.ή&ο). "When, in composi- 
tion, μ, comes before the initial ττ in this word, it is omit- 
ted before πλ ; as, εμπίπλημν ; so also in 

ΪΙΙμπρημί, to burn ■ (R. πρα,) f. πρήσυ), (fee. R. from ΠΡ All = πρήϋο). 

Πίνο), to drink ; (R. 7ro and m,) fut. πωσω, (fee. R. from JJO'll ; 2 aor. 
ετ^ον from πίω, Th. ; imperat. commonly πΐ&ν, sometimes 
3Tts ; fut. m. πίομαι*, probably the present used in the fu- 



§ 117. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 183 

ture sense ; or by elision of σ for πίσομαι*', πιονμαι. is 

also found. From this theme also comes 
ΤΙιπισχω, to cause to drink ; (i\. nv,) f. πίσω, ttc. R. from πιο). 
ΙΊι,ποάσχω, to sell ; (11. πυα, from JlPA'Ji.) The forms in use are πί- 

πυάχα, πίποαμαι, εποά&ην, πεποάσομαν. The future 

and aorist active are wanting. 
Πίπτω, Attic and poetic πίτνω, to fall ; (1 R. πετ and πτο, 2 πεσ, 

from ΙΙΕΣΕΙΙ,) i. πέσο), 1 a. έπεσα, from the ancient 

HE 'Til ; and πτώσω, p. πίπτωχα, from Π TO' J I; 2 aor. 

ϊπεσον, f. m. πεσονμαυ, as if from ΠΕΣ Ε J I. 
ΠλάΖο), to lead astray ; (1 R. πλαγγ, 2 πλαγ,) f. πλάγϊο), &c. R. from 

πλάγγω ; 2 aor. Ι'ττ/α/ον. 
Πλήσσο), to strike ; (1 R. πληγ, 2 π^/ for πλαγ,) f. πλήξω, &c. R. exc. 

2 aor. p. επλήγην ; compounds regular throughout. 
ΠΡΪΑΜΑΙ, to buy ; of which there is in use only 2 aor. επςιάμψ, as 

an aorist to ωνέομαν. 
Πνν&άνομαν, to learn by inquiry ; (1 R. 7rfi/#, 2 7π>θ•,) £ πενσομαι, &c. 

R. from poetic πεν&ομαν ; 2 aor. m. έπν&όμην, perf. pass. 



JPICw, εοδο),"ΕΡΓΛ, to do ; (1 R, §?y and εογ, 3 6oy from 2 UPP,) fut. 

oe'Soj and ερζυ), &c. R. 2 perf. εοογα. 
'Ρέο), to flow ; (R. Qfu and £i••?,) f. $ίΐ'σω and ^νήσω, p. ε^νηχα, &c. R. 

from (h /έω, 2 aor. pass. iq§v?/v. 
Τ Ρηγ*ύο), δήγνυμι,, tr. ίο break ; (1 R. (j^y, 2 ^ay, 3 $wy, irreg.) f. ^ήί,ο), 

&c R. from §ήσσω (i. e. C PHTJ>), s. s. 2 perf. «^wya, 

with in trans, signification, lam torn hi pieces, 2 a. pass. 

εοοΰγην. 
'Ρωννύω, §ο')νννμι,, to strengthen ; (R. qo,) f. £ώσω, &c. R. from 'PO'Il. 



Σ. 

Σβενννω, σβένννμν, to extinguish ; (R. <τβε,) f. σβίσω, <fcc. R. from σ/?ε'ω ; 

also p. εσβηχα, 2 a. εσβην, intr. ίο οό owi ; from ΣΒΗΜΙ. 
Σενω, to move, impel ; reg. except that, like verbs beginning with o, 

it commonly doubles σ after the augment, and, in the 

1 aor., omits σ, the tense-sign ; thus, 1 aor. ϊσσενα, mid. 

εσσενάμην, perf. pass, εσσνμαο, 235, Obs. 
Σχεδανννο), σχεδάνννμι, σχνδνάω, σχίδνημν, to scatter ; (R. σχεδα,) fut. 

σχεδάσο), Attic σχε δω, &c. R. from σχεδάω ; p. p. έσχέ- 

δασμαι*. 
Σχέλλω, to dry up ; (R. σχελ and σχαλε,) f. σχελω, R. also σχαλήσο), p. 

εσχληχα (bv svneope for έσχάληχα), 1 aor. εσχηλα, 2 aor. 

iov.//^, from ΣΚΛΗΜ1 
Σμάο), σμης, <kc. 251, Οό -s. 2, ίο wipe; (R. σμα and σμηχ,) f. σμήσω, 

(kc. 1 aor. p. έσμήχ&ην, from σμήχο), s. s. 
Σπενδω, to make a libation ; (R. σπενδ,) f. σπείσο), &c. R. § 6, 18. 
Στοοιννΰω, στοοένννμι, to spread ; (R. στορί,) f. στοοέσο), <fcc. R. from 

ΣΤΟΡΕΊΙ; alsc, 



181 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 117. 

Στρωνννω, ατρώνννμν, to spread ; (R. στρο,) f. στρώσω, &o. R. from 
ΣΤΡΟΊΙ, by metathesis and syncope from ΣΤΟΡΕΊΙ. 

Σχύν. See εχω. 

Σώζω, to save ; (R. σωδ or σοι,) f. σώσω, «fee. R. exe. 1 aor. pass, εσώθ-ην 
instead of εσώσΟ-ην and εσαώθην, from the older form 
σαόω. 



Ταλάω, to bear ; (R. τλα,) f. τλήσω, &c. reg. from the syncopated form 

τλάυ), s. s. ; 2 aor. ετλην, from τλημν. 
Τέμνω, to cut ; (1 R. τεμ, also τμα and T/nyy, 2 τα /t, 3 τομ,) fut. τιμώ, 

reg. also f. τμήσο) and τμ^ξο;, from τμάω and τμήγο) ; 2 

aor. εταμον and ετμανον, — sometimes ετίμον. 
Τέρσομαν, intr. ίο olry ; 2 aor. inf. pass, τερηναν and τίρσήμΐναι, as il 

from έτέρσην. 
Τέτμον and ϊτιτμον, a defective 2 aorist used in Homer, ίο raeei traiA, 

ίο find. 
Τίκτω, to bear ; (1 R. τεκ, 2 τεκ, 3 τοκ,) f. τεί -co, <fcc. R. from TE'KJl; 

2 aor. ετνκον, 2 perf. τετοκα. 
Τίνω, τννννω, τινννμι, to expiate ; (R. τί,) f. τίσω, &c. R. from t/oj, ίο 

h onou r. 
Τντράω, τιτραινω, τίτρημν, to bore; (R. too,) f. τρήσω, &o. R. from 

τοάω. 
Τοτςώσκω, to wound ; (R. too,) f. τρο')σο), &c. R. from τοόω. 
Τρέχω, to run ; (1 R. θ"0£/ and δραμ, 2 δραμ,) f. ϋρέϊο), p. ίεεΤοάμτ/κα, 

244, .5a;c. &c. R. from JPAMSl ; 2 aor. εό^οα^ον, f. m. 

δραμονμαι. 
Τρνχω, to consume ; (R. τρνχο,) 1 aor. ετρνχωσα, <fec. 
Τνγχάνο), to be, to obtain ; (1 R. τ<)/ε and τΐνχ, 2 τυ/,) f. τνχησω, &c. 

R. from ΤΥΧΕ' 'SI ; 2 aor. ετνχον, fut. m. Tfvfojwu from 

τίύχο). — -Voie. This verb must be carefully distinguished 

from the regular kindred verb τενχω, to prepare ; fut. 

τινξω, &c. R. 

Y. 

Ύπισχνεομαν, to promise ; (from υπό and σχίω,) f. νποσχήσομαι,, <fec. R. 
from ΎΠΟΣΧΕΌΜΑΙ. See* έ/ω. 



Φ. 

Φάγυμα,ν, pres. m. ίο eai ; (R. φαγ,) also the future for φαγονμαι,, in the 
N". T. and later writers by the same anomaly as εδομαι 
and πίομαο ; 2 aor. εψαγον. The rest of the tenses are 
formed from εσ&ίο). See εδω. 

Φάσκω. See ςρ7/μ*• 

Φίνω, to kill ; (1 R. φεν, 2 φαν,) 2 aor. πεψνον and επίψνον, by redupl. 
and syncope for ϊφανον ; part, τιέφνων, accented on the 
penult, p. p. ηίφαμαν, 3 f. p. πεφήσομαι>. Hence ψόνοα, 
from 3d root φον. 



§117. IRREGULAR AXD DEFECTIVE VERBS. 185 

Φΐρο>, to bear ; used in the pres. and imperial R. ol, eye», and ενεγχ, 

2 fofyx, 8 fro/.) f. οισω (from Oi J2), ιρ.ΉΝΕΧΑ, <fec. R. 

from *ENKKJl\ also 1 f. pass, οίσ&ήσομαι; 1 aor. act. 

ftveyxa for ηνεγξα, from ΈΝΕ'ΓΚΙΙ, Attice commonly 

ijvti/.a, <fec ; 2 aor. ηνεγχον, from the same ; 2 perf. ηνοχα 

from 'ENE'XJL 
Φημΐ, to say ; (R. φα,) f. gpr /σω ; 2 aor. ϊψην. See 309. 
Φ&άνω, to come before, to anticipate ; (R. q>&a,) f. ψ&άσω or φ&ησω, 

<fcc. R. from ΦΘΑΊΙ, 2 aor. εφθ-ην from φ&ημί. 
Φ&ίνο), to corrupt, to fall ; (R. g#t,) f. φ&ίσυ), <fec. R. from φ#ί(υ, s. s. ; 

other forms are φ^ίσ&ο), φ&ι,νίω, and φ&ι,νύ&ο), used in 

the pres. and imperf. 
Φραγνύω, φράγννμν, to enclose ; (R. φοα^,) f. ςοοάξω, <fec. R. from ΦΡΑ'- 

1'Jl, same as φράσσο), s. s. 
Φν^ο), to fee, to put to fight ; (R. φι%) f. ςρι'Ίω, <fec. R. Other kindred 

forms are φύγο) and φεύγω, R. and it has the derivatives 

φνζάο) and φύζημι*. 
Φύρο), to mix, to knead ; (R. φνρ and φνρα,) f. φνράσω, Ion. φνρήσω ; old 

fut. φύρσο) ; 1 a. εφυρσα ; p. p. πέφνρμαυ and πεφύραμαι,. 
Φύω, to beget ; (R. φί',) f. φύσο), 1 aor. εφνσα. But the perf. πέφνχα, 

and 2 aor. eiqpw, have a passive or intransitive significa- 
tion, ίο δ<? begotten, to be, to become. 



XasO), χανδάνω, to recede, to stand open, to contain ; (R. χαδ,) fut. χάσω, 
«fee. R. from XA'/fSl (s. s. with KA'ZJl, whence κέκασμα* 
or χεχαδμαν) ; 2 aor. εχαδον and κέκα(5ον, 2 perf. χεχαδα, ; 
derivatives and varieties of forms are numerous. 

Xalvo), χάσχο), χασχάΐω, to gape or yawn ; (R. /aw,) f. χάνω, <fcc. R. 

# from χαίνο), a derivative from XA'll ; from which also 

κάίΓο; and χάΐ,ω ; which see above. 

Xaiqo), to rejoice ; (1 R. χανρ, later χανρε, 2 ^αξ>, 3 /tjo,) f. χαίοήσω, 
&c. R. ; 2 a. p. εχάρην, perf. χεχάρημαι, and χεχαρμαν. 

Χανδάνω, to grasp ; (1 R. χανδ, χενδ, 2 /αύ", 3 χανδ,) f. m. χείσομαι>, 
§6, 18 ; 2 aor. έ/αίον, 2 perf. χέχανδα. 

Χάσχω. See χαίνο». 

Χέυ), to pour out ; (R. /fv,) f. χεύσο), <fec. R. 1 aor. εχενσα and l/fa (by 
elision for έ /f ι/σα) ; hence imperative χέον, χεάτω, <fec. 
infinitive χίαν ; also f. χεω, χεις, χει, mid. χεομαι*. 

Χράω. This verb has five different forms, with as many different sig- 
nifications ; root of all, χρα. 

1. χράω, to give an oracular response ; regular. 

2. χίχρημι, to lend; like ϊστημυ. 

3. χρή, it is necessary; partly like verbs in μι, (see Impers. 

' Verbs, §114). 

4. χράομαν, to use; in the contracted tenses takes η for a, 

s 261, Oos. 2. 

5. άττόχρι,, it suffices ; pi. άποχρωαιν, inf. άπο/ζ^ν, <fcc. 
.X^wrruoj, χρώνννμι, to colour ; (R. /ξ>ο,) f. χρώσω, <fec. R. p. pass, κε- 

/οωσμαί-. 



186 SIGNIFICATION OF ADVEKBS. § 118, 119 

Χωνννω, χώνννμι,, to heap, to dam ; (R. χο } ) f. χώσω, &c. "R. from χόω, 
s. s. ρ erf. pass, -/.έχο)σμαν. 



SI. 

'Ω,&έω, to push ; (R. ω& and ώ&ΐ,) has the syllabic augment through- 
out ; thus, imp. ίώθουν, f. ώσω and ώ&ήσο), regular from 
both; 1 f. p. ωσϋ-ήσομα,ν. 



§118. INDECLINABLE WORDS OR PARTICLES. 

3 1 8. — The Indeclinable parts of speech, sometimes denominat- 
ed. Particles, are those which suffer no change of form by inflec- 
tion. They are the Adverb (which includes the Interjection), 
the Preposition, and the Conjunction. 

THE ADVERB. 

319. — An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, 

an adjective, or another adverb, to modify it, or to 

denote some circumstance respecting it. 

Adverbs may be considered in respect of Signification, Deri- 
vation, and Comparison. 



§119.— THE SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

320. — In respect of signification, adverbs may be arranged in 
Greek as they are in Latin and other languages, under the fol- 
lowing heads : 

1. Adverbs of Place ; comprehending those which signify, 

1st. Rest in a place. These generally end in &ι, σι, ov, η, οι, 
χον, χη ; as, άγρό&ι, in the field. 

2d. Motion from a place. These generally end in &εν or &s 
as, άγρόΦεν, from the field. 

3d. Motion to a place. These generally end in δε, σε, ζε; as 
άγρόνδε, to the field. 324-6. 

4th. Motion through or by a place. These are generally femi- 
nine adjectives in the dative singular, having όδφ under- 
stood ; as, ally, by another way. 



§119. 



SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 



is; 



2. Adverbs of Time; as, vvv, now; τότε, then; ποτέ, some- 
times, Ac. 

3. Adverbs of Quantity: πόσον, how much; πολύ, much; 
oUyov, a little, Ac. 

4. Adverbs of Quality; these end in ως; sometimes in a and 
5 (which are properly datives of the first declension) ; also in 
;;, ι, ti, δον, δην, στι, and ξ, 

5. Adverbs of Manner ; (viz. of action or condition,) including 
those which express exhortation, affirmation, negation, granting, 
forbidding, interrogation, doubt, <fcc. 

6. Adverbs of Relation ; or such as express circumstances of 
comparison, resemblance, order, assemblage, separation, &c. 

7. Adverbs of Exclamation ; in other languages usually de- 
nominated Interjections. (See 321, Obs. 2.) 

321 . OBSERVATIONS. 

06s. 1. Some adverbs have such an affinity, that, beginning 
with a vowel, they are indefinites ; with π, interrogatives • 
with τ, redditives, or responsives, as follows : 



INDEFINITE. 

which way. 



ft om n\ by what means. 
οτί, όπότί, ή νίκα, when. 

6>9f j-, όπόθ -tv, whence. 
oil, or 6&o, where, 
όσον. how much. 
οίον, after what manner. 
όσά /.u;, how often. 



INTERROGATIVE. 

r ( which way? 
>n (by ichat means Ρ 
πότί, πηνί/.α, when? 

πόθίν, whence? 
π or, or πό & ι>, where? 
πόσον, how much? \ner ? 
ποΐον, after what man- 
ποσά/Λς, how often ? 



REDDITITE. 



k or j tl 

'iTfl, I 0? 



by this means. 

rr vt - 



τόχί, τψ'ίχα, 
καΓτα, then. 
τό&ίν, thence. 
τόΟί, there, 
τόσον, so 'much. [ner. 
τοΐον, after that inan- 
τοσά /.u;, so often. 



Obs. 2. Under adverbs in Greek are classed those particles of 
exclamation which express some sudden emotion of the mind, and 
are, in the grammars of most other languages, denominated In- 
terjections. The most common of these are the following, which 
express — 

Rejoicing ; as, lov, ίω. Condemning ; as, ώ, φεν. 

Grieving ; as, ιοί; ω, and ώ. Admiring ; as, ώ, βαβαί, παπαι. 

Laughing ; as. a, a. Deriding; as, lov, ω, ο. 
Bewailing ; as, at, bi Ιώ, ότοτοϊ. Calling ; as, ω. 

Wishing ; as. ει, είθε. Unjoining silence; as, ι], η. 

Rejecting; as. άπαγε. Threatening; as, ovai 

Praising; as, εία, ενγε. Raging; as, ενοΐ. 



188 FORMATION" -OF ADVERBS. §120. 

§120. THE FORMATION AND DERIVATION OF 

ADVERBS. χ 

322. — A few adverbs in Greek are primitives; as, vvv, now ; 
χαμαί, on the ground ; χ&ε'ς, yesterday. 

But the greater part are derivatives, and are of two classes. 

323. — I. The first class of derivatives consists of such words as 
are not strictly speaking adverbs, but are so denominated from 
being sometimes used in an adverbial sense, either by virtue of 
their signification, or by ellipsis for an adverbial phrase ; of these 
the following are examples : 

1. The accusative of neuter adjectives ; as, πρώτον, το πρώ- 

τον ; πρώτα, τα πρώτα, first ; τα μάλιστα, chiefly ; οξν, 
sharply. 

2. The oblique cases of nouns and pronouns ; as, 
Gen. ομον, together ; irom ομός, united. 

ονδαμον, never ; from ονδαμός, no one. 
Dat. κνκλορ, around (i. e. in a circle) ; from κύκλος, a circle. 

τάχει, swiftly, with swiftness ; from τάχος, swiftness. 
Ace. αρχήν and αρχάς (sup. κατά), from the beginning ; 
from αρχή, the beginning. 

δίκψ, as, like ; from δίκη, manner. 

3. Verbs are sometimes used as adverbs ; thus, 
The imperative ; as, αγε, nih, ΐδε, &c. 

The 2d aorist active; as, οφελον, ωφελον ; from οφείλω. 
The present optative -of «μ*; viz. είεν. 

Obs. 1. To these may be added — 

1st. Nouns compounded with prepositions ; as, εκποδών, 

out of the way. 
2d. Prepositions united together ; as, παρίκ, abroad. 
3d. Prepositions joined with adverbs ; as, έπειτα, then. 

324. — II. The second class of derivatives consists of such 
words as have undergone a change of form, and are used only in 
an adverbial sense. These are so numerous and varied in form 
and derivation, that a perfect classification cannot be given. The 
following, as being the most important, may be noticed ; viz. 

1. Adverbs in ως, express a circumstance of quality or man- 
ner, and are for the most part formed from adjectives by chang- 
ing ος of the nominative or genitive into ως ; as, φίλως from φί- 
λος ; σωφρόνως from ϋώφρων, gen. σώφρονος. 



g 121. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 1S9 

2. Adverbs in ι, or ει, express a circumstance of manner, and 
generally formed from nouns; as, άναψεί, without bloodshed ; 

αύτοχειρί, with one's own hand. 

3. Adverbs in τι and τει are formed from the verbal adjec- 
tives in τός and τεος ; thus, όνομαστί, by name ; άνιδρωτί, with- 
out sweating. So also those in δην (the characteristic of the 
verb being changed, when necessary, according to the laws of 
Euphony, § 6, 2) ; thus, from βατός is formed βάδην, by steps 
(from βάω) ; from συλληπτός, συλλήβδην, collectively ; from 
κρυπτός, κρύβδην, secretly, (fee. Sometimes the termination άδην 
is added ; as, σποράδην, scattered. 

4. Adverbs in ιστι come from verbs in ίζω, derived from 
nouns signifying a nation, parry, or class, and signify after the 
manner, language, &c. of such nation, &c. ; as, Ελληνιστί, after 
the manner of the Greeks ; άνδραποδιστί, after the manner of 
men. 

5. Adverbs in δον and ηδον are for the most part derived 
from nouns, and relate chiefly to external form and character ; 
as, άγεληδόν, in herds ; βοτρυδόν, resembling grapes. 

Xote. If derived from verbal adjectives, they agree in signification 
•with those in όην ; as, αναφανδόν, openly. 

6. Adverbs denoting certain relations of place, are formed by 
the addition of certain syllables to the words from which they 
are derived ; viz. In a place is denoted by the terminations •&ι, 
σι, ου, η, οι, χου, and γη ; from a place, by &εν or &ε ; and to a 
place, by δε, σε, and ζε. 

325. — Exc. Adverbs of place, derived from prepositions, ex- 
press the relations of in a place and to a place by the termina- 
tion ω ; thus, 

In a place. To a place. From a place. 

άνω, above, άνω, upwards. άνωθεν, from above (from ανά). 

κάτω, below, κάτω, downwards, κάτωθεν, from below ( " κατά). 



326.— §121. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives compared by τερος and 
τατος, are compared by changing og of these terminations into 
ως; as, 

σοφώς σοφωτερως σοφωτάτως from σοφός 

2. Adverbs derived from adjectives, compared by ίων and 

9* 



190 INSEPARABLE ADVERBIAL PARTICLES. § 122. 

ιστός, commonly take the neuter singular of the comparative, 
and the neuter plural of the superlative for their comparative and 
superlative ; thus, 

αίσχρώς αίσχίον αϊσχιστα from αισχρός 

Note I, This mode of comparison is also used, though more rarely, 
for those derived from adjectives compared by %iqoq and τατος ; as, 

σοφώς σοφοπίρον σοφο'πατα 

Note 2. The accusative neuter of adjectives, both singular and plu- 
ral, is sometimes used adverbially in all the degrees. To the superla- 
tive degree, the article is frequently prefixed; as, το πλΰστον (sup. 
«ατά). 

3. Adverbs in ω, formed from prepositions, are compared by 
adding τέρω and τάτω ; as, άνω, ανωτέρω, άνωτάτω. So also 
prepositions in the seuse of adverbs; as, από, άηωτερω. 

Note. Some other adverbs imitate this mode of comparison; as, 
εγγύς, έγγυτέοο), εγγύτατο); yet as often otherwise; thus, comparative 
εγγντίξ)ον, and εγγνον, superlative εγγνστα. 



§ 122. INSEPARABLE ADVERBIAL PARTICLES. 

32*7. — Certain particles, never used by themselves, but pre- 
fixed to words by composition, affect the signification of the 
words with which they are compounded, as follows : 

1. The particle a (which becomes av before a vowel) has 
three different significations : 

1st. It marks privation (from άνευ, without) ; as, άνυδρος , 

without water. 
2d. It denotes increase (from άγαν, much) ; as, άξνλος, 

much wooded. 
3d. It denotes union (from άμα, together) ; as, άλοχος, a 

consort. 

2. Άρι, ερι, βον, βρΐ, δά, ζά, λά, λί, and sometimes ν?] and νε, 
increase the signification ; as, δήλος, manifest ; άρίδηλος, very 
manifest, &c. 

3. Νή and νί generally express privation or negation; as, 
νήπιος, an infant, from νή and επω, I speak ; but 

Exc. Νή sometimes increases the signification; as, νήχντος, 
that flows in a full stream, from νή and χνω. 

4. Αν ς expresses difficulty, trouble, or misfortune ; as, δυσ- 
μενής, malevolent ; δνστνχεω, I am unhappy. 



§ 124. prepositions. 191 

Xote. The contrary of δνς is tv (which is also found by itself). It 
signifies well or with facility ; as, ινμινής, benevolent; ίυτνχίω, I am 
happy. 



§123. THE PREPOSITIONS. 

328. — A Preposition is a word which shows 
the relation between a noun or pronoun following 
it, and some other word in the sentence. 

1. The primary use of prepositions seems to have been, to in- 
dicate the relation of one thing to another in respect of place. 
From this, by a natural and easy analogy, they are used to ex- 
press similar relations in respect of time. 

2. From their primary and more common use, to express 
certain relations of place and time, they are also used by analogy 
and figure, to express various other connections and relations 
among objects, in all of which, however, the primary and original 
use of the word may easily be traced. 

3. All prepositions ending with a vowel, except άμφί, περί, 
and προ, reject the final vowel when compounded with, or stand- 
ing before, a word beginning with a vowel ; άμφί generally re- 
tains i, but there are many exceptions. It is always rejected be- 
fore the augment ε. Προ before ε sometimes combines with it 
by contraction ; thus, προ έργον becomes προνργον. 222, Obs. 2. 

4. There are eighteen prepositions, properly so called, in the 
Greek language ; of these 

Four govern the Genitive only, viz. Αντί, από, εκ or εξ, προ. 
Two govern the Dative only, Έν, cvv. 

Two govern the Accusative only, Εις or ες, and ανά. 
Four govern the Gen. and Ace. Αιά, κατά, μετά, νπερ. 
Six govern the Gen., Dat., & Ace. Αμφί, περί, επί, παρά, 

προς, and υπό. 



329.— § 124. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 
1. Αμφί, the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; round, round about, on both sides. 

With the Genitive; round, round about ; at the same time proceed- 
ing or originating from; of or concerning, upon, in addition to, for the 
sake of, for the love of. 



192 prepositions. § 124. 

With the Dative; round, with the idea of rest and continuance ; of 
or concerning, among, after or near, upon, for, i. e. in defence of; for, i. e. 
on account of; with. 

With the Accusative ; round, with the idea of tendency or approxi- ' 
mation to ; near, of, concerning, or belonging to. See also § 134, 13. 

In Composition ; about, round about. 

2. Λνά, the Accusative. In poetry, sometimes the Dative. 

Primary Signification; motion upwards, from below to above, op- 
posed to κατά. 

With the Accusative; over, up along, through, during, among, withf 
in ; in computation, up ; viz. from a point below. 

With the Dative ; upon, on, in, with the idea of elevation and rest. 

In Composition ; motion upioards, repetition, increase, back again. 

8. Αντί, the Genitive. 

Primary Meaning ; in front of, in a state of rest ; set over against, 
i. e. by way of exchange, comparison, equivalence, or preference. Hence, 

With the Genitive ; for, i. e. equivalent ; before, in preference ; in- 
stead of against, equal to, for, in consideration of ; upon. 

In Composition; equality, substitution, reciprocity, comparison, op- 
position. 

4. Από, the Genitive. 

Primary Signification ; removal from, viz. from contact with ; oppo- 
site of προς. 

With the Genitive ; ffom, on, after (from the time of), against, by 
means of, with, upon, of i. e. proceeding from ; on account of for, of 
i. e. belonging to; e. g. οι από, those belonging to, viz. the Council, Ple- 
beians, Stoics, &c. 

In Composition ; departure, separation, negation, privation, augmen- 
tation. 

5. Αιά, the Genitive or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; through, motion through. 

With the Genitive ; 1. place, through ; 2. time, through, through- 
out, during ; with regard to the space or time passed through, at, in ; 
with numerals, every; as, δυά πέντε, every five : 3. cause, by means of 
with, viz. as an instrument. 

With the Accusative ; by, by means of during ; as the end, occasion, 
or cause ; for, on account of e. g. παντά (5V αντον εγένετο, all things were 
made by him ; παντά δι? αντον έγένετο, all things were made for him. 

In Composition ; separation, division, arrangement, passage through, 
reciprocation, opposition, or competition, perseverance. 

6. Εις or ες, the Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; to, into ; motion from without to within ; the 
opposite of εκ. 

With the Accusative; to, into, toward, against, among, before, con- 
cerning, in respect of, in, till, until, for ; with numerals, about, up to. 



§ 124. prepositions. 193 

It forms distributives; as, ίΐς tva, one by one ; it is used adverbially, 
tiq άπαί, once ; tiq δις, twice. 
omposition ; into. 
Note. When ίίς or ες stands before a genitive, an accusative is un- 
derstood. 

1. 'Ex (before a vowel Έξ), the Genitive. 

Primary Signification; from, out, out of, motion from within to 
without; opposite of ίίς. 

With the Genitive it denotes motion from, causation, change of state, 
rendered of, i. e. made of; of, viz. the number ; out of, by, with, accord-' 
ing to, since. 

In Composition ; out of, it denotes division or separation, pre-emi- 
nence, completion or success, intensity. 

8. Έν, the Dative. 

Primary Signification; in, with the idea of rest and being con- 
tained within. 

With the Dative ; within, during, among, before, in the power of by. 
viz. by means of; in the case of with, into. 

In Composition ; in or among. 

9. Έπί, the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; on or upon, with motion or rest 

With the Genitive ; on, upon, at, in, or near ; during, through, under, 
in the time of; after, with, by. 

With the Dative ; upon, i. e. close and continuing upon, in the power 
of, i. e. resting upon; on condition, during, besides, i. e. in addition to; 
for, i. e. in order to ; after, with, against, along, among, at, by, over ; 
viz. in authority. 

With the Accusative; on or upon, with the idea of tendency or ap- 
proach towards ; to, towards, under, so as to be dependent upon ; in, 
over, during, against ; viz. motion towards with hostile intent. 

In Composition ; addition, increase, reciprocity, succession. 

10. Κατά, the Genitive or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; direction from above to below, down along 
(parallel); down to, upon, or at (perpendicular); down through (trans- 
verse) ; opposite of ανά. 

With the Genitive ; down from, viz. originating or proceeding down 
from, directed down by; along, on, through, downwards; under, upon, 
at, as a mark; before, respecting, by, viz. in swearing; against, among. 

With the Accusative ; down (not from, but) parallel to, down along, 
or to ; through, according to, in respect of; in, on, by, near to, at, op- 
posite, or before, during. Adverbially, κατά μακρόν, by degrees. 

In Composition ; down, opposition, intensity. 

11. Μετά, the Genitive, Dative (with the Poets), or the Accusa- 
tive. 
Primary Signification ; with, together with, not as a part of, or one 
with ; expressing a connection lees close than συν. 



194 prepositions. § 124. 

"With the Genitive ; with, together with, by means of, viz. as con- 
nected with and depending upon ; according to, and, i. e. in conjunction 
with, as an agent, or object; with, i. e. against; with, i. e. for, on the side 
of; among. 

With the Accusative ; after, i. e. following close or near to, in re- 
spect to space or time ; next to, next after, to, towards, for, or after, with 
a view to bring ; between, in, among. 

With the Dative ; b j the poets only, in, with, among. 

In Composition; participation, change, reciprocity. 

12. Παρά, the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification, by the side of; it denotes motion from, close 
to, or towards an object, according to the case with which it is joined. 

With the Genitive ; from, i. e. from beside ; of, proceeding from ; 
by, with, near, from among, above, or in comparison with. 

With the Dative ; at, with, near, among, with the idea of continu- 
ance. 

With the Accusative; to, beyond, beside, towards, i. e. to the side of; 
through along, against, in comparison with. 

In Composition ; it retains its general meaning ; also defect. 

13. Περί, the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification; round, round about, nearly the same with 
άμφί, but in a sense less close: άμφί means on both sides; ntqi, on all 



With the Genitive ; round, round about, with the idea of origin 
or cause ; about, i. e. of, or concerning ; with, for, viz. in defence of ; 
above or before, denoting pre-eminence or superiority. 

With the Dative ; round, round about, with rest or continuance ; 
for, i. e. concerning, on account of; from. 

With the Accusative ; round, or about, with tendency or approach 
to ; concerning or towards, about, i. e. near to, advancing towards ; about, 
i. e. with regard to ; in, of against. 

In Composition ; round about, also denoting increase, abundance. 

14. Προ, the Genitive. 

Primary Signification ; before, in respect of place or time, but with- 
out the idea of opposition or comparison which belongs to αντί. 

With the Genitive ; before, in the presence of ; at the command of 
through, denoting cause or origin; for, in defence of; for, for the ad- 
vantage of ; before, denoting preference. 

Tn Composition ; before ; with verbs of motion, forth, forward. 

15. Προς, the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification ; transition or passage, the relative direction 
being indicated by the case. 

With the Genitive ; from, i. e. transition from ; from, by, denoting 
the agent; belonging το or the property of; of, proceeding from; on 
the side of : by, in oaths and supplications ; before, to, so as to be pro- 
tected by. 



§ 124 prepositions. 195 

Wrm the Dative ; close to, near, and continuing ; besides, in addition 
to, before, occupied or busy with. 

W rru the Accusative ; to or towards, against, according to, in conse- 
oucnee of, on account of, with, in comparison of 

In Composition ; motion to, addition, against, close to. 

16. Σνν, the Dative. 

Primary Signification ; with, closely connected with another, eo as 
in some sense to form one with it ; see μπά. 

With the Dative ; with, together with, according to, besides, with the 
assistance of, at, during, to, on the side of. 

In Composition ; concurrence in action, association, combination, col- 
lection, completion or fulfilment, collision, intensity. 

17. 'Τπέρ, the Genitive or Accusative. • 

Primary Signification ; over or above, viz. in respect of place, and 
hence figuratively, over, in respect of power, authority, protection. 

With the Genitive ; above, in a state of rest ; over, in a state of mo- 
tion; for, i. e. in defence of; for, viz. in the place of; for, on account 
of ; by, for the sake of, of, concerning, in order to. 

With the Accusative ; over beyond, above or beyond, above, i. e. more 
than ; against. 

In Composition ; it retains its primary signification, also sometimes 
it augments. 

18. *Τπ6, the Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 

Primary Signification; under, modified by its case. 

With the Genitive ; place : from below, from under, out of; fig. . 
under, generally with the idea of protection, subjection, or the object of 
influence proceeding from ; also, by, with, i. e. under the direction of; 
by means of, for, i. e. under the influence of. 

With the Dative; simply under, completely under and continuing; 
by. 

With the Accusative ; under, viz. moving and proceeding under or 
coming up to the under part of a thing ; to, behind, about, on the eve of. 

In Composition ; it retains its primary signification. Sometimes it 
denotes diminution, privacy, beginning. 

330. OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The preposition, as its name imports, usually stands before the 
word which it governs. When it comes after it, as it sometimes does, 
this is indicated by the change of the accent from the last syllable to 
the first. 

2. In composition, with a word beginning with a vowel, and gen- 
erally when standing before such a word, the final vowel of the prepo- 
sition is dropped, and, if the next preceding letter be a consonant, it is 
subject to the changes required by the laws of euphony; thus, άπο 
ίαχηον must be written αφ' ίαντον. JJtQi, however, never drops its 
final vowel, and εκ never changes its final letter except before a vowel, 
when it is changed into e£. 



196 conjunctions. § 125. 

3. The preposition alone, with the accent thrown back to the first 
syllable, is sometimes used for certain compounds, of which it forms a 
part; thus, ϊνι, is used for εηστι,, it is lawful; ntqt, for ntQUarv, it is 
superfluous ; ava, for άναστη&ι,, arise ; πάοα for naqtan, he is present. 



§125. THE CONJUNCTIONS. 

331. — A Conjunction is a word which con- 
nects words or sentences. 

332. — Conjunctions, according to their different meanings, 
are divided into different classes, of which the following may b(, 
noticed; viz. 

1. Connective ; as, και, τε, and ; in poetry, ηδε', ίδε, ημ&ν, and , 

και δε, also, &c. 

2. Disjunctive ; as, η, ήτοι ; in poetry, ψ ; and sometimes ψονν, 

ηπον, or. 

3. Concessive ; as, καν, καί,περ, ει και, although. 

4. Adversative ; as, άλλα, δε, άτάρ, but ; γε, at least ; μεν, άλ- 

λα μεν, but, truly, indeed ; μεντοι, yet, &c. 

5. Causal, . . . which assign a reason for something previously 

said; as, γάρ, for; Ινα, οτι, όπως, οφρα, that ; ως, 
ώστε, that, so that; οννεκα (in poetry), because; 
είπερ, since indeed ; επε'ι, since, after that. 

6. Conclusive, or such as are used in drawing a conclusion, or 

inferencp from something previously said ; as, 
άρα, ovv, therefore ; διό, διόπερ, wherefore ; δη, 
then, truly ; toivvv, vv or νυν, therefore ; τοιγα- 
ρονν (emphatic), wherefore ; ονκουν, not there- 
fore. 

V. Conditional ; as, ει, αν, εάν, ψ, in poetry, κε or κεν, αϊ, αΐκε, 
if ; είπερ, if indeed. 

8. Expletive ; as, γε, ττερ, τοί, ρά, ΰέν, νν, τζο%, πω, άρ, &c. 

ADVERBIAL AND CONJUNCTIVE PARTICLES. 

The following remarks on the signification and use of certain 
adverbial and conjunctive particles, will be useful for reference. 
For more ample information on this subject, the advanced stu- 
dent is referred to the work of Hoogeveen on the Greek Par- 
ticles, an abridged translation of which has been published by 
the Rev. John Seager, B. A. 



§125. conjunctions. 197 



333. Άλλα'. 

1. Άλλα is adversative, and commonly answers to the English but. 
It is sometimes used elliptically, to indicate confidence or readiness, and 
may be rendered 'well, then; therefore. Thus, alt tv ϊσ&ο, οτι> ε|« 
τοΓ/>' οι'ιτως, Well, then, know that this will be so, i. e. ovx b /.νήσω, άλλ\ 
&c. I will not be unwilling, but, on the contrary, knoiu that this will be so. 

2. Άλλα γάρ. Thus combined γάρ introduces a reason for the op- 
position expressed by άλλα ; as, άλλα γάο Κρέοντα λίύσσυ), πανσω τονς 
παο:στώτας λόγους, Βντ I will stop the present discourse, for I see Creon 
coming. Sometimes, however, the reference is more latent, and a clause 
is to be supplied from what precedes ; thus, Plato, άλλα γάο εν άδου 
ΒΙχην ύώσομίν, where there must be supplied from the preceding sen- 
tence, ουχ ά£»μ*ο» άπαλλάξομίν, But we shall not escape unpunished, for 
we shall render satisfaction in Hades. Sometimes the reference is to a 
succeeding clause, and sometimes to some general remark which the 
connection and sense of the passage will readily suggest, such as, But 
this is not surprising, for ; But this is not impossible, for ; &c. 

3. Άλλα γί restricts with emphasis that which is general to some- 
thing more special ; as, αλλ' οι'κ άν άγροΐ/.οκ; γι, οϊομαι,, λ.οίδορήσα,αν. 
But at least they would not, I think, revile us in a rude wanner. 

4. Άλλ' ovv γε. When these particles are combined, they usually 
intimate that along with the opposition expressed by άλλα, & conse- 
quence of what lias preceded is also expressed; thus, άλλ' ovv τ ο ντον 
yt τον χρόνον ήττον άηδης ϊσομαι. Yet / will for this reason now at 
least be less disagreeable. 

δ. Άλλα joined with ουδέ strengthens the negative ; as, άλλ' ουδέ 
πενράσομαυ, Nay, I will not even try. In such sentences ου μόνον ου may 
be supplied, equivalent to, / will not only not do it, but I will not even 
try. 

6. Άλλα is strengthened by adding rot; as, αλλ' ηδύ τοι, ψ αυλός 
παρη, Why, that is a pleasant thing enough, if, <fec. 

334.— Μ (Poet. KE or KEN). 

v Av (Poetice ne or xtv) according to Professor Dunbar, is derived from 
aw, the same as εάω, to give, grant, or allow ; and that the primary 
meaning of the particle thus derived is granted or allowed, which can be 
readily traced in all the variety of expression in which it is employed. 
This particle is used — 

1. In the sense of εάν, if, of which, in this sense, it is probably only 
an abbreviated form. Thus used, it expresses a condition, and may be- 
gin a sentence ; as, άν &tbq -θ-έλτι, if (granted) God will. In all its other 
applications άν can stand only after other words in its clause. 

2. It is used with indefinites, adding to them the force of the Latin 
cunque, -soever ; as, οατις άν, whoever, or whosoever. 

S. It is used most generally to limit the verb to which it belongs, 
and partly or entirely takes from that verb its direct affirmative power. 

With the indicative imperfect, pluperfect, and aorists, it is rendered 
by should, would; should have, would have, &c. §1*70, 4, and Obs. 1; 
and also to express ability, and rendered by could or could have. It is 
sometimes joined to the future, and seems to soften the decisiveness of 



198 conjunctions. § 125. 

the statement ; as, 6 δέ κ ε ν κεχολώσεται ον κεν Χκωμαι, and he will per- 
haps be angry to whom I go. It is but very seldom found with the in- 
dicative present ; a few instances, however, have been produced from 
Aristophanes and Plutus. 

With the subjunctive it is never joined, unless accompanied with cer- 
tain other words, such as ό'ς, όσος, όστις, οπότερος, ον, οπού, ϊνα, &Q. 
&c. except when used in the sense of εάν as above, 334-1. 

It is used with the optative of all the tenses except the future, as in 
§ 172, Obs. 6, II. 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th. 

With the infinitive and participles it gives a contingent significa- 
tion (commonly in the future), which may be resolved by changing the 
verb or participle into the optative with av ; as, οϊονται άναμάχεσΘαι 
αν, they think that they could retrieve themselves ; τάλλα σιωπώ, πόλΧ αν 
ϊχο)ν ειπείν, I omit the rest, though I have much to say. 

4. It is used in positive statements with different moods, to give an 
expression of hesitation and modesty to the assertion ; as, ως αν μου 
δόΎ.Ύ\, as it seems (would seem) to me ; ουκ αν οϊδα, I (should) hardly 
know. 

5. "Λν is frequently repeated, either on account of its standing at a 
great distance from the verb, or, to give emphasis to the condition sug- 
gested by it; στάς αν λέγοιμι αν, having stationed myself 

/ would say ; πώς δε γ αν καλώς λίγους άν ; how can you, how 

can you say, &c. ? 

6. It is sometimes used, to intimate that the verb in the preceding 
clause is to be repeated; as, ει δη τω σοψώτερος φαίην είναι, τοντώ αν 
(sc. φαίην είναι σοφο'ηερος), if I thought ta be more wise in any thing, ττ 

WOULD BE IN THIS. 

335.— Άρα— 7 λρλ. 

1. "Αρα, denoting inference or conclusion, always stands after some 
word in its clause; its proper signification is "of course," "in the na- 
ture of things," and is commonly rendered therefore, consequently ; it is 
used in the successive steps of a train of reasoning ; as, " If there are 
altars there are also gods;" άλλα μην είσϊ βωμοί' είσιν άρα και &εοί, 
But there certainly are altars ; therefore there are gods too. It is used 
in making a transition to what follows in the order of time or events, or 
in the progress of thought. With εΐ or εάν it expresses conjecture; as, 
ft άρα δύνονται, if indeed (i. e. in the course of things) they can. Some- 
times it serves for an emphatic asseveration as if founded on an infer- 
ence. 

2. The adverb άρα is different from this, and is always placed first 
in a clause or sentence. It is merely an interrogative particle like the 
Latin num or utrum ; as, άρα κατάδηλον ο βούλομαι λέγειν ; Is, then, 
what I wish to say evident ? When a negative answer is expected it 
has ^generally the particle μή_ annexed. The Latin nonne is expressed 
by άρ' ov, and sometimes by άρα alone. 

336.— ΓΑΡ. 

1. Tao,for, always follows other words like the Latin enim, which 
it resembles in signification, and for vhich at the beginning of a sen- 
tence και γάρ, like the Latin etenim, is often used. Its use is to assign 
a reason for what is said. Very often, however, that of which it assigne 



§ 125. conjunctions. 199 

the cause is merely implied or hinted at, and must be supplied, to show 
the force of γάρ. ' It will frequently be found to refer to such expres- 
sions understood; as, Vex. jVo, no wonder, I believe, I cannot, <fec., as, 
for example, in the answer so common in Plato, tart γάρ oikto, Yes, or 
certainly, for so it is. Thus, Homer, Od. 10. 501, 3 Jl Κίρκη, τις γάρ 
ταντην οό'ον ηγι μονί ι'»σί* ; Oh Circe, (I cannot go thither,) kor who will 
quid•: me on this way ? From this interrogative use it came sometimes 
to be used, merely to strengthen a question, like the Latin nam in quis- 
iia/n. 

2. In such expressions as y.al γάρ, άλλα γάρ, the former particle in 
dicates the omission of something of which γάρ assigns a cause ; thus, 
xai γάρ strictly translated means, and (no wonder,) for ; and (it is na- 
tural,) for ; and the like. For the rendering of άλλα γάρ, see άλλα, 
333-2. 

337.— ΓΈ!. 

Γί (enclitic) is a particle of limitation, and signifies at least, certainly, 
however, indeed, and is used to single out an individual object from a 
number ; as, ft μη όλον μέρος γί, if not the whole at least a part ; εγω 
γί, I indeed, I at least. In most combinations it can be rendered into 
English only by giving greater emphasis to the word with which it is 
connected. 

338.— AE'. 

The particle δε, but, is used both to distinguish and oppose, and 
always stands after one or more words in a clause. It often serves, 
however, merely to mark transition from one proposition to another ; 
and, in general, every proposition which has no other conjunction at 
its commencement, takes this δί, whether really opposed to the prece- 
ding or not. When so used, it may be rendered by and, for, or any 
other word which the nature of the connection may require ; or it may 
often remain untranslated. Its principal use, however, is in connection 
with μέν, which see. 

339.— ΑΙΪ. 

Αή, a particle of affirmation, signifies tndy, really, without doubt. 
It is used in affirmative answers ; as, δήλ.ον δή, it is certainly manifest. 
It is used ironically, especially after ώς ; and after relative and compar- 
ative words it is usually emphatical. With που joined to it (δήπου), it 
signifies certainly, viz., and sometimes, perhaps. It differs from μην and 
γί, also affirmative words, in this, that δή strongly asserts a thing as 
already established: μην goes on to press the assertion without relax- 
ing as to what has preceded ; while γί asserts with limitation, yielding 
as to the past, or other things, but insisting upon this. 

2. Αή, from ηδη, as an adverb, signifies now ; joined with vvv, this 
very moment ; as, νυν ηδη μαχητέον, we must fight this very moment. 
With verbs in the preterite, it denotes just now. As a conjunction, it is 
used, 1. In exhorting; as, λίγί δή, come now, read; 2. In questions, it 
indicates the earnestness of the speaker, and his desire of an immediate 
answer; as, τά ποία δή ταΓ/τα; what now are these? 3. In expressing 
admiration when joined with πότε ; as, τι δήποτε τοντών, why now 



200 conjunctions. § 125. 

these ; 4. In commencing a subject; as, *ϋδΐ δη σκεπωμεν αυτό, now let 
us consider it in this way ; 5. In marking the successive stages of thought 
as they rise one above another. In each of these, it signifies now truly, 
until at the last it signifies finally. 

3±0.—ΚΛΪ and TE'. 

Και and τε have the same significations in reference to each other 
as the Latin et and que. Both connect single ideas, and the entire parts 
of a sentence. With the older poets, τε is more common than in the 
Attic prose writers, and it is commonly put not merely once between 
the connected parts, but joined to each of them; as, πατήρ ανδρών τε 
■φ- ε ων τε, the father of both gods and men. When τε precedes και in sep- 
arate clauses, the former signifies not only ; the latter, but also ; τε και, 
and also, connect more closely than simple και; και — και, both — and; 
as well — as; άλλως τε και, especially, i. e. (both in other respects) and 
also, particularly also. 

341.— MA and NH\ 

Ma and νη are particles of obtestation, and always govern the ac- 
cusative of the object; νή is always affirmative; μα, when alone, is 
negative, but is nevertheless attached both to affirmative and negative 
obtestations; as, vac μα J ία, and ου μά J ία. 

342.— ME! 'Ν and AE '. 

Miv and δε are two particles referring to each other ; they are used 
to distinguish, and at the same time to connect, the different clauses of 
a sentence together. Thus used, μέν is generally placed in the first 
clause of a sentence, and δέ in each of the succeeding ones. Hence, 
whenever we find μέν in the first member of a sentence, the thought 
necessarily turns to an opposite member with δέ. Sometimes, however, 
after μέν the expected δέ does not actually follow ; i. e. when the op- 
position is so clear that δέ is not necessary to point it out, or when 
some other word, such as αλλά, άτάρ, &c, supplies its place. In like 
manner δέ is often used without being preceded by μέν, referring to 
something conceived in the mind but not expressed ; or, without such 
reference, it is used, simply to connect the parts of a sentence less 
closely than by μέν — δέ, or other conjunctions. In opposition they are 
commonly rendered indeed — but. See δέ. 

The distributive use of μέν and δέ with the article, relative pronoun, 
Ac. will be noticed §§ 133, 3, & 134, 19. 

343.— 0±N and OTKOTN. 

1. Ovv, wherefore, is used, 1. In drawing an ultimate conclusion 
in the view of all that has been said before ; in this it differs from αρα, 
which is used in successive steps in the process of reasoning. 2. It com- 
mences a chapter or paragraph, with some reference to what has pre- 
ceded. 3. It continues or resumes a subject, after a digression. 4. It 
introduces a transition to some new subject; and lastly,,it has an affirm- 
ative force, particularly in replies; as, γίγνεταν ovv ούτο)ς, it is certainly 
so ; hence the compounds, 



§ 125. conjunctions. 201 

2. Ov/.oTv and «ων, for μη ovv. The former is properly a negative 
inference; as, " it is not therefore ;" though sometimes it loses its nega- 
tive character, and denotes ''therefore;" μών is used interrogatively, 
"is it not therefore ?" 

344.— ΠΕΡ. 

Tltq (enclitic) is nearly allied to yi, and is used to express the idea 
with more emphasis than it would have without it. This is indicated 
in English merely by a greater emphasis of the word, or by the words 
very, eeer, and the like. Joined with a participle, it is commonly ren- 
dered although, how much so ever; with a relative, it adds the force of 
the Latin cunque, or the English ever ; thus, άπερ, qzicecunque, whatever, 
οσπ^ρ, quicunque, whoever, (fee ; as, απι ο λίγα,, whatever he does say ; 
άγα&ός πίρ ton•, excellent though thou art ; fatQ ii/iv,just as he was. 

345.— ΠΟ T. 

1. Που is a particle interrogative, of place, and signifies 1. where? 
2. whither? As an enclitic it signifies motion to a place; as, σπεύδο) 
πον, I am hastening to some place, somewhither, and also indicates place 
indefinitely, anywhere; hence it is joined with adverbs of place ; as, εχίΐ 
δέ no ν, somewhere there-abouts. 

2. From the indefiniteness of its signification arises its conjectural 
use, to express a thing with a degree of uncertainty and caution, ex- 
pressed in English by probably, perhaps, if I mistake not, (fee, and hence 
is used in eliciting and asking consent ; as, σύνοισ&ά που y.ai αυτός οτι, 
(fee You yourself, as xoell as I, know, if I mistake not, or doubtless, that, 
etc., where an affirmative reply is evidently expected. Hence also its 
use as a diminutive, to qualify what might otherwise seem too positive 
or peremptory. Thus used it may be rendered by pretty nearly, in my 
opinion, perhaps, (fee. This particle, though often used, is never redun- 
dant; ου δη που, for example, is, no indeed, as I think ; not truly, in my 
opinion. 

346.— ΠΩΣ. 

1. This particle with the circumflex is interrogative and signifies 
how ? as, πως ovx ά^ος έστι τούτου ; how can he but be worthy of this ? 
Joined with γάρ they constitute an emphatic negative, πως γαρ ποιήσω ,• 
for how shall I do it ? i. e. / will not do it at all. So also y.al πως 
ΟΜπώ; I cannot be silent ; literally, and how am I to be silent? 

2. As an enclitic πο)ς signifies some how, in some degree, (fee. as, άλλως 
πως, in some other way ; ωδί πως, somehow thus ; (fee. 

347.—' ΩΣ. 

This particle is extensively employed, and with a great variety of 
usage; as, 1. It is used for ϊνα, to denote a purpose ; as, oh; δίίϊωμΐν, 
in order that we may shew ; 2. for οτι with the meaning of that; as, 
λίγονπς ώς εκΰνος, (fee, saying that he, (fee ; 3. More commonly it signi 
fies as, expressing similitude; as, ως δούλος, as a slave; "He taught 
them — ώς έξουσίαν ϊχων, as one having authority." 4. With the acute 
accent, and not before an enclitic, nor after a word on which it depends, 



202 conjunctions. § 125. 

it has the sense of ούτως, thus ; as, ως ειπών, having spoken thus. 5. In 
exclamations it has the sense of how ; as, ως σε μαχαρίζομεν, how happy 
we deem you ! hence its use with the optative in the sense of the Latin 
ulinam ; as, ως μ οφελ' "Ey.tmq χτεΐναι : Would that Hector had slain 
me ! literally, how Hector ought to have slain me ! 6. Before superlative 
adjectives and adverbs, like οτι, it strengthens the meaning ; as, ως τά- 
χιστα, as quickly as possible. Allied to this, is its power as a strength- 
ening particle, with the positive degree, in such expressions ; as, ώς 
άλη&ώς, truly, really. Ί. It is used for the purpose of limiting proposi- 
tions with the infinitive ; as, ώς ειπείν, so to speak ; ώς είκασαν, as far 
as one may conjecture ; and also in the same sense it is used before 
whole clauses and propositions ; as, ώς επί το πολύ, for the most part ; 
ώς προς το μέγε&ος της πόλεως, in proportion to the size of the city^ 8. 
As a particle of time, it signifies when, sometimes while ; as, ώς δε ήλ&ε, 
but when he came. 9. With numerals it signifies about ; as, ώς τρία η 
τέτταοα στάδια, about three or four stadia. 10. With particles in the 
genitive absolute, and also in the dative or accusative, it is rendered as, 
since, because, inasmuch as, as if; and the participle is then rendered by 
the indicative ; as, ώς ταύτης Της χο')οας έχιιρο)τάτης ονσης, because this 
place was the most secure. 11. It is often put by the Attics for the pre- 
position εις, ποός, or επί ; as, ώς εμέ, towards me ; ώς τον βασιλέα, to 
the king. 

Ugf* For the negative particles ov and μη, with their combinations 
and compounds, see § 166. 

348. — Obs. Though it is, in many cases, difficult to give a distinct 
translation of some of the Greek particles, or even always to feel their 
force, yet they ought never to be regarded as mere expletives. In all 
languages there are particles which are often employed chiefly for the 
sake of completeness, or in order to produce a well-sounding fulness, 
yet never without their own peculiar sense ; and though it is often dif- 
ficult to define what that sense is, yet every one feels that the expres- 
sion is incomplete without them. So it is also in the Greek language. 
The full and original meaning of many of those particles has become 
partially lost, and they now give to the discourse only a slight colour- 
ing which we cannot properly feel except after long acquaintance and 
practice. For a more full elucidation of the force and use of these par- 
ticles, we refer the reader to the elaborate work of Hoogeveen on the 
Greek Particles. 



§ 126. syntax. 203 



PAET III. 



§126. SYNTAX. 

349. — Syotax is that part of grammar which 
treats of the proper arrangement and connection 
of words in a sentence. 

350. — A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes 
complete sense ; as, Man is mortal. 

351. — A Phrase is two or more words rightly put together, 
but not making complete sense ; as, In truth, in a word. 

352. — Sentences are of two kinds, Simple and Compound. 

353. — A Simple sentence contains only a single affirmation ; 
as, Life is short. 

354. — A Compound sentence contains two or more simple 
sentences connected together ; as, Life, which is short, should 
be well employed. 

355. — Every simple sentence consists of two parts, the subject 
and the predicate. 

356. — The subject is that of which something is affirmed. It 
is either in the nominative case before a finite verb, or in the 
nominative or accusative before the infinitive. 

357. — The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject. 
It consists of two parts, the attribute and copula. A verb which 
includes both, is called an attributive verb ; as, "John reads." A 
verb which only connects the attribute expressed by another word, 
with the subject, is called a copulative verb ; as, " John is reading." 

358. — Both subject and predicate may be attended by other 
words called adjuncts, which serve to restrict or modhy their 
meaning ; as, " Too eager a pursuit of wealth often ends in pov- 
erty and misery Γ 

359. — When a compound sentence is so framed that the mean 
ing is suspended till the whole is finished, it is called a period. 



20-1 ±»arts of syntax. § 127, 128. 



360.— §127. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX. 

1. In every sentence there must be a verb and a nominative, 
or subject expressed or understood. 

2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, 
must have a substantive expressed or understood with which it 
agrees. 

3. Every relative must have an antecedent, or word to which 
it refers, and with which it agrees. 

4. Every subject nominative has its own verb expressed or 
understood. 

5. Every verb (except in the infinitive and participles) has its 
own subject or nominative expressed or understood. 

6. Every oblique case is governed by some word expressed 
ior understood in the sentence of which it forms a part ; or it is 
used, without government, to express certain circumstances ; as 
follows : 

1) The genitive is governed by a noun, a verb, a, preposition, 
oi an adverb ; or it is placed as the case absolute with the parti- 
ciple. 

2) The dative is governed by adjectives, verbs, and preposi- 
tions. It also expresses the cause, manner, or instrument. 

3) The accusative is governed by a transitive active verb or 
preposition. 

4) The vocative either stands alone, or is governed by an 
interjection. 

5) The infinitive mood is governed by a verb, an adjective, or 
adverbial particle. 



§ 128.— PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

361. — The parts of Syntax are commonly reck- 
oned two, Concoed and Government. 

362. — Concord is the agreement of one word 
with another in gender, number, case, or person. 

363. — Government is that power which one 
word has in determining the mood, tense, or case 
of another word. 



§129. SUBSTANTIVE WITH SUBSTANTIVE. 205 

I. CONCOKD. 

364. — Concord is fourfold, viz. : 

1. Of a substantive with a substantive. 

2. Of an adjective with a substantive. 

3. Of a relative with its antecedent. 

4. Of a verb with its nominative, or subject. 



§129. A SUBSTANTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 

365. — Rule I. Substantives denoting the same 
person or thing agree in case ; as, 

Παύλος απόστολος, Paid, an apostle. 

Σωκράτης 6 φιλόσοφος, Socrates, the philosopher. 
Θεφ κριτή, To God, the judge. 

366 — Substantives thus used are said to be in apposition. The 
second substantive is added to express some attribute, description, or 
appellative belonging to the first, and must always be in the same 
member of the sentence ; i. e. they must be both in the subject, or 
both in the predicate. A substantive predicated of another, though 
denoting the same thing, is not in apposition with it. See 436. 

367. — Obs. 1. One of the substantives is sometimes under- 
stood ; as, Αστυάγης 6 Κναξάρον (sup. νίός), Astyages, the son 
of Cyaxares. 

368. — Obs. 2. The possessive pronoun in any case being equi- 
valent in signification to the genitive of the substantive pronoun 
from which it is derived, requires a substantive in apposition 
with it to be put in the genitive ; as, Δαηρ εμος ην κννώπι- 
δος, He was the brother-in-law of me, a shameless woman. 
See 399-17. 

369. — Obs. 3. On the same principle, possessive adjectives 
formed from proper names, being equivalent to the genitive of 
their primitives, have a noun in apposition in the genitive ; as, 
Νεστορε^ παρά νψ Πυληγενέος βασιληος, Near the ship 
of Nestor a king bom at Pylos ; Xd ην αϊ ο ς ων, πόλεως 
της μεγίστης, Being a citizen of Athens, a very large city. See 
399-18. 10 



206 CONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE. § 130, 131. 

370. — Obs. 4. Sometimes the latter of two substantives sig- 
nifying the same thing, is put in the genitive ; as, Πόλις Λ & η- 
ν ώ ν (for Άϋ-ψαι), The city of Athens. 



§ 130. AN ADJECTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 

371. — Rule II. An adjective agrees with its 
substantive in gender, number, and case / as, 

χρηστός άνηρ, a good man. 

καλή νννη, a beautiful woman. 

άγα&ον χρήμα, a good thing. 

372 — This Eule applies to the article, adjective, adjective pro- 
nouns, and participles. 

373. — Obs. 1. Other words are sometimes used as adjectives, 
and consequently fall under this rule ; viz. 

1st. A substantive which limits the signification of a more 
general term ; as,' Ελλάς φωνή, the Greek language. 

2d. Adverbs placed between the article and its substantive ; 
as, 6 μεταξύ τότΐος, the intervening space. 

374. — Obs. 2. The place of the adjective is sometimes sup- 
plied by a substantive with a preposition ; as, ηδονή μετά δόξης 
(for ένδοξος), exalted pleasure : — sometimes, by a substantive gov- 
erning the other in the genitive ; as, βά&ος γης, depth of earth, 
i. e. deep earth ; η περίσσεια της χάριτος, abundance of grace, 
i. e. abundant grace. For the adverbial adjective, see 662. 



§ 131. OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONCORD OF THE 
ADJECTIVE. 

375. — Obs. 1. Two or more substantives singular, unless taken 
separately, have an adjective plural. If all the substantives be 
of the same gender, the adjective will be of that gender. If of 
different genders, the adjective takes the masculine rather than 
the feminine, and the feminine rather than the neuter. But if 
the substantives signify things without life, the adjective is com- 
monly put in the neuter gender. Not unfrequently, however, the 
adjective agrees with one of the substantives and is understood 



§ 131. CONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE. 207 

to the rest; as, atu γάρ τοι ε ρις τε φίλη, πολεμοίτε μάχαιτε; 
contention to thee is always delightful, and wars and battles. 

376. — Obs. 2. When the substantive to which the adjective 
belongs may be easily supplied, it is frequently omitted, and the 
adjective, assuming• its gender, number, and case, is used as a 
substantive; as, ό Άχτφαϊος, the Athenian ; oi δίκαιοι, the right- 
eous. 

377. — Obs. 3. Adjectives in ικός are used in the neuter gen- 
der with the article, and without a substantive in two different 
senses. 1. In the singular they express generally a whole ; as, 
το ίππικόν, the cavalry ; το πολιτικόν, the citizens. 2. In the 
plural they signify any circumstance which can be determined 
by the context; as, τα Τρωικά, the Trojan war ; τα Ελληνικά, 
the Grecian history. 

378. — Obs. 4. The adjective, especially when used as a predi- 
cate, without a substantive, is often put in the neuter gender, 
χρήμα, πράγμα, ζώον, &c. being understood; as, η πατρίς 
φίλτατον (scil. χρήμα) βροτοΐς, their country is (a thing) very 
dear to men ; χαλεπό ν το ποιεϊν, to do is hard. 

379. — Obs. 5. Two adjectives are frequently joined together, 
one of which, by expressing negatively the sense of the other, 
renders it more emphatic ; as, γνωτά κ' ουκ άγνωτά μοι, literally, 
known and not unknown (i. e. well known), to me. 

380. — Obs. 6. Adjectives are very often put in the neuter 
singular or plural, with or without an article, for adverbs ; as, 
πρώτον, in the first place ; το πρώτον, at first ; τα μάλιστα, 
chiefly ; κρνφαϊα, secretly, &c. 

381. — Obs. 7. In any gender or number, adjectives are some- 
times used in the sense of adverbs, to express a circumstance of 
time, place, order, manner; as, επεσον άγχηστΐνοι, they fell 
near each other; άφίκετο δεντεραΐος — τριταίος, he came 
on the second — third day, 662. So in Latin, qui creatur an- 
nuus. Cses. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

382. — Exc. 1. An adjective is often put in a different gender 
or number from the substantive with which it is connected, tacitly 
referring to its meaning rather than to its form, or to some other 
word synonymous with it, or implied in it ; as, 

κόριον κάλλιστα, a most beautiful girl. 

ω άγαχτε ψνχή, Ο brave soul. 

λψτι'ιριον πνρ επιφέροντας, a band of thieves bringing fire. 



208 CONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE. § 131. 

383. — Exc. 2. A collective noun in th3 singular may nave an 
adjective in the plural, and in the gender of the individuals which 
form the collection; as, βονλη ησνχίαν είχεν — ουκ άγνουντες, 
the council kept peaceable — not being ignorant. 

So in Latin, maxima pars — in flumen acti sunt. Lat. Gr. 279. 

384. — Exc. 3. In the dual, number, the Attic writers some- 
times join a masculine adjective with a feminine noun; as, τοντω 
τω ήμερα, these two days. 

385. — Exc. 4. An adjective masculine, in the superlative de- 
gree, is sometimes joined to a feminine noun, to increase the force 
of the superlative ; as, ai κόραι μελάντατοι, very black pu- 
pils. Also, a masculine adjective is joined with a feminine noun, 
when the plural is used for the singular, and when a chorus of 
women speak of themselves ; thus, Medea says of herself, και γαρ 
ηδικημενοι σιγησόμεϋα, κρεισσόνων νικώ μεν οι, though in- 
jured I will be silent, yielding to superior powers. 

386. — Exc. 5. An adjective in the masculine gender may be 
joined with a noun denoting a female, if the attention is drawn 
to the idea of a person without regard to the sex. 

387. — Exc. 6. A substantive dual may have an adjective plu- 
ral ; and vice versa, a substantive plural, when two is denoted, 
may have an adjective dual ; as, φίλα ς περί χειρ ε βάλωμεν, let 
us embrace; δυο χάσματα έχομε' ν ω αλλήλων, two successive 
chasms ; lit. two chasms Adjoining each other. 

388. — Exc. 7. The adjectives έκαστος, άλλος, in the singular, 
are put with nouns in the plural, to intimate that the objects ex- 
pressed by them are spoken of individually and distributively ; as, 

οι δ ε έκαστος εδεχοντο δέκα, they each received ten. 
ηρώτων δε άλλος άλλο, they asked some one thing 

and some another. 

So in Latin, Quisque pro se queruntur. Liv. Lat. Gr. 281. 

389. — Exc. 8. Plural adjectives sometimes agree with their 
substantives in gender and number, and govern them in the gen- 
itive case ; as, 

οι παλαιοί των ποιητών, the ancient poets. 

So also among the Attic writers in the singular ; as, 

διατριβών τον πολλον του χρόνο ν, spending much time. 

390. — Exc. 9. Instead of agreeing with its substantive, the 
adjective is sometimes put in the neuter gender, and the substan- 
tive following it in the genitive (461) ; as, εις τοσούτον τόλμης 



§ 132. COMPARATIVES AXD SUPERLATIVES. 209 

(for τοσαυτην τόλμην), to such a pitch of boldness. The abstract 
noun is sometimes used instead of the adjective ; as, βά&ος γης, 
depth of earth, instead oi βα&εΐα γη, deep earth. 374. 

391. — Exc. 10. Proper names in the singular, are sometimes 
accompanied by the adjectives πρώτος, πάς, and others in the 
neuter plural, as predicates or in apposition ; as, Λύμπων, Αίγι- 
νητε'ων τα π ρ ώ τ a , Σατηρωι, the chief of the JEginetoz ; πάν- 
τα δη ην τοίσι Βαβυλωνίοισι Ζώπνρος, Zoptrus was indeed 
every thing to the Babylonians. 

392. — Exc. 11. Demonstrative pronouns in the neuter singu- 
lar, may refer to nouns of any gender which do not express a 
person ; and in the neuter plural, to persons as well as things, 
and to the singular as well as to the plural ; as, περί αν δ οίας, 
επι ποσό? αν αν τον {ανοριας) οεξαιο στερεσπαι; concerning 
manly fortitude, for how much would you consent to be de- 
prived of it ? τοις εις τ αν τ α εξαμαρτάνονσι, who offend against 
these, scil. τονς παϊδας ν.αι τάς γυναίκας, wives and children. 

So also with the adjectives πλεΐον, πλεΐω, μείον, (fee; as, 
Ιππέας μεν αξει ον μείον δια μυρίων, he will bring not less 
than twenty thousand horse ; lit. he will bring horsemen not 
fewer than twenty thousand. 



393.— § 132. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 

1. The comparative is used when two objects or classes of 
objects are compared ; the superlative, when more than two are 
compared. 

2. The positive is sometimes used in a comparative sense, and 
is followed by the infinitive ; as, ολίγοι σνμβαλεΐν, too few to 
fight. 

3. When one quality is compared with another in the same 
subject, the adjectives expressing these qualities are both put in 
the comparative degree connected by η; as, πλονσιώτερος η 
σοφώτερος, more rich than wise. So in Latin, decentior quam 
sublimior fuit. Tacit. Lat. Gr. 474. 

4. The comparative is sometimes made by joining μάλλον 
with the positive ; and, for the sake of emphasis, sometimes with 
the comparative ; as, μάλλον όλβιώτερος, more happy. 

5. The superlative is often used to express a very high degree 
of a quality in an object, but without comparing it with any 



210 ADJECTIVE PEONOUNS. § 133. 

other ; as, άνηρ ψλοτιμότατος, a very ambitious man ; πρηγμα 
εύη&έστατον, a very foolish thing. 168. 

6. The superlative is often strengthened in signification by 
adding certain adverbial words and particles; such as, πολλω, 
μακρφ, πολύ, μάλιστα, πλείστον, όχα, ώς, όπως, ότι, y, &c. ; as, 
πολλφ άσ&ενεστατον, much the weakest ; οχ άριστος, eminently 
the best ; ώς τάχιστα, as quickly as possible ; ότι πλείστον χρό- 
vov, as long time as possible. Also by the numeral εις ; as, είς 
άνηρ βέλτιστος, a man of all others the best. 

For the construction of the comparative and superlative de- 
grees, as it respects government, see 472 and 482. 



§133. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

394. — Special Kule. Adjective pronouns agree 
with their substantives in gender, number, and 
case. 

395. — The Definite, αυτός. 

For the import and use of the Definite pronoun αυτός, see 
§ 62. In construction it is often similar to the demonstratives, 
396-5. 

1. When used as a personal pronoun, αυτός takes the gender 
and number of the noun for which it stands, and the case which 
the noun would have in its place. Sometimes, however, like the 
adjective (382), it takes the gender and number of a synony- 
mous substantive, or of one that expresses the meaning of that for 
which it stands; as, μαθητεύσατε πάντα τα, ε&νη βαπτίζοντες 
αυτούς, " teach all nations baptizing them," where αυτούς is 
put for άν&ρώπους, which expresses the meaning of ε&νη. 

Note. This observation applies to all adjective pronouns used with- 
out, and instead of, the substantives, to which they refer. 

3 9 6 . — Demonstratives. 

2. The Demonstratives are used without a substantive, only 
when they refer to a noun, or pronoun, or substantive clause in 
the proposition going before, or in that coming immediately after. 

3. When two persons or things are spoken of, ούτος, this, re- 
fers to the latter; εκείνος, that, to the former. In the same 



g 133. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 211 

manner are sometimes used 6 μερ, ος μεν, referring to the for- 
mer, and ό όΥ, ος Se, referring to the latter ; sometimes vice verm. 

4. The demonstratives οντος and όδε are generally distin- 
guished thus; ούτος refers to what immediately precedes, οδε to 
what immediately follows ; as, ταύτα άκουσας, having heard 
these things ; έλεγε τάδε, he announced as follows. 

5. The demonstrative words are frequently used in a kind of 
apposition with a noun, or pronoun, or part of a sentence in the 
same proposition. This is done, 1. for the sake of emphasis, or, 
at the beginning of a sentence, to call the attention more particu- 
larly to what is to be said; as, τ'ι δ' εκείνα φώμεν, τάς πεύσις 
τε και ερωτήσεις, what shall I say as to these things question 
and interrogation' Long, τι ποτ εστίν αυτό, ή αρετή', what 
is virtue ? In such cases the pronoun is commonly in the neu- 
ter gender. 2. If the parts of a sentence immediately related, 
are separated by intervening clauses, the pronoun, being intro- 
duced in the last part, in apposition with the distant word in the 
first, brings them as it were together; as, άλλα Φεού^ς γε τους 
άεΐ οντάς και . . . . τούτους φοβούμενοι μήτε άσεβες μηδέν 
ποιήσητε, " but the gods who are eternal, and whose power and 
inspection extend over all things, and who preserve the harmony 
and order of the universe free from decay or defect, the great- 
ness and beauty of which is inexplicable — fearing these, do 
nothing wicked." 

6. When that with which the demonstrative stands in appo- 
sition is a sentence, or part of a sentence, it is put in the neuter 
gender, and is often connected with it by οτι or ως ; as, αλλ 3 
οίδε τ ο ντο, οτι ταντα μεν εστίν άπαντα τα χωρία κείμενα εν 
μέσοι, but he knows this well, that all these places are openly be- 
fore them. 

The sentence is sometimes so arranged that the clause with 
οτι stands first ; as, οτι δ' είχε πτερά, τ ου τ' ίσμεν, but we knew 
this, that he had wings. This construction, so common in Greek, 
is seldom if ever used in Latin. 

7. Ούτος, with και before it, is used in the latter clause of a 
sentence, in an adverbial or conjunctive sense, to call the atten- 
tion more particularly to the circumstance which it introduces, 
and may be rendered " and that" " and truly" " indeed," " al- 
thouqh" <fcc., as the sense may require ; as, ούτοι yao μοΰνοι 
Ιώνων ουκ αγονσι Λπατονρια, και ούτοι κατά φόνου τίνα 
σκήιί'ΐν, for these alone of the lonians do not celebrate the Apa- 
touria, and that under pretext of a certain murder ; lit. and 
these {do so) under pretext, &c. Γυναικός και ταύτης νεκράς, 



212 ADJECTIVE PKONOUNS. §133. 

ε" Tig λέγει τουνομα, πεφρικε, if any one mentions the name of a 
woman, although (i. e. and that woman being) dead, he shud- 
ders. 

But when the pronoun is less definite, not referring to any 
particular substantive in the preceding clause, but to something 
expressed in it, it is put in the neuter plural, and may generally 
be rendered " especially" " although" &c. ; as, Συ δε μοι δοκεϊς 
ου προσέχειν τον νουν τούτοις, καΐ ταύτα σοφός ων, but you do 
not seem to me to give your attention to these things, although 
being wise. Expressions of this kind are doubtless elliptical, 
ποιείς or some such word being understood, and may be ren- 
dered " and these things you do" Indeed, it is sometimes ex- 
pressed ; thus, in Dem. pro Phor., after reproaching Apollodorus 
with his dissolute conduct, he adds, και ταυ τ α γυναίκα έχων 
ποιείς, and these things you do, having a wife ; which, with- 
out ποιείς, might be rendered " though having a wife." 

Yet sometimes these words seem to have no dependence on 
any part of the sentence, but are thrown in to call the attention 
to a special circumstance. 

8. The demonstrative pronoun is often joined with adverbs of 
time and place, to define these circumstances with greater empha- 
sis or precision ; as, τα νυν τάδε, just now ; τουτ εκεϊ, at that 
very time. 

9. The demonstrative pronouns are sometimes used instead of 
the personal pronouns εγώ and συ, and, in speaking, when thus 
used, were probably accompanied with action, so as clearly to 
point out the person intended. When used instead of the 2d 
person, they most commonly express contempt. The expression 
ούτος ειμί is equivalent to the Latin en adsum, Lo ! here am I. 

397. — The Indefinite τίς. 

10. The indefinite τις, 188, added to a substantive, commonly 
answers to the English words a, an, ascertain one, any one, &c. ; 
as, τις άνηο, a man, any man, some man. — Sometimes with a 

noun it is used collectively ; as, &ρώσκων τις κατά κύμα • 

ίχ&ύς, many a fish bounding through the wave. — Sometimes 
distributively ; as, και τ Ι ς οίκίην άναπλασάσ&ω, and let every 
one build his own house. 

11. With adjectives of quality, quantity, and magnitude, es- 
pecially when they stand without a substantive expressed, or in 
the predicate, it serves to temper the expression by asserting the 
existence of the quality in a less positive and unlimited manner, 



§ 133. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 213 

such μ may be expressed by the English words somewhat, in 
degree, rather; as, δύσβατος τις, somewhat difficult to be 
passed ; δνΰμα&ής τις, rather hard to learn. With numerals 
it means nearly, about, Are. ; as, dt'y.u τιιε'ς, about ten. So also 
with adverbs ; as, σχεδόν, nearly ; σχεδόν τι, pretty nearly ; 
πολύ, much ; πολύ τι, considerably ; ονδεν, nothing ; ονδεν τι, 
scarcely any thing. 

12. Without an additional adjective, τις has the sense of emi- 
nent, distinguished ; as, εύχεται τις είναι, he boasts himself to 

be SOME GREAT ONE. 

13. In the neuter gender, it is also sometimes nearly redun- 
dant, being introduced apparently for the sake of sound. In such 
cases it is to be considered in the accusative governed by κατά, 
and seems to strengthen the expression ; as, ούτε τι μάντις εών, 
not being at all a prophet ; μέγα τι. και ΰεσπέσιον τεχνούργημα, 
a work of art evidently great and divine. 

398. — The Interrogative rig. 

14. The interrogative τις, τι, is used in asking a direct" ques- 
tion ; as, τις εποίψε ; who did it? Though sometimes used in 
the mdirect interrogation, όστις is more common ; as, ΰανμάζω 
τις (or more frequently όστις) εποίησε, I wonder who did it. 
Sometimes it is accompanied by the article ό τίς, who ; το τί, 
what. "Οστις is always used interrogatively when a person to 
whom an interrogation is put, repeats it before answering it ; as, 
σν δ' ει τίς ανδρών ; όστις ειμ^ εγώ ; Μετών, who are you ? who 
am I? Me ton. 

15. In the predicate, τί, with εστί following it, is sometimes ac- 
companied by the subject of εστί in the plural ; as, θαυμάζω τί 
ποτ εστί ταντα, I wonder what these things are. 

16. The interrogative τίς is often used independently of other 
words in the sentence, being governed by κατά, or some such 
word understood, and may be rendered in what ? as to what ? 
&c. ; as, των τ ί σοφών επιστήμονες; in what sort of wisdom 
are they expert ? Sometimes it is used for δια τί, or προς τί, 
what ? why f on what account ? επι τί, for what purpose ? πώς 
τί, how ? So, τί δε, but what ? 

399 . — Possessive Pronouns. 

17. The possessive pronoun is in signification equivalent to 
the genitive of the pronoun from which it is derived, and while, 
like the adjective, it agrees with its substantive in gender, num- 

10* 



214 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. §134. 

ber, and case, yet other words at the sam i time often regard it as 
the genitive of the personal pronoun. Hence the following modes 
of expression, το σον μόνον δώρημα, equivalent to το σου μόνον, 
&c, the gift of thee alone. Αρνΰμενος πατρός τε μέγα χλεος 
?}#' εμον αυτοΰ, where εμόν agrees with κλέος in the accusative, 
and yet, as if it were the genitive of the substantive pronoun, it 
is coupled with πατρός in the genitive, and followed by αυτού. 
So also νω'ιτερον λεχος αυτών, our own bed ; τα υμέτερα αυτών, 
your own property ; την σφετεραν αυτών (scil. χώραν), their own 
country. 

The same construction is common in Latin ; as, " mea ipsius 
culpa." " Cum mea nemo scripta legat, vulgo recitare timentis." 
" Beneficio meo etpopuli Romania Lat. Gr. 256 and 283. 

18. The same observation extends to possessive adjectives ; 
as, fit δε' με δει γυναικείας τι αρετής οσαι νυν εν χηρεία έσον- 
ται, μνησ&ήναι, If 1 must also say something concerning the vir- 
tue of those women, who are from this time to live in widow- 
hood • where γυναικείας, is equivalent to the genitive τών γυναι- 
κών, to which οσαι refers. 

19. The possessive pronouns are employed only when an em- 
phasis is required ; in all other cases the personal pronouns are 
used in their stead ; as, πατήρ ημών, our father, literally, the 
father of us. But πατήρ ημέτερος means our own father. 

20. The possessive pronoun is sometimes used objectively; 
as, σος πό&ος, not " thy regret" but " regret for thee ; " τάμα 
νου&ετηματα, not " the lessons which I give" but " the lessons 
which thou givest me" This use of the possessive corresponds to 
the passive sense of the genitive, 452. 

21. The possessive pronoun is sometimes put in the neuter 
gender with the article, for the personal ; as, το υμετερον for 
νμεϊς ; τάμα for εγώ ; το εμόν for εμέ. Also without the article 
after a preposition ; as, εν ημέτερου (scil. δώματί), for εν ημών, in 
our house. 



§ 134. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. 

400. — Special Rule. The article agrees with its 
substantive in gender, number, and case. 

401. — Exc. 1. In gender. The masculine article is often put 
with a feminine noun in the dual number (384) ; as, τώ yvraotd, 
the two women. 



g 134 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. 215 

402. — Exc. 2. In number. The article may be put in the 
plural when it refers to two or more nouns in the singular (3*75) ; 
as, ai Λ&ηναίη τε καϊ "Ηρη, Minerva and Juno. 

403. — OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Nouns used indefinitely are commonly without the article. 
Tn general, the article is prefixed to all nouns not used indefinitely. 
Nouns are made definite by a limiting word, phrase, or clause ; 
by previous mention, by general notoriety or distinction, by pecu- 
liarity of state or relation, or by emphasis or contrast. 

2. The article is prefixed to nouns when they designate a 
class or species ; as, b άνθρωπος εστί &νητός, man is mortal. 

3. It is prefixed to abstract nouns when personified, or with 
a reference to something expressed or understood ; as, H κακία 
νπολαβοΰσα sine, Vice interrupting said ; την άλη& ειαν περί 
τούτων, the truth concerning these things. 

4. When one noun is predicated of another, the subject of the 
proposition is generally found with the article, and the predicate 
without it; as, άσκος εγενε&' η κόρη, the maiden became a 
wine-skin. 

5. The article is prefixed to nouns to mark emphasis or dis- 
tinction; as, 6 πόλεμος ουκ άνευ κινδύνων, η δε ειρήνη ακίνδυ- 
νος, war is not without dangers, but peace is free from danger ; 
(here the opposition between ό πόλεμος and /) ειρήνη renders both 
words emphatic, which is marked by the article prefixed ;) ό 
ποιητής, the Poet, scil. Homer, 

6. Proper names, when first mentioned, are without the arti- 
cle ; on renewed mention, they generally have it. But the arti- 
cle is never prefixed to a proper name followed by an appellative 
with the article ; as, Κϋρος ό βασιλεύς, Cyrus the king. 

7. The article is generally placed before appellatives, and all 
words and phrases which are placed after a substantive for the 
purpose of definition or description ; such as a substantive in ap- 
position, an adjective, a participle, an adverb, a preposition with 
its case ; as, Σωκράτης ό φιλόσοφος, Socrates, the philosopher ; 
oi νόμοι οι αρχαίοι, the ancient laws, &c. 

8. Before a participle, the article is to be translated as the re- 
lative, and the participle as the indicative mood of its own tense ; 
as, είσΐ οι λέγοντες, there are (those) who say. But, 

9. A participle between the article and its noun is to be re- 
garded as an adjective, and rendered accordingly ; as, oi υπάρ- 
χοντες νόμοι, the existing laws. So also, other words and phrases 
between the article and its noun, like an adjective, qualify the 



216 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. § 134. 

noun, and frequently have a participle understood ; as, // προς 
Γαλατάς μάχη ; soil, γενομένη, the battle against the Gauls. 

10. An adverb with the article prefixed is used sometimes as 
a noun, -sometimes as an adjective ; as, οι πέλας, those near, i. e. 
the neighbours ; η άνω πόλις, the upper city, 378. 

11. Adjectives, participles, adverbs, adverbial particles and 
phrases, used in the sense of nouns, have the article prefixed ; as, 
ol &νητοί, mortals ; oi κολακενοντες, flatterers ; η ανριον (scil. 
ήμερα), the morrow ; το τι, the substance ; το ποιόν, the quality ; 
το πόσον, the quantity ; το ως, the manner in which, &c. 

12. The article without a substantive, before άμφί ού περί with 
their case, denotes something peculiar to, or distinguishing the 
person, place, or thing expressed by the noun ; as, oi περί •&ηραν, 
those devoted to the chase, i. e. " hunters ; " το περί Αάμιρακον, 
the affair at Lampsacus ; τα άμφι πόλεμον, what belongs to war ; 
sometimes it is a mere circumlocution for the noun itself; as, τα 
περί την άμαρτίαν, for η αμαρτία. 

13. Ol περί, and οι άμφί, with a proper name, have the fol- 
lowing peculiarities of meaning; viz. 1. the person himself ; as, 
ol άμφι Πρίαμον και Πάν&οον, Priam and Panthous ; 2. the 
followers of the person named ; as, ol περί Αρχίδαμον, the com- 
panions of Archidamus ; 3. the person named, and his compan- 
ions and followers ; as, οι άμφι Πεισίστρατον, Pisistratus and 
his troops. 

14. The neuter article in any case prefixed to the infinitive 
mood (§ 173, I.), gives it the sense and construction of the Latin 
gerund, or a verbal noun ; as, τον φιλοσοφείν το ζητεΐν, inquir- 
ing is the business of philosophy ; το καλώς λέγειν, the speaking 
well. 

15. In the neuter gender, and in any case which the con- 
struction requires, the article is placed, 1. Before entire propo- 
sitions or quotations in a sentence construed as nouns ; as, Ετι 
δε τούτων τρίτη διαφορά, το, ως έκαστα τοντων μιμησαιτο άν 
τις, Moreover there is in these a third difference, viz. the manner 
in which one should imitate each of these objects ; εκ δε τοντων 
ορ&ώς άν εχοι το " έργον δ" 1 ονδεν όνειδος," but according to 
these views, the sentiment " labour is no dishonour " would be 
correct. 2. Before single words quoted or designated in a sen- 
tence; as, το ο ν μ ει ς όταν ειπώ, την πολιν λέγω, when 1 say 
you, I mean the state ; το λέγω, the word λέγω. But in nouns, 
the article is commonly in the gender of the noun ; as, το όνομα 
© "Λϊδης, the name Hades. 

16. The article is often prefixed to possessive, demonstrative, 



§134. 



CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARTICLE. 



217 



άλλοι 


others, 


αλλ>1 


other, 


πολλοί 


many, 


πλείονς 


more, 


αυτός 


himself, 


πάντες 


all, 


ολίγοι 


few, 



the others, the rest. 

the rest of Greece. 

the multitude. 

the most. 

the same. 

(after numerals) in all. 

the few, the Oligarchs. 



distributive, and other pronouns, for the sake of greater emphasis 
or more precise definition ; thus, εμος νιος, is merely a son of 
mine ; but 6 εμος νιος, is my son. The following change of sig- 
nification effected by the article may be noticed : 

οι άλλοι 
ή άλλη 'Ελλάς 
οι πολλοί 
οι πλείονς 
6 αντός 
οι πάντες 
οι ολίγοι 

17. When the article is used with οντος or εκείνος, the pro- 
noun must stand before the article, or after the substantive ; as, 
οντος 6 άνηρ, or 6 άνηρ οντος, this sa?ne man. 

18. The article is frequently used alone, having its substantive 
understood. This is the case when the substantive to which the 
article refers, being apparent from the connection or sense of the 
passage, can be easily supplied. The neuter article is often thus 
used with the genitive of another noun, χρήμα, πράγμα, <fec, 
being understood : — 1. In the singular, to intimate what a person 
has done, is wont to do, or has befallen him ; as, και τοι δοκώ 
μοι τ ο τον Ίβνκεΐον ίππον πεπον&εναι, and I seem to be in the 
same situation with the horse of Ibycus. 2. In the plural, to 
denote every thing that concerns, arises from, or belongs to, that 
which the substantive expresses ; as, τα φίλων ft ονδεν, the as- 
sistance of friends is nothing; δει φε'ρειν τα των &εών, we 
must bear the visitation of the gods. In the singular or plural, 
it is often merely a periphrasis for the substantive ; as, το or τα 
της οργής, for η οργή ; and an adjective, &c. put with such a 
periphrasis takes the gender and number of the substantive, and 
the case of the article; as, τα των διακόνων — ποιούμενοι, the 
messengers — considering. 

19. The article combined with μεν and δε, has in some de- 
gree the force of a pronoun, and is used in a distributive sense, — 
the article with μεν standing in the first member of the sentence, 
and with δε in the parts that follow; as, τον μεν ετίμα, τον δ' 
ου, this one, he honoured, that one not ; οι μεν εκνβενον, οι 
δ' επινον, ο ι 5' εγνμνάζοντο, some played at dice, some drank, 
some exercised themselves. When governed by a preposition, 
ιιεν and δε are placed immediately after the preposition ; thus, 
εν μεν τοις — εν δε τοις. 

20. In the Ionic and some other writers, especially Homer 



218 RELATIVE PKONOUN. § 185. 

and Herodotus, the article b, η, τό, is very frequently used as a 
relative, and sometimes as a personal pronoun ; as, Λχιλλέα 
φενγω τον ϊδεϊν αίσχννομαι, I flee from Achilles whom / am 
ashamed to see ; το μεν έτε&απτο, it (tlie child) was buried. 
1 86-2. 



§135. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

404. — Rule III. The relative agrees with its 
antecedent in gender, number, and person • as, 

?/ γννη ην είδομεν, iAe woman whom w saw. 

ό άνηρ ο ς ηλ&ε, the man who came. 

τα χρήματα, α είχε, the things which he had. 

405. — 1. The antecedent is the substantive, or something 
equivalent to a substantive (421), in a preceding clause to which 
the relative refers. Sometimes, however, as in Latin, the relative 
and its clause is placed before the antecedent and its clause. 

406. — 2. Strictly speaking, the relative does not agree with 
the antecedent, but with the same word expressed or understood 
after the relative, and with which, like the adjective, it agrees in 
gender, number, and case, as well as person ; thus, 6 Ιππος ov 
(ϊππον) εΐχε, the horse which [horse) he had. Hence, in connect- 
ing the antecedent and relative clauses, the following variety of 
usage occurs ; viz., 

1st. The word to which the relative refers is commonly ex- 
pressed in the antecedent clause, and not with the rela- 
tive ; as, ουτός εστί 6 άνηρ ο ν είδες, this is the man 
whom you saw. 
2d. It is often not expressed in the antecedent clause, and 
expressed with the relative ; as, οντός εστί ο ν είδες άν- 
δρα. 
3d. Sometimes, when greater precision is required, it is ex- 
pressed in both ; as, οντός εστί 6 άνηρ ο ν εϊδες άνδρα. 
4th. When the reference is of a general nature, and there is 
no danger of obscurity, the word to which the relative 
refers is understood in both clauses ; as, ov η&έλει εκτανε, 
ov η&έλει έσωσε, whom he would he slew, whom he ivould 
he saved alive. All this variety is common in Latin as 
well as in Greek. (Lai Gr. 286.) 



§ 135. RELATIVE PRONOUN. 219 

•107. — 3. The antecedent is sometimes implied in a preceding 
Avoid ; as, οικία η ν με τ to α οι γε χρησ&ε, <fec, your house who 
Ac, where ol refers to the personal pronoun implied in νμε- 
9Βρα (399-17). 

4 OS. — 4. When the relative comes after two words of differ- 
ent persons, it agrees with the first or second person rather than 
the third ; as, ειμί δ^'εγώ βασιλεύς ο ς τιμώ μ αι. 

409. — δ. When the relative is placed between two substan- 
tives of different genders, it sometimes agrees in gender with the 
latter; as, τό άστρον ην ονομάζονσιν Λίγα, the constellation 
which they call the Goat. 

410. — 6. Exc. The relative sometimes takes the 
gender and number, not of the antecedent noun, 
but of some one synonymous with it, or implied 
in it ; as, 

1st. θανόντων τ ε' κ ν ων ονς J /δραστος ηγαγε, their children 
having died, whom Adrastus led. In this sentence, ovg 
refers to παίδων, as synonymous with τέκνων. 

2d. πάντων άν&ρώπων ο ς κε σεν άντι έλϋ'ν, of every 
man, who shall come against you ; where og in the sin- 
gular, referring to a plural antecedent, shows that the 
men are spoken of in the relative clause individually. 

3d. νπερ άπάσης 'Ελλάδος ων πατέρας έκτεινε, for all 
Greece, whose fathers she slew ; where ων refers to the 
meaning of 'Ελλάδος in this sentence ; i. e. the men of 
Greece. 

4 th. ϋησανροποιος αν η ρ ονς δη και επαινεί το πλη&ος, Α 
max increasing in wealth, whom even the multitude ap- 
plaud. Here, though the antecedent άνηρ is singular, 
the relative ονς is plural, because it refers not to an indi- 
vidual man, but to the class or kind of men spoken of. 

411. — 7. Instead of og the compound pronoun όστις is used 
as a relative after πάς, ουδείς, or any word in the singular ex- 
pressing an indefinite number, and όσοι after the same words in 
the plural ; as, πάς όστις, every one who ; πάντες όσοι, all vjho ; 
and if the indefinite is not expressed in the antecedent clause, 
the use of the relative shows that it is understood, and is to be 
expressed in the translation ; as, τάς πόλεις οσαι, all the cities 
which. Sometimes it is used simply for og. 

412. — 8. If no nominative come between the relative and 
the verb, the relative will be the nominative to the verb. 



220 RELATIVE PRONOUN". § 185. 

If a nominative come between the relative and the verb, the 
relative will be of that case which the verb or noun following, 
or the preposition going before, usually governs. But, 

Attraction of the Relative. 

413. — 9. JExc. I. The relative is often attracted 
into the case of its antecedent ; as, 

Examples. 1. συν ταΐς νανσΐν αίς (for ag) είχε, with the 
ships which he had. 2. μετασχέτω της ηδονής j)g (for ψ) 
έδωκα νμϊν, let him share the pleasure which I gave you. 3. 
μεμνημένος ών έπραξε (for των πραγμάτων α έπραξε, 406-4th), 
being mindful of what he did. 4. απολαύω ών έχω άγα&ών, 
I enjoy what goods I have (406-2d). 

Note 1. The rule of attraction seems to have its foundation alto- 
gether in euphony ; and hence, generally, attractions will be found only 
where they improve the euphony of a sentence. 

Note 2. This construction is sometimes, though very seldom, imi- 
tated in Latin ; as, Circiter sexcentas ejus generis cujus supra demonstra- 
vimus, naves invenit. CLes. See Lat. Gr. 298. 

414. — 10. JExc. II. The antecedent is sometimes 
attracted into the case of the relative ; as, 

Άλλον ό° ου τ εν οΐδα .τ εν αν κλντα τευχεα δύω, I know not 
any other person whose renowned armour I could put on. Here 
άλλον is attracted by the relative τεϋ (for τον, 142, used for ov, 
186-2), from the accusative into the genitive. Lat. Gr. 299. 

On this principle are to be construed such sentences as the 
following: ούδένα κίνδννον οντιν ούχ ύπέμειναν, for ουδείς 
ψ κίνδννος όντινα, there was no danger which they did not 
undergo; ουδέν α εφασαν οντιν' ου δακρύοντα άποστρέ- 
φεσϋαι, for ουδείς ψ οντιν 'έβρασαν ου δακρύοντα, &c. there was 
no one who, they said, did not return weeping ; τίνας τούσδ* 
ορώ ξένους, for τίνες είσιν ούτοι οι ξένοι ους ορώ ; who are 
these strangers whom I see ? 

415.— 11. The relative plural, and in all its cases with εστί 
before it, is used for, or rather is the original form of, the adjec- 
tive ένιοι, -αι, -a, some (εστί being sometimes written ένί) ; as, 
καΐ εστί οί (i.e. ενιοι) ετνγχανον θωράκων, and some hit 
breastplates; άπο των πολέων έστιν ών (i.e. ενίων), from 
some cities. 

In this construction εστί is found with όστις, both singular 
and plural ; as, έστι όστις, some one ; έστι οίτινες, some. 



§ 13b\ EELATED ADJECTIVE WORDS. 221 

416. — 12. In certain cases, it is used adverbially, some other 
word being understood; thus, ov, where; ij, where, as far as, 
how, in what manner ; and sometimes thus used, it is preceded 
by tan', the two words being used as an adverb ; as, εστίν ov or 
ενΰα, sometimes, in some places, in many places. 



417.— §136. THE RELATED ADJECTIVE WORDS 
oiog, όσος, ηλίκος, &c. 

1. The relative adjectives οίος, όσος, ηλίκος, like the relative 
pronoun, always refer to a kindred word before them expressed 
or understood, implying a comparison of equality similar to talis 
qualis, tantus quantus, in Latin (Lat. Gr. 300) ; as, 

τοϊος or τοιούτος — οίος, such — as. 
τόσος or τοσούτος — όσος, so many — as. 
τηλίκος — ηλίκος, of such an age or size — as. 

2. The antecedent and relative adjectives both refer to the 
same substantive, with which they agree in gender and number, 
while each takes the case required by the construction of the 
clause in which it stands : thus, Dem. Olynth. I, " As for the 
rest they are thieves and flatterers, and τοιούτους άν&ρώ- 
πονς οίους με&ύσ&εντας ορχεϊσ&αι τοιαύτα οία εγώ νυν 
όκνώ ονομάσαι, such men as, when intoxicated, to dance such 
dances as / dare not name. 

3. The antecedent word is most commonly understood, and 
the relative is translated with some variety according to the con- 
nection in which it stands. The most of the cases in which, e. g. 
οίος is used for τοιούτος οίος, may be reduced to three ; viz. 1st, 
when it stands before a substantive ; 2d, before an adjectiife ; 3d, 
before a verb. 

4. First. Before a substantive, οίος elegantly takes the case 
in which its antecedent τοιούτος would be, if expressed, and 
changes the substantive before which it stands into the same 
case by attraction; thus, ουκ εστίν άνδρι οι φ Σωκράτει 
-ψενδεσϋ-αι, to lie is not befitting such a man as Socrates is, for 
ουκ εστίν άνδρι. τοιούτω οίος Σωκράτης εστίν ιρενδεσ&αι. Again, 
χαοιζόμενον οιφ σοι άνδρί, gratifying such a man as thou 
art, for άνδρί τοιούτω οίος συ (είς). 

In some instances the noun after οίος is not attracted into the 



222 RELATED ADJECTIVE WORDS. § 186. 

same case with it ; as, των (τοιούτων) οϊωνπερ αν tog όντων, 
tltey being such as he. 

When the substantive to which οίος refers is obvious from 
the connection, it is frequently omitted, as in the preceding ex- 
ample. 

5. Sometimes οίος, with the clause in which it occurs, is ap- 
parently unconnected with the sentence. In such cases the con- 
nection is to be formed by supplying ώς or on ; as, εμακάριζον 
την μητέρα (on) οίων τέκνων εκύρησε, they blessed the mother 
(because) she gave birth to (lit. became possessed of) such children. 

Of a similar nature are the Homeric expressions οι' αγορεύεις 
— οι εοργας, i. e. ότι oi\ &c. because you say — because you 
do such things. 

6. The construction is the same when οίος, or the substantive 
to which it belongs, is in the nominative, or is governed by a 
preposition ; as, άληχτες άγοντας πένθος (ότι τοιούτος) οίος 
αυτούς ό Φύννος διε'φυγεν, being truly grieved because such a 
thunny fish as this escaped them, Lucian ; έλπίζοντες πάγχν 
άπολεεσ&αι ες οία κακά ηκον, i. e. ώς ες τοιαύτα οία κακά, 
expecting total destruction since they were come into such cala- 
mities as these. In this way that difficult sentence in Thucy- 
dides is explained, και μόνη (scil. Λ&ψαίων πόλις) ούτε τφ πολε- 
μίω επελ&όντι άγανάκτησιν έχει, ύφ οίων κακοπα&εΐ, i. e. ώς 
νπο τοιούτων οίων ημείς, and we are now the only state 
which does not excite indignation in an invading enemy, because 
(or since) they suffer from such a brave people as we are. 

In all constructions of this kind, the idea will be readily per- 
ceived by considering οίος as put for ότι or ώς τοιούτος. See 
numerous examples in L. Bos. Ellipses, Gr. 271. Vigerus, Ch. 3. 
§8, 9. 

Ί. Second. Before an adjective, it may be resolved by supply- 
ing the infinitive είναι ; as, ει μεν γάρ τις άνηρ εν αντοϊς εστί 
οίος έμπειρος πολέμου, if any one among them is skilful in 
war, Dem. O. 2. for τοιούτος οίος είναι έμπειρος, is such as to be 
skilful, &c. ; οίος άριστος, the best, for τοιούτος οίος είναι άρισ- 
τος, such as to be the best, &c. 

8. Οίος is frequently, however, joined with an adjective in the 
form of an exclamation or interrogation, apparently without re- 
ference to the usual antecedent ; as, οίος μέγας, οϊος χαλεπός, 
how great ! how difficult ! Thus Lysias, οίος μέγας καΐ δεινός 
κίνδυνος ηγωνίσϋη, how great and terrible danger was risked 
(scil. for the liberty of Greece). If this and similar sentences, 
however, are thrown into the assertive form, they readily admit 



§ 137. CONSTRUCTION OF NOMINATIVE CASE. 223 

of the same resolution as the others ; thus, danger such as to be 
great and terrible was risked. 

9. Third. Joined with the verb ειμί expressed or understood, 
and followed by an infinitive, it signifies " I am of such a kind 
as, or such as ;" and, according to the connection in which it 
stands, may mean " I am able" " / am wont" " / am ready, or 
willing" — τοιούτος being always understood as an antecedent 
word ; thus, ο ν γαρ ηγ οίος άπο παντός κερδάναι (i. e. τοιού- 
τος οίος), for he was not (such) as to make gain from every 
thing ; i. e. he was not willing (or inclined) to do every thing for 
the sake of gain. 

10. The abbreviated expressions οίος είμι, and οϊός τ ειμί, are 
very common, and usually, but not always, observe this distinc- 
tion ; viz., that the former signifies " / am wont," the latter, " / 
am able, I can," and is equivalent to δνναμαι ; as, ο ιός τ ειμί 
τοντο ποιεΐν, I can do this. — In the neuter, it is used imperson- 
ally ; as, οίον τε εστί, it is possible. 

11. Sometimes the verb ειμί is also omitted; as, η δνναιτο 
άχονειν εκ τον μη οίο ντε (εϊναι), or whether he could hear 

FROM NOT BEING ABLE TO HEAR FORMERLY. 

12. In the same manner τοΐος or τοιοντος stands related to 
οίος following it, expressed or understood ; as, ονκ αν ομιλησαιμι 
τοιοντφ (scil. οίος αντός εστί), I would have no intercourse ivith 
such a man (scil. as he is). 

13. The neuters οίον and ola, either alone or combined with 
various particles, and used in a conjunctive or adverbial sense, 
are, no doubt, elliptical expressions similar to those noticed above, 
though it may be difficult to resolve many of them in a satisfac- 
tory manner. The ordinary meaning of these words will be 
found in the Lexicons. 

418 — Note. The observations which have been made on the con- 
struction of the related adjectives τοΓος or τοσούτος — οίος, are applica- 
ble, almost without exception, to τόσος or τοσούτος — όσος ; observing 
that the former relates to the quality of objects, the latter to their 
number or quantity. The same also may be said of τηλίχος 1 — ήλίχος, of 
such an age or size. 



§137. CONSTRUCTION OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 

419. — The nominative case is used — 

1st. To express the subject of a proposition. 
2d. In apposition with another substantive in the nomina- 
tive (365), or predicated of it (436, 438). 



224 VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. §138. 

3d. In exclamations ; as, ω δνστάλαινα εγώ ! Ο wretched 



/ 



me / 

4th. Absolutely, or without dependence on any word in the 
sentence ('772); as, πολλή γαρ ή στρατιά ούσα, ον 
πάσης εσται πόλεως υποδε'ξασ&αι (αυτήν), for the army 
being• numerous, it will not be in the power of the whole 
state to accommodate them. Or without a participle, by 
pleonasm before an affirmation ; as, 6 Μωυσης ουκ οι- 
δαμεν τι γεγονεν αυτφ, this Moses, we know not what 
has become of him. 



§ 138. A VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. 

420. — Rule IV. A verb agrees with its nomi- 
native in number and person ; as, 

εγώ γράφω, I write, 

υμεΐς τύπτετε, ye strike, 

όφ&αλμώ λάμπετον, his eyes shine. 

421 — Rem. The subject of a finite verb, if a noun or pronoun, or 
adjective used as a noun, is put in the nominative. The subject may 
also be an infinitive mood (719), or part of a sentence ; and to all these 
this rule applies. 

422. — Obs. 1. The nominative of the first and of the second 
person is generally omitted, being obvious from the termination 
of the verb ; also of the third person, when it may be readily 
supplied from the context ; as, λεγουσι, they say. 

423. — Obs. 2. The subject is also omitted, when the verb ex- 
presses an action usually performed by that subject ; as, σαλπί- 
ζει, the trumpeter sounds ; εκ?]ρν£ε, the herald proclaimed ; or 
when it expresses an operation of nature ; as, υει, it rains ; βρον- 
τά, it thunders. 

424. — Obs. 3. Impersonal verbs are usually considered as 
without a nominative ; still they will generally be found to bear 
a relation to some circumstance, sentence, clause of a sentence, 
or infinitive mood, similar to that between a verb and its nomi- 
native ; as, εξεστί μοι άπιεναι, it is lawful for me to depart, i. e. 
to depart is lawful for me ; χρή σε ποιεϊν, it behoves you to do 
it, i.e. to do it behoves you. Lat. Gr. 307. 

Note. — On the other hand, the subject or nominative is some- 
times expressed, and the verb — usually some part of the verb 
shai — is omitted ; as, "Ελλψ εγώ, I {am) a Greek. 



§ 139. VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. 225 

§ 139. SPECIAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS. 

I. Agreement in number. 

425. — Rule 1. A neuter plural commonly has 
ι verb in the singular ; as, 

ζώα τρέχει, animals run. 

426. — Obs. 1. This construction is more common with the 
Attic than with the Ionic and Doric writers. But with all, there 
are many exceptions, especially when the neuter plural signifies 
persons or animals ; as, τοσάδε εΰνη εστράτενον, so many na- 
tions went to war. Homer joins a singular and a plural verb 
with the same nominative. Odyss. μ. 43. So Xen. Mem. 
άστρα άνέφηναν α ημϊν τας ώρας της νυκτός εμφανίζει, 
the stars shone forth, which shew to us the hours of the 
night. 

427. — Obs. 2. Sometimes, also, masculine and feminine nouns 
in the dual and plural have a verb in the singular ; as, ουκ 
εστίν οϊτινες άπεχονται, there are none who abstain , 
άχεϊται όμφαΐ μελεων, the voice of melody sounds. 

428. — Rule 2. Two or more substantives sin 
gular, taken together, have a verb in the plural ; 
taken separately, the verb must be in the singu- 
lar ; as, 

Together, αιδώς δε και φόβος εμφυ- Shame and fear are na- 
τοί είσι άν&ρώπω, tural to man. 

Separately, σοι γαρ έδωκε νίκψ Ζευς For Jupiter and Apollo 
και Απόλλων, gave you the victory. 

429. — Obs. 3. To both parts of this rule, however, and espe- 
cially to the first, there are not a few exceptions ; for it often 
happens that when two or more nouns have a common verb, it 
agrees with one of them, and most commonly the one next it. 
Also, if the two nouns are of similar signification, they are in 
construction considered as one, and the verb follows in the sin- 
gular ; as, Σο\ δ 3 επι τολμάτω καρδίη καΐ ΰνμός, let your 
heart and soul dare. 

430. — Obs. 4. A substantive in the singular, connected with 
other words as the subject of a verb, conveying the idea of plu- 
rality, has the verb in the plural ; as, 'Ρέα παραλαβουσα και 



22 β VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. § 139. 

τους Κορνβαντας τχεριπολοναιν, Rhea, having taken with her also 
the Corybantes, wandered about. So in Latin ; as, Juba cum 
Labieno capti in potestatem Ccesaris venissent. Lat. Gr. 314. 

431. — E,ule 3. A noun of multitude expressing 
many as one whole has a verb in the singular ; as, 
εζετο λαός, the people sat down. 

432. — But when it expresses many as individu- 
als, the verb must be plural; as, 

ήρώτησαν αντον το πληϋος, the multitude asked him. 

433. — Obs. 5. To both parts of this rule there are also ex- 
ceptions, and in some cases it seems indifferent whether the verb 
be in the singular or plural ; sometimes both are joined with the 
same nominative ; as, εζετο λαός, ερητν&ησαν δε καΰεδρας, 
the people sat down and kept their seats. 

434. — Rule 4. A dual nominative may have a 
plural verb ; as, 

άμφω ελεγον, both spake ; and a plural nominative, limited to 
two, may have a verb in the dual. 

II. Agreement in Person. 

435. — Rule 5. When two or more nominatives are of differ- 
ent persons, the verb takes the first person rather than the sec- 
ond, and the second rather than the third ; as, εγώ και σν εΐπο- 
μεν, you and I spoke. 

To this rule there are many exceptions. 

III. The Nominative after the Verb. 

436. — Rule 6. Any verb may have the same 

case after it as before it when both words refer to 

the same thing ; as, 

ν μ ει ς εστε το φως τον κόσμου, Ye are the light of the world 

437 Rem. The nominative before is the subject, the nominative after 

the predicate — the verb is the copula, and is either a substantive or intran- 
sitive verb, or a passive verb of naming — from its use called copulative. 

438. — Obs. 6. This rule applies to the infinitive whatever be 
the case of its subject ; also to participles, 738 and 152. 



§ 140. GOVERNMENT. 227 

439. — Obs. 7. When the predicate is an adjective or a parti- 
ciple, without a substantive, it agrees with the subject before the 
verb, by H. II : — Except as uoticed, 378. 

440. — Obs. 8. In this construction, the verb usually agrees 
with the subject ; sometimes, however, it agrees with the predi- 
cate ; as, ήσαν δε στάδιοι οχτώ το μεταίχμιον αντεων, the space 
between them teas eight stadia. So also when the copula is a 
participle ; as, fie usually let go, τονς μέγιστα ε'ξημαρτγλότας — ., 
μεγίστην δε ονσαν (for οντάς) ^λάβην πόλεως, the greatest 
offenders being (or who are) the greatest injury to the state. 



§140. Π. GOVERNMENT. 

441. — Government is the power which one word has over 
another depending upon it, requiring it to be put in a certain 
case, mood, or tense. 

THE GOVERNMENT OF CASES. 
442. — The construction of the oblique cases depends in gen- 
eral upon the following principles ; viz. 

1. The Genitive expresses that from which any thing pro- 
ceeds, originates, or begins ; or to which it belongs, as expressed 
by the English words of, from, in regard of, in respect of, &c. 
viz. as cause or origin. 

2. The Dative is the case of acquisition, and denotes that to 
which any thing is added, or to or for which it is done ; hence 
the end or remote object to which any action tends. It is also 
used to express the cause, instrument, or means, by which a thing 
is done, in which sense it usually depends on a preposition ex- 
pressed or understood. 

3. The Accusative expresses the immediate object on which the 
action or influence of a transitive active verb terminates ; or ot 
motion or tendency to, expressed by a preposition. 

4. The action of a verb may be considered in reference either, 
1. to its immediate object, i.e. to that on which its action is im- 
mediately exerted, and which is always governed in the accusa- 
tive ; as, διδόναι εμαντόν, to give myself ; or, 2. to a remote ob- 
ject (i. e. to one which is not acted upon by the verb, but is 
merely that to which the action is related in the manner ex- 
pressed by the case), and is put in the ganitive, or dative, or ac- 
cusative, either after the accusative with a transitive active verb, 
or without an accusative after an intransitive verb ; as, άπαλλάτ- 



228 THE GENITIVE. § 141. 

τειν τίνα νόσου, to free one from disease ; διδόναι εμαντον zrj 
τζόλει, to give myself to the state; φείδεσΰαι των ερίφων, to spare 
the kids; βοη&εΐν τη πατρίδι, to aid (i.e. to render assistance to) 
my country. ^ 



§141. THE GENITIVE. 

443. — The Genitive is in extensive use in the Greek lan- 
guage, being used in many cases in which the ablative is used 
in Latin. Its primary, as well as its general and leading idea, is 
that of separation or abstraction, going forth from, or out of ori- 
gin, cause. So that the meaning of the words of out of from, 
is implied in the case itself. 

The numerous and diversified uses of this case are reduced by Mat- 
thise to the following heads : 

444 — I. In Greek, words of all kinds may be followed by other 
words in the genitive, when the latter class limits, and shews in what 
respect the meaning of the former is to be taken. When used for this 
purpose, they may usually be rendered by such phrases as "with re- 
spect to," " in respect of;" thus, 

1. With verbs; as, ώς ποδών ri/ov, as fast as they could run, lit. 
as they had themselves with respect to their feet ; καλώς i'/euv μέ&ης, 
to have one's self well with respect to intoxication; σφάλλισ&αν ελπί- 
δος, to be deceived with respect to hope ; κατεα/α της κεφαλής, I am 
broken with respect to my head, i. e. / have broken my head. 

2. With adjectives ; συγγνώμων των otv&q ω πίνων αμαρτημά- 
των, forgiving with respect to human errors; εγγύς της πόλεως, 
near with respect to the city ; γη πλίία vs. αν. ων, aland full of (i.e. 
with respect το) evils; μίίι,ων πατοος, greater than (i.e. with re- 
spect to) his father. 

3. With all words which represent a situation or operation of the 
mind, which is directed to an object, but without affecting it ; such as 
verbs signifying to remember, to forget, to neglect, &c. ; and adjectives sig- 
nifying experienced, ignorant, desirous, &o. 

4. With all words which indicate fulness, defect, emptiness, and the 
like. Under this head fall adjectives signifying full, rich, empty, de- 
prived of, &c. : and adverbs denoting abundance, want, sufficiency, &e,- 

5. To this principle must be referred the construction of the geni- 
tive with the comparative degree, 482 ; with all words denoting superi- 
ority, inferiority, and where a comparison is made with respect to the 
value of a thing ; as, ά&ος τούτον, worthy of this, i. e. equal in value 
with respect το this ; or where the idea of difference is involved 

6. When that with respect to which a thing is done may also be con- 
sidered the cause of its being done, the word expressing it is often put 
in the genitive, and may be rendered "on account of;" as, φϋονεΐν 
τινί σοφίας, to envy one on account of wisdom. Hence it is used with 
verbs signifying to accuse, or criminate, to pray, to begin, <fec ; and also, 
without another word, in exclamations. 



§ 142. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. 229 

445 — II. The genitive in Greek is used to express the relation of 
a whole to its parts ; i. e. it is put partitively. Hence it is put with 
verbs of all kinds, even with those that govern the accusative, when the 
action does not refer to the whole, but to a part ; as, οπτ^σαν κρεών, 
to roast some of the flesh ; εγώ οίδα των εμώ ν η λι,χι,ωτών , Ι know 
some of those of my age. Hence, also, it is put with verbs which sig- 
nify to share, to participate, (fee. 

On this principle is founded, the construction of the genitive of the 
part affected, after verbs signifying to take, to seize, to touch, (fee. Hence, 
also, it is put with the superlative degree, to express the class of which 
that one, or those marked by the superlative, form a part. 

446 — III. The genitive is used to mark the origin, or cause from 
which any thing proceeds ; and hence, the person or thing to which 
any tiling belongs, whether it be a property, or quality, habit, duty, (fee. 
Hence, also, verbs govern the genitive, which express feelings and op- 
erations of the mind, which are the result of external impressions, or 
when they denote motions and actions in bodies which are the effects of 
the operation of other bodies. Thus, verbs which express the sensa- 
tions of hearing, tasting, touching, (fee. as well as those which signify to 
admire, to care for, to desire, (fee. are followed by the genitive of the ob- 
ject heard, tasted, touched, admired, or cared for, because it is viewed 
as the source, origin, or cause, of these sensations and operations. 
Hence, also, the common rules, that "verbs denoting possession, prop- 
erty, or duty, (fee. govern the genitive ; " that " the material of which 
any thing is made is put in the genitive;" and that "one substantive 
governs another in the genitive." 

447. — IV. The genitive is also governed by certain prepositions, 
and by verbs compounded with prepositions ; that is to say, when the 
prepositions may be separated from the verb and placed before the 
genitive without altering the sense. 

448. — V. The genitive is used to determine place and time in an- 
swer to the question "where?" "when?" (fee. Hence the adverbs ο ν, 
πον, οπον, where, which are, in fact, old genitives, and refer to part of 
place or time in general. 

To the general principles contained in these five heads, may be re- 
ferred all the cases which occur under all the following rules for the 
genitive. 



§ 142. I. THE GENITIVE GOVEKJiED BY SUBSTAN 
TIYES. 

449. — Rule V. One substantive governs an- 
other in the genitive, when the latter substantive 
limits the signification of the former ; as, 

ό &εών πατήρ, the father of gods, 

αναξ ανδρών, king of men. 

11 



230 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. § 1 12. 

450 — This rule is founded on the general principle mentioned 444 
and 446. In the examples above, the general term πατήφ is restricted 
by the word &imv governed by it. It is not any father, nor the father 
of men, but of gods : so aval, not any king, but, the king of men. 

"When a noun is restricted by another of the same signification, it is 
put in the same case by Rule I. (365). 

451. — Obs. 1. The noun governing, the genitive is frequently 
understood (367); viz. 1. after the article such words as νιος, 
μητηρ, ΰνγάτηρ, &c. ; as, Μιλτιάδης 6 Κίμωνος (sup. νιος), 
Miltiades, the son of Cimon ; τα της τύχης (sup. δωρήματα), 
the gifts of fortune. 2. Οίκος or δώμα after a preposition; as, 
ες πατρός (sup. δώμα), to the house of her father ; εις αδον 
(δόμον), to Hades ; εν αδον (δόμφ), in Hades. 3. After the 
verbs ειμί, γίνομαι, ντζάρχω, &c. See 491 and 446. 

452. — Obs. 2. When the noun in the genitive signifies a per- 
son, it may often be taken in an active or passive sense ; thus, /) 
γνώσις τον &εον, the knowledge of God. In this sentence, God 
may be either the subject or the object of the knowledge spoken 
of, i. e. the phrase may denote our knowledge of God, or his 
knowledge of us ; πόθος νιον, generally (not the regret of thy 
son, viz. which he has, but) regret for thy son ; ανδρός ενμενεια 
τοιονδε, good ivill towards such a man. Lat. Gr. 334. 

453. — This passive sense of the genitive is more common 
when the governing noun is derived from a verb which usually 
governs the dative, and when the one substantive is in one sense 
the cause, and in another the object, of that which is expressed 
by the other substantive; as, νερτερων δωρήματα, offerings 
(not of but) το the dead; ενγματα Παλλάδος, prayers το 
Pallas; η τών Πλαταιεων επιστρατεία, the march against 
the Plat^eans. 

454. — Nouns thus derived, however, are more frequently fol- 
lowed by the dative ; as, η Μονσεων δόσις άν&ρώποισι, the 
gift of the Muses το men ; sometimes by the preposition εις with 
the accusative ; as, θεών εις άν&ρώπονς δόσις, 518. 

455. — Obs. 3. Many substantives derived from words which 
govern the genitive, are often followed by a genitive governed by 
the force of the primitive contained in the derivative ; thus, ελεύ- 
θερος πόνον (466), free from labour ; hence, ελεν&ερία πόνον, 
freedom from labour; κρατεϊν ηδονών (511), to be superior to 
pleasures ; εγκράτεια ηδονών, mastery over or moderation in 
pleasures ; ακράτεια ηδονών, subjection to or want of moderation 
m pleasures ; επικονρημα της χιόνος, protection against the snow. 



§ 142. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. 231 

456. — Obs. 4. Sometimes the genitive after a substantive is 
governed not so properly by the substantive as by a preposition 
understood. These generally express the material of which a 
thing is made, or the author or source from lohich it proceeds 
(617) ; as, στέφανος (/£) άν&έμων, a crown of flowers ; χαλκού 
άγαλμα (soil, εκ), a helmet of brass ; πέν&ος {άπο) δαιμόνων, 
grief sent from the gods ; (υφ) "Ηρας άλατεΐαι, wanderings caused 
by Juno. 

Note. In this "way, perhaps, the examples, Obs. 3 (455), may be re- 
solved ; as, έλίν&ί()ία, άπο πόνου. 

457. — Obs. 5. A noun in the genitive, after another of the 
same kind, denotes either the highest pre-eminence, or the lowest 
inferiority ; as, βασιλεΐ βασιλέων, to the king of Icings ; δούλος 
δούλων, a slave of slaves. 

458. — Obs. 6. A number of substantives followed by the gen- 
itive of a noun, or by a possessive adjective formed from it, are 
often put, by a kind of circumlocution, for the noun itself. The 
chief of these are, βία, ίς, μένος, strength ; κηρ, the heart ; 
φόβος, fear ; πείρας, τέλος, τελεντή, the end ; δέμας, a body ; 
κάρα, κάρηνον, κεφαλή, the head, &c. ; as, βία Κάστορος, for 
Κάστωρ, Castor ; βίη Ηρακληείη, for Ηρακλής, Hercules ; τέλος 
θανάτου, for θάνατος, death ; Ιοκάστης κάρα, for Ίοκάστψ 

459. — Obs. Υ. Sometimes one substantive governs two differ- 
ent genitives in different relations ; as, ύπέδυνε των Ιώνων την 
ψεμονίην του προς Ααρεϊον πολέμου, he assumed the leading 
of the Ionians ix the war against Darius ; των οικείων 
προπηλακίσεις του γηρως, insults of relations to old age. 

460. — Obs. 8. The Attics use a noun in the genitive, preceded 
by a neuter article, for the noun itself ; as, το της τύχης for ?) 
τύχη, fortune ; τά των βαρβάρων (for οι βάρβαροι) άπιστα 
εστί, the barbarians are not to be trusted. 



461. — Rule VI. An adjective or article in the 
neuter gender, without a substantive, governs the 
genitive ; as, 

το πολλον της στρατιης, the greatest part of the army, 
τά της τύχης, the gifts of fortune. 

462. — Obs. 9. The adjective in the neuter gender is either it- 
self considered as a substantive (390), or as having a substantive 
understood, which is properly the governing word. 



232 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. § 143. 

463. — Eule VII. A substantive added to ano- 
ther, to express a quality or circumstance belong- 
ing to it, is put in the genitive ; as, 

άνηρ μεγάλης αρετής, a man of great virtue. 

464. — Obs. 10. The substantive in the genitive has commonly 
an adjective with it, as in the example above, but sometimes not ; 
as, πόλεμος ουκ οπλών άλλα δαπάνης, a war, not of wea- 
pons, but OF MONEY. But, 

465. — Obs. 11. The substantive expressing the quality or cir- 
cumstance of another, is more commonly put in the accusative 
governed by κατά or διά expressed or understood ; as, άνηρ 
σπουδαίος τον τρόπον, a man of ingenuous disposition. 



§143. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 

466. — Rule VIII. Verbal adjectives, and such 
as signify an affection or operation of the mind, 
govern the genitive ; as, 

άν&ρωπων δηλημων, hurtful to men. 

έμπειρος μουσικής, skilled in music. 

467 — Rem. The principle on which this rule is founded is con- 
tained in 444-1. 1, 2. But others suppose that the foundation of the 
principle, as well as of the rule, is to be sought in the ellipsis of a pre- 
position, such as 2Tf(H, which is sometimes expressed ; as, πιρι των 
τεχνών έποστήμο)ν, skilled in the arts. However plausible this supposi- 
tion may be, it militates strongly against it that we have the same 
rule in Latin in which there is no preposition that governs the geni- 
tive. The stronger probability is, that the rule in both languages is 
to be referred to the same general principle already mentioned. 

468. — Under this rule are comprehended, 

1. Adjectives denoting action or capacity, which are derived 
from verbs, or corresponding to them, especially those in τος, 
ικος, and ηριος. 

2. Many adjectives compounded with a privative (327-1, 1st) ; 
as, ά&εατος και άνηκοος απάντων, without seeing or hearing of 
any thing. 

3. Participles used in an adjective sense, especially among 



§ 143. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 233 

the poets ; as, πτυγμένος άε&λων, free from troubles ; οιωνών 
ειδώς, skilled in augury. 

Note. These, however, are often followed by the accusative ; as, 
ίΐδώς a&tfuaria, skilled in wickedness. 

4. Adjectives expressing a state or operation of mind ; as, de- 
sire, aversion, care, knoioledge, ignorance, memory, forgetfulness, 
profusion, parsimony, and the like. 

5. Adjectives derived from, or of a similar signification with 
verbs which govern the genitive ; as, επίκουρος ψύχους, σκότου, 
κ. τ. λ. serviceable against cold, darkness, &c. 



469. — Rule IX. Adjectives signifying plenty 
or want, &c, govern the genitive (444-4) ; as, 

μεστός -&ορνβου, full of confusion, 

εοημος ανδρών, destitute of men. 

470. — Under this rule are comprehended, 

1. Adjectives of fulness, plenty, and want ; value, dignity, 
worth, and the contrary. 

2. Adjectives expressive of power, eminence, superiority, and 
their opposites ; also, of participation, diversity, separation, 'pecu- 
liarity, or property, and the like. 

3. Adjectives followed by the genitive of the cause ; as, άθλιος 
της τύχης, miserable on account of fortune. 

471. — Note. Adjectives of plenty and want sometimes govern the 
dative ; as, άφναός μήλοος, abounding in fruits. 



472. — Rule X. Partitives, and words placed 
partitively, comparatives, superlatives, interroga- 
tives, indefinites, and some numerals, govern the 
genitive plural ; as, 

1. των άν&ρώπων οι μεν σοφοί, of the men some were wise, 

οι δ' ov, others not. 

2. οι παλαιοί των ποιητών, the ancient poets. 

3. εν τών πλοίων, one of the ships. 

4. πρώτος Ad -ηναίων, the first of the Athenians. 

5. 6 νεώτερος τών αδελφών, the younger of the brothers, 

6. εχιτιστος βασιλέων, most hated of kings. 



234: GENITIVE GOVEKNED BY ADJECTIVES. §143. 

473. — Rem. For the principle of this rule, see 445. It has also 
"been supposed that the genitive under this rule is properly governed 
by εκ or άπό. The same remark made 467 is also applicable here, and 
for the same reason ; viz. that the same rule holds in Latin, which has 
no preposition governing the genitive. 

474. — Obs. 1. All words are denominated partitives which 
express a part of any number or class of objects, the whole being 
expressed by the noun following it in the genitive. 

475. — Obs. 2. The genitive after the partitive is sometimes 
governed by the preposition εκ or εξ ; as, εξ άπασών η καλλίστη, 
the most beautiful of all : — and sometimes, instead of the geni- 
tive, there is found a preposition with another case ; as, καλλίστη 
εν ταΐς γυναιξί, fairest among women ; so in Latin, justissimus 
in Teucris. Lat. Gr. 360. 

476. — Obs. 3. Instead of the genitive, the case of the partitive 
is sometimes used ; as, τους φίλους τους μεν άπέκτεινε, 

SOME OF HIS FRIENDS he slew. 

477. — Obs. 4. The partitives τις and εις are sometimes 
omitted; as, φε'ρω σοι στολή ν των καλλίστων (sc. μίαν), 1 
bring you a very excellent robe; η&ελε των μενόντων είναι 
(sc. εις), he desired to be one of those who remained. On this 
principle is explained such phrases as εστί των αισχρών (sc. εις), 
for εστί αισχρός, he is base (literally "one of the base "). 

478. — Obs. 5. Partitives agree in gender with the substantives 
which follow in the genitive. When two substantives follow in 
the genitive, the partitives, &c. commonly agree with the former, 
but sometimes with the latter. 

479. — Obs. 6. Collective nouns are governed by partitives in 
the genitive singular. 

480. — Obs. Ί. Adjectives in the positive form, but conveying 
a superlative sense, on the principle of this rule govern the geni- 
tive plural ; as, έξοχος πάντων, the most excellent of all ; δια 
Θεάων, goddess of goddesses (i. e. supreme goddess) ; δια γυναι- 
κών, most excellent of women, δαιμόνιε ανδρών, Good sir. Also 
nouns compounded with α in a privative sense ; as, αχαλκος ασπί- 
δων, unarmed with brazen shields. 

481. — Obs. 8. On a similar principle an adjective in the geni- 
tive plural sometimes accompanies substantives of all kinds, in 
order to mark the class to which the person or thing mentioned 
belongs; as, τροχός τών κεραμεικών, a wheel of the class 
of the earthen, i. e. an earthen wheel ; πελεκυς τών ναυπηγι- 
κών, an axe of those belonging• to ship-builders, i.e. a 
builder's axe. 



§ 113. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 235 

482. — Rule XL The comparative degree, with- 
out a conjunction, governs the genitive ; as, 

γλνκίων μέλιτος, sweeter than honey, 

κρείσσων οιχτιρμου ψχτόνος, envy is stronger than pity. 

483. — Rem. The principle of this rule is stated 444-5. There is 
not the same objection to the usual explanation of this rule, by supply- 
ing the preposition nqo or αντί, that is stated 467. Yet the analogy of 
the cases already referred to are opposed to this explanation, and seem 
to render it more proper to refer to the general principle above stated. 
At the same time it must be noticed, that after the comparative degree 
the genitive is sometimes governed by one of these prepositions ex- 
pressed; as, οϊΰνν η τνραννις nqb έλιν&ΐρίης fjv άσπαστότι- 
qov, to whom tyranny was more agreeable than liberty ; but this will 
not decide in favour of explaining the construction under this rule by 
supplying the preposition, any more than it did in the other, 475. 

484. — Obs. 9. The conjunction η, than, after the comparative 
is usually followed by the same case that precedes it ; as, επ 
άνδρας πολύ άμείνονας // Σκυ&ας, against men much braver 
than the Scythians. Sometimes, however, it is followed by the 
nominative, if ειμί, or another word, can be supplied ; as, τοις 
νεωτεροις η εγώ, to those younger than I am. 

485. — Obs. 10. After the comparative, η is sometimes followed 
by an infinitive \vith or without ώς or ώστε ; as, κακά μείζω η 
ώστε άιαχλαίειν, evils too great to excite my tears ; νόσημα 
μείζον η φε'ρειν, affliction too great to bear. 

486. — -Obs. 11. The comparative without η (than) is followed 
by the genitive according to the rule ; as, φωνά γλνκερώτερα 
μελική ρ ω, a voice sweeter than honey-comb. 

487. — 005. 12. The genitives τούτου and ov, governed by a 
comparative, are often followed by an explanation with η ; as, 
ουκ εστί τονδε παισι κάλλιον γέρας, η πατρός εσϋ-λου κάγα&ον 
πεφνκεναι, there is no greater honour to children than this (viz. 
than), to be descended from a brave and virtuous father. 

488. — Obs. 13. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence 
being equivalent to a noun (714), is sometimes governed in the 
genitive by a comparative; as, το φυλάξαι τ άγα&ά του 
κτησάσ&αι χαλεπώτερον εστί, to preserve property is 

MORE DIFFICULT THAN TO GAIN IT. 

489. — Obs. 14. Words which imply a comparison, govern the 
genitive on the same principle; these are 

1st. Such words as express difference ; as, περισσός, δεύτερος, 
ύστερος ; also, διάφορος, έτερος, άλλος, άλλοΐος } αλλό- 
τριος. 



236 GENITIVE GOVEENED BY VEEBS. § 144. 

2d. Multiplicative numbers ; as, διπλάσιος, τριπλάσιος ; as, 
διπλασιον δει άκονειν τον λέγειν, one should hear 

TWICE AS MUCH AS HE SPEAKS. 

490. — 05s. 15. The superlative is sometimes used for the com- 
parative, and is then subject to the same rules; as, (with the con- 
junction) λφστον η το Φλεγρας πεδίον, better than the plain of 
Phlegra ; (without the conjunction) σεϊο δ' οντις άνηρ μακάρ- 
τατος, no man is happier than you. 



§ 144. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

491. — Rule XII. The person or thing to which 
any thing belongs, is put in the genitive after ειμί, 
γίνομαι, υπάρχω ; as, 

εστί του βασιλέως, it belongs to the Icing, 

εΐναι εαυτόν, to be his own (master), 

τον καλώς πολεμεΐν το ε&ε- alacrity is necessary to fight 
λειν εστί, well ; i. e. belongs to it. 

492 — Rem. For the principle of this rule, see 446. Consistently 
with this, in constructions of this kind, a substantive may be considered 
as understood, which is the governing word. Lat. Gr. 365. 

493. — Obs. 1. Yet here also we have the genitive governed 
directly by a preposition expressed, indicating that from which 
the quality, &c. proceeds ; as, ονκ εστί προς πόλεως, it is not 
proper for the state ; lit. it is not a thing proceeding from the 
state. On this principle are to be explained such sentences as 
the following ; ονκ άγαμαι τουτ ανδρός άριστεος, I do not 
approve this in a prince; i. e. προς ανδρός, &c. from a prince ; 
τοντο επαινώ Ay ησιλάον, I commend this in Agesilaus ; τού- 
το μέμφονται μάλιστα ημών, this they blame chiefly in us. 



494. — Ktjle XIII. Verbs expressing the opera- 
tion of the senses, govern the genitive ; as, 

κλν&ί μεν, hear me. 

μ?Ι μον απτον, touch me not. 

495. — Exc. 1. Verbs of seeing govern the accusative; as, 
θεον όψονται, they shall see God. 



$ 144. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 237 

496. — Exc. 2. In the Attic dialect, all verbs of sense govern 
the accusative ; and sometimes, though very rarely, in the other 
dialects ; as, ηχονσα φωνψ, I heard a voice ; σπλάγχνα επάσαν- 
το, they tasted the entrails. 

497. — Obs. 2. The principle on which verbs under this rule, 
and some of those that follow, govern the genitive, is, that the 
word in the genitive, following the verb, expresses that which is 
viewed as the origin or cause, in some way or other, of the sensa- 
tion, or of the act or state expressed by the verb, 446. 

498 — Rem. If, after verbs which usually govern the genitive, the 
genitive is governed by a preposition interposed, the preposition gener- 
ally corresponds to the idea of origin or cause, <fec. expressed by the 
genitive (as, από, π^ός, and the like); and thus, instead of militating 
against the principles stated above, it adds its own force to that of the 
genitive, giving emphasis and distinction to the sentence. But to sup- 
pose from this, that when the genitive follows a verb, it is always gov- 
erned by a substantive or preposition understood, besides being wholly 
unnecessary on the principles already stated, serves only to destroy 
the original and characteristic simplicity of the language, and to render 
its construction perplexed and intricate. 



499. — Rule XIV. Verbs signifying an opera- 
tion of the mind, govern the genitive ; as, 

ΰανμάζω σον, I admire you. 

αμελείς των φίλων, you neglect your friends. 

500. — Rem. Verbs which come under this rule govern the genitive 
on the principles stated, 1 1 1-3 and 446. Examples occur also in Latin ; 
see Lat. Gr. 369. It applies generally to verbs which signify 

1. To pity, to spare, to cara for, or neglect ; as, επιμελεΐσϋ-αι, 
φροντίζειν, άλεγίζειν, άμελεΐν, όλιγορεΐν. 

2. To remember or forget; as, μνάσ&αι, μνημονενειν, λαν&ά- 
νεσ&αι, &c. with their compounds. But these frequently 
govern the accusative. 

3. To consider, to reflect, to perceive, or understand ; these 
also govern the accusative. 

4. To admire, to aim at, to desire or to loathe, to revere or to 
despise. 

501. — Obs. 3. Many of these verbs used transitively (i.e. 
signifying to cause the operation of mind they express), govern 
the accusative of the person with the genitive of the object ; as, 
νπεμνησεν ε πατρός, he put him in mind of his father ; εγενσας 
με ευδαιμονίας, you have caused me to taste of happiness. Verbs 



288 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VEEES. § 144. 

thus used are sometimes denominated causative or incentive verbs, 
and hence the — 

502. — Rule. Causative verbs govern the accu- 
sative of the person with the genitive of the thing. 



503. — Rule XV. Transitive verbs govern the 
genitive when they refer to a part only, and not 
to the whole of the object ; as, 

επιε του νδατος, he drank of the water. 

504 — This construction depends on the principle stated, 445, or we 
may consider the expression elliptical, and supply some such word as 
μέρος, a part, or τί, some, as the direct object of the verb, and that which 
governs the genitive according to Rules V. and VI. 

505. — To this rule belong more especially such verbs as sig- 
nify, 

1 . To share, participate, or impart, which, with the genitive 
of the thing, frequently govern the dative of the person to 
whom it is imparted ; as, μεταδίδωμι τφ άδελφφ των 
χρημάτων, I share the property with my brother. 

2. To receive, obtain, or enjoy ; as, τιμής έλαχε, he gained 
honour ; lav λάβω μεν σχολής, if we get leisure. 

3. Verbs signifying to take, to seize, and their contraries ; to 
touch, or to carry, especially in the middle voice, with the 
accusative of the whole, govern the genitive of the part af- 
fected ; ελάβοντο της ζώνης τον Ορόντην, they seized 

Orontes by the girdle. 
506. — Exc. Some verbs, such as λαμβάνομαι,, μετέχω, κληρο- 
νόμε ω, λαγχάνω, τυγχάνω, sometimes govern the accusative of 
the thing ; κληρονόμε ω with the accusative of the thing, governs 
also the genitive of the person from whom it is received ; as, 
εκληρονόμησε του πατρός τα κτήματα, he inherited his posses- 
ses from his father ; sometimes it governs the genitive of both. 



507. — Rule XVI. Verbs oi plenty or want, fill- 
ing or depriving, separation or distance, govern 
the genitive (444-4) ; as, 

ενπορεϊ χρημάτων, he abounds in riches. 

χρυσού νηησάσ&ω νηα, let him fill his ship with gold. 

δεϊσ&αι χρημάτων, to be in want of money. 



§ 144. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 239 

508. — Under this rule there may be comprehended verbs 
which express the general idea of separation, or which signify — 

1. To beg or entreat ; as, δεομαί σον, I beg of you. 

2. To bereave or deprive ; as, στερεω, άποστερέω. 

3. To deliver, loose, or set free ; as, ελευϋερόω, λνω, απαλ- 
λάσσω. 

4. To escape ; as, εχφενγω, άλνσκω. 

5. To keep off, to hinder, or prevent, to desist ; as, κωλνω, 
έρητενω, ε/ω (scil. τινά τινός), είργομαι, &c. 

6. To differ from, to be distant, to abstain ; as, διέγω, 
απέχω, διαλλάττω, διαφέρω, άπέγομαι. But some verbs 
of differing govern also the dative ; as, διαφέρω σοι, I 
differ from you. 

1. To separate, repel, or drive away; as, χορίζω, διορίζω, 
άμννω, άγει ρω, διώκω, &c. 

8. To make way for, or retire from, to resign ; as, ε'ι'κω, 
νποχωρέω, νπάγω, σνγχωρέω. 

9. To err, to cause to err ; νποπλανάομαι, άποτνγχάνομαι, 
άμαρτάνω, πλανάω. 

10. To cease, to cause to cease ; as, πάνω, παύομαι, λήγω, &o. 

11. To deceive, frustrate, or disappoint ; as, 'ψεύδομαι, πταίω, 
σφάλλομαι, &c. 

509. — Obs. 5. Many of these are transitive; and with the 
genitive of the remote object, govern the accusative of the direct 
object ; thus, under No. 3, σε τονδ" ελεν&ερώ φόνου, I clear you 
of this murder ; άφαιρεΐσ&αι, to deprive, sometimes governs the 
accusative and genitive, sometimes two accusatives, and some- 
times the accusative and dative. 

510. — Obs. 6. The genitive after these verbs, whether transi- 
tive or intransitive, is sometimes governed by a preposition inter- 
vening, the effect of which is, to give emphasis to• the expression ; 
as, ελευ&ερώσας την Ελλάδα άπο Μηδων, having liberated Greece 
from the Medes, 498. 



511. — Rule XVII. Verbs of ruling, presiding 
over, excelling, and the contrary, govern the geni- 
tive (444-5) ; as, 

πολλών ε&νων αρχειν, to rule over many nations. 

των πραγμάτων επιστατειν, to luive the superintendence of affairs. 



240 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 144. 

512. — The verbs which come under this rule are those which 

signify, 

1. To rule; as, άρχω, κραίνω, δεσπόζω, δυναστεύω, εξου- 
σιάζω, αν&εντεω, κατακυριεύω. 

2. To reign ; as, τυραννεύω, βασιλεύω, άνάσσω. 

3. To lead ; as, ηγεομαι, ηγεμονεύω, στρατηγε'ω. 

4. To preside over ; as, επιστατεω. 

5. To survive, or to be over ; as, περίειμι. 

6. To surpass, or excel ; as, πρωτεύω, υπερβαίνω, περιβάλλω, 
διαφέρω, περιγίνομαι. 

7. To begin, i. e. to be first, to lead the way ; as, άρχομαι; so 
άρχω, υπάρχω, κατάρχω. 

8. The contrary are such as signify to be ruled, led, presided 
over, &c. ; to obey, to be inferior to, to be overcome. 

513. — Obs. V. Some verbs govern the genitive by the force 
of a noun implied in them ; thus, τνραννενειν is equivalent to 
τύραννος είναι ; and hence ετνράννευε Κορίν&ου, he was king of 
Corinth, is equivalent to τύραννος ην Κορίν&ου. 

514. — Obs. 8. Many verbs under this rule sometimes govern 
the dative ; as, άνάσσω, σημαίνω, κρατεω, ηγεομαι, ηγεμονεύω, 
άρχω : and sometimes the accusative. 



515. — Eule XVIII. Verbs of buying, selling, 
estimating, and the like, govern the genitive of 
the price (648) ; as, 

ώνησάμην τοΰτο πέντε δραχμών, I bought this for five 

DRACHMAE. 

των πόνων πωλοϋσιν ημϊν πάντα τάγά&α οι &εοί, the 
gods sell every good thing to us for labour. 

αξιούται διπλής τιμής, he is thought worthy of double 
honour. 

516. — Bern. The genitive in this construction is properly 
governed by αντί understood, sometimes expressed. The price 
is sometimes put in the dative with the preposition επί, and some- 
times in the accusative with the preposition προς. 649. 

Ν. Β. — For the construction of the genitive with the accusa- 
tive, see §151; also, for the genitive governed by adverbs, see 
§164, 165; by prepositions, § 168, and as used to express cer- 
tain circumstances, § 156, 15*7, and from § 160 to § 163. 



§ 145, 146. DATIVE AFTER SUBSTANTIVES. 241 

§145. CONSTRUCTION OF THE DATIVE. 

517. — The dative has, in general, two significations : 

1. It is used to express the remote object to which any quality or 
action, or any state or condition of things tends, or to "which it refers. 
This tendency is usually expressed in English by the words to or for. 
As thus used, it corresponds to the dative in Latin, and is subject to 
nearly the same rules. 

Rem, To this general character of the dative may be referred a use 
of this case common in the best Greek writers, when the dative of the 
person to whom the thing spoken of may, in some way or other, be in- 
teresting, is thrown in, without any dependence for its construction 
on any word in the sentence, and when the sentence as regards syntax 
is complete without it. In such cases the dative is said to be redundant. 
But though it is so in respect of construction, it is not so in respect of 
effect, as it imparts a touch of feeling and sentiment easily felt, but not 
so easy to express in a translation. Thus, η μήτηο ία σι noitlv ο,τι αν 
βονλγι, ϊν αυτή μαχάρκ; ης (Plat. Lys.), thy mother permits thee to do 
whatever thou pleasest, in order that thou may est be happy (το her). The 
aiVrrj is added with reference to the feelings of the mother. The datives 
μοί and σοι are very often iised in this way. Thus, Oedip. Tyr. 2. τίνας 
πο& ϊδοας τάσόί μοι, #octufTf; where μοί intimates the mournful in- 
terest the good king felt in the scene before him. In Xen. Cyr. Cyrus 
addressing his mother, says, o^ttai σοι> ίληνονς — νικήσαν &c. I have no 
doubt that I will easily surpass these; where σοι intimates the delight- 
ful interest an affectionate mother might be supposed to feel in the 
event anticipated. So in Latin, Quo tantum μιηί dexter abis, Virg. 
^Eneid V. 162. Lat. Gr. 377-3. 

2. It is used to express that with which any thing is connected as an 
accompaniment, cause, instrument, manner, means, or end. This connec- 
tion is usually expressed in English by such words as with, by, from, in, 
for, or on account of. Used in this way, it corresponds to the ablative 
in Latin, both in meaning and construction. 



§ 146. THE DATIVE AFTER SUBSTANTIVES. 

518. — Rule XIX. Substantives derived from 
verbs which govern the dative, sometimes govern 
the dative also ; as, 

η τον &εον δόσις νμΐν, the gift of God to you, 

ή εν τφ πολεμώ τοις φίλοις βοή- the assistance of (i. e. rendered 

&εια, to) friends in war. 

ες άντιλογίαν τοις ξνμμάχοις, for the contradiction of your 

allies : — 
Because δίδωμι, βοηΰε'ω, and αντιλέγω, govern the dative. 



242 DATIVE GOVEKNED BY ADJECTIVES. § 147. 

519. — Obs. 1. The dative often follows a substantive in the 
sense of the genitive, for which construction, with examples, see 
533. 

520. — Obs. 2. The dative sometimes depends on an adjective 
and substantive joined together, but chiefly on account of the 
adjective ; as, κλεινόν &άλος πατρί, illustrious offspring to tJw 
father. 

521. — Obs. 3. The dative sometimes follows a substantive, 
not, however, as implying possession, but where the idea of adap- 
tation or design is implied ; as, χερσίν πόνος, labour for the 
hands ; i. e. adapted for, designed for, suited to. 

522. — Obs. 4. The dative is also put with substantives to ex- 
press the idea of companionship, being governed probably by 
ovv or ομοίως understood ; as, (αν) νπεν&ννος ει τοις άλλοις, 
you are responsible, as well as (or equally with) the rest. 



§ 14V. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 

523. — Rule XX. Adjectives signifying profit 
or disproflt, likeness or unlikeness, govern the da- 
tive ; as, 

ωφέλιμος rrj πόλει, profitable to the state, 

ομοϊος τφ πατρί, like his father. 

524. — The dative after such adjectives, expresses the object to 
which the quality expressed by the adjective refers ; and hence, 
all adjectives in which such a reference is involved, are followed 
by the dative of the object to which they relate. In this' class, 
besides those mentioned in the rule, may be reckoned, 
1st. Adjectives signifying usefulness, friendliness, equality, suita- 
bleness, resemblance, ease, fitness, agreement, and the like, 
with theii contraries. Hence, ό αυτός, the same, and some- 
times εις, one, and τοιούτος, such, are followed by the da- 
tive ; as, τα αυτά (ταντα) πάσχω σοι, I suffer the same 
things with you — (so in Latin, Invitum qui servat, idem 
facit occidenti. Hor. He who preserves a man against his 
will, acts the same part with the man who kills him) : 
ο ς i μ οι μιας εγενετ εκ μητέρος, who was of the 
same (or one) mother with me ; λόγους τ φ — τοιοντονς 
λέγειν, to speak such words as he would. 



§ 147* DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 243 

Exc. Adjectives signifying likeness, equality, <fcc. are sometimes fol- 
lowed by the object of comparison, not in the dative, but in the same 
case with the adjective, and connected with it by_ the conjunction καί ; 
jis, οιτός γε jo λόγος ϊμοιγε δοχεΐ αν ομοι,ος είναι, κα* πρότερος 
(instead of είναι, τω προτέρω), this argument would seem to me at least 
το be like the former. So also the nominative is used after the adverbs 
ομοίως, ίσως, κατά ταιτά ; as, ονγ ομοίως πεποίήχασι* κ α* "Ο μη ρ ος, 
they have not done like Homer; κατά τ αυτά οΐ'τος ήχησε και κ ι, & ά- 
ρα, he sounded just as a harp. These constructions are probably to be 
resolved thus : ot τός' γε ό λόγος v.ai πρότερος δο/.εΐ, <fcc. ; οντος και 
χ^&άρα ήχησε, &C. 

2d. Adjectives compounded with συν, ομοΰ, and μετά, signifying 
with ; as, σύντροφος, όμορος, μεταίτιος τινί, &c. ; — yet 
sometimes these govern the genitive. 
3d. Some adjectives derived from verbs which govern the da- 
tive, govern the dative also ; as, άκόλου&ος, άχολονιϊητικός, 
διάδοχος. 
525. — Obs. 1. There are many adjectives which govern either 
the genitive or dative ; as, όμοιος, like ; Ίσος, equal ; ομώνυμος, 
of the same name ; όμοπάτριος, of the same father ; όμομητριος, 
of the same mother ; σύντροφος, educated together ; συνήϋ-ης, 
familiar ; ισόρροπος, of the same force ; κοινός, common ; 
πλούσιος, άψνειός, rich ; εύπορος, abundant ; ενδεής, poor ; ένο- 
χος, υπόδικος, υπεύθυνος, exposed, obnoxious ; οικείος, familiar ; 
ώνιος, to be sold ; δούλος, a slave ; ελεύθερος, free ; as, όμοιος 
του πατρός, or τφ πατρί, like his father ; ομώνυμος του πατρός, 
or τφ πατρί, of the same name with his father. 

526.— Obs. 2. It has been observed (202, Obs. 1), that the ver- 
bal adjectives in τός and τεος have a passive signification corres- 
ponding nearly to the Latin verbals in bilis and dus. Their con- 
struction, when thus used, is also similar ; and hence the following 



52 7. — Special Rule I. Verbals in τός and 
rSog, signiiying passively, govern the dative of the 
doer ; as, 

τούτο ου ρητόν εστί μοι, this is not ft ο be spoken by me. 
η πόλις ώφελητεα σοι εστί, the city ought to be served by thee. 

528. — Bern. The dative, however, in this construction, when 
it is general in its nature, is commonly omitted ; as, τιμψία εστίν 
η αρετή, virtue must be honoured (viz. ημΐν, by us). 

529. — Obs. 3. Verbals in τός, not signifying passively, govern 
the case of their own verbs ; as, ει τφ εμφ τάνδρι μεμπτος ειμί, 



2-1-4 DATIVE GOVEKNED BY VERBS. § 148. 

if I blame my husband. Soph. Trach. ; άψανστος εγχονς, not 
having touched the sword. 202, Obs. 1. 



530. — Special Rule II. The neuter verbal in 
τεον 9 in the sense of the Latin gerund, with the 
dative of the doer, governs also the case of the 
verb from which it is derived ; as, 

ταύτα, πάντα ποιψέον μοι, all these things must I do. 
τοις μεν νπάρχονσι νόμοις χρηστε'ον, καινούς δε εική μη 
ΰετεον, we should use the present laws, and not rashly enact 

NEW ONES. 

531. — Obs. 4. The doer is sometimes put in the accusative, in 
which case the necessity involved in the verbal is much weaker 
than in the ordinary construction ; as, ov δονλεντεον τον ς νουν 
έχοντας τοις κακώς φρονονσι, the prudent ought not to obey 
the unwise ; επισκεπτεον τα μεν αντόν, τα δε γυναίκα (for 
αντώ, γνναικί), some things are to be looked to by him, some by 
his wife. Both are united by Plato, Rep. 5, ονκονν και ημ,ϊν 
νενστεον — ελπίζοντας. 



§ 148. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

532. — Rule XXI. The verbs ε Ι μι, γίνομαι, 
and υπάρχω, signifying to he, or to belong to, are 
followed by the dative of the possessor ; as, 

εστί μοι χρίσματα, possessions are (belong) to me, i. e. I have pos- 
sessions. 

Τελλω παίδες ήσαν καλοί κάγα&οί, good children were to Tellus, 
i. e. Tellus had good children. 

533. — Obs. 1. On the principle of this rule may be explained 
the numerous instances, both in Greek and Latin, in which the 
dative signifying possession is used with another substantive appa- 
rently for the genitive. Thus, Τελλφ οι παίδες is equivalent to 
Τελλον οι παίδες, the children of Tellus ; but the principle of 
construction is different. In the latter expression, the genitive is 
immediately governed by the other substantive, οι παίδες, by 
Rule V., and signifies the children proceeding from, and belong- 



§ 148. DATIVE GOVERNED *BY VERBS. 243 

ing to, Tellus. In the former, the dative is not governed by the 
substantive, but depends on some part of the substantive-verb 
understood ' thus, Τελλφ οι παίδες (ο/ οντες), Tello filii (qui 
sunt), the children which are to (belonging, or added to) Tellus ; 
or, without a periphrasis, " the children of Tellus." In this man- 
ner may be resolved all sueh expressions as οσσε δε' ο'ι, his two 
eyes ; -&νγάτηρ τε oi, her daughter ; τφ Λνδραίμονι 6 τάφος, the 
sepulchre of Andrcemon, &c. Lat. Gr. 380, 381. 

534. — Rem. 1. This mode of expression with the dative is so nearly 
synonymous with the more common construction with the genitive, 
that it appears often to have been a matter of indifference which of 
them was used ; so much so, that a sentence sometimes begins with 
the one construction and ends with the other; thus, ημϊν δε /.ατι/.λά- 
σ&η φΐλον ήτορ δΐισάντ ο)ν φ&όγγον τί βαρνν ; literally, the heart ίο 
us dreading his growling voice was broken down. In this sentence §ti- 
σάντοίν refers to ημϊν as if it were ημών in the genitive. In the follow- 
ing sentence the order is reversed: της ό° αντον λΰτο φίλον ητορ σή- 
ματα αναγνονσι\, her heart was moved when she recognized the to- 
kens. Here άναγνονση in the" dative, refers to της in the genitive, as 
if it had been τη. 

535 — Rem. 2. In other instances in which the dative follows a sub- 
stantive apparently for the genitive, the idea of tendency towards or of 
acquisition or addition, expressed in English by the preposition to or 
for, is generally apparent ; as, πατρι τι>μο)ρον φόνου, an avenger of 
your father's murder; plainly an avenger of murder to or for your fa- 
ther. Indeed, the idea of possession, one of the meanings of the geni- 
tive, and of acquisition, the proper idea expressed by the dative, are 
so nearly allied as to render the use of the one case for the other not 
unnatural. 

536. — Obs. 2. When of two nouns in the dative, the one ex- 
presses a part of, or something belonging to, the other, the latter 
may be rendered as the genitive, and the construction explained 
as in Obs. 1 (533) ; yet it may be often better to consider them 
in apposition, both depending on the same governing word — the 
one term being added to limit or define more precisely the more 
general idea contained in the other ; thus, in the sentence, ουκ 
Λγαμέμνονι ψδανε &νμφ, the dative Λγαμέμνονι may be 
considered as regularly governed by ψδανε (548-1), and -Θνμφ 
added in apposition, more particularly defining the part affected ; 
as, he did not please Agamemnon ; viz. his mind (his feelings). 
This construction is imitated in Latin (Lat. Gr. 371). So also 
the following examples : 

κόσμον ov σφιν ωπασεν Ζευς γένει, an ornament which Jupi- 
ter gave το them, viz. their race. 
μαρτνρέει δε μοι zrj yvcown, (the oracle) bears witness for me, 
i. e. for my opinion. 



246 DATIVE GOVERNED BY VEEBS. § 148. 

537. — In the following sentence, instead of the second dative, 
we have the accusative with κατά; viz., ηδε δε μοι κατά &υ- 
μον αρίστη φαίνετο βουλή, but this counsel seemed best το me in 
respect of my feelings ; ι. e. this counsel pleased me most. 

5oo. — Rem. 8. The correctness of this view of the construction is 
also rendered more probable from the fact, that the same apparent tau- 
tology is used when the word to be limited 1 * defined is connected with 
words which govern the accusative ; as, τι δέ σ ε φ ρ ένας ϊκετο πέν&ος ; 
what grief has invaded your mind? Where, instead of saying that σε is 
the accusative used for the genitive σον according to one mode of reso- 
lution, or that φρένας is governed b}^ κατά understood according to 
another, it appears better to consider σε as the general direct object, 
and φρένας as in apposition, defining more precisely the part affected 
as in the above examples ; thus, " what grief has come upon νου : viz. 
your mind." So in other instances ; as, 

Τρώας δε τρόμος νπήλν&ε γνΐα ε κ α α τ ο ν , trembling came upon 

the Trojans, every one in their limbs. 
τον γε λίπ οστέα &ΰμος άγήνωρ, the noble soul left him; viz. 

HIS BODY. 

ερι,νεον τάμνε νέους ορπηχας, he cut the wild fig tree, its 

YOUNG BOUGHS. 

539. — Obs. 3. The dative of some participles and adjectives 
is joined with the dative after the third person of ειμί or γίνομαι, 
for the verb itself ; these are such as βουλόμενος, ηδόμενος, άχ- 
ϋ-όμενος, προσδεχόμενος, άκων, άσμενος, &α ; as, si' σοι βονλο- 
μενω εστί, for ει βουλή, if you are willing ; ουδέ αντφ άκοντι ψ, 
nor was he unwilling ; ηδομενοισιν ήμΐν οι λόγοι γεγόνασι, we 
were pleased with your discourse. This construction lias been 
imitated in Latin ; thus, Tacit. Agr. 1 8, quibus bellum volentibus 
erat, "who were inclined for war." So Sallust, Jug. 100, uti 
militibus labos volentibus esset, " that the labour might be agree- 
able to the soldiers." See Lat. Gr. 396, Note. 

540. — Obs. 4. Somewhat similar to this is the construction of 
the dative with the participle or adjective, expressive of some 
feeling or emotion, after verbs signifying to come ; as, 

άσμενη δ' εμοϊ ηλ&ε, he came to me delighted (scil. with his 
coming) ; i. e. / am delighted that he is come. 

πο&ουντι τζρονφάνης, thou comest to me earnestly wishing it, 
i. e. / earnestly wished that thou wouldst come. 

541. — Obs. 5. To this rule also belongs the construction of 
such phrases as ti ε μοι και σοι (scil. κοινόν εστί) ; what have 
I to do with thee ? (literally, what common thing is there το me 
and you?) τί πλέον εστίν εμοί ; what advantage have I from 
it ? what good is it to me ? 



§ US. DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 217 

f)42. — Rule XXII. All verbs govern the dative 
of the object to which their action is directed; as, 

tv/oiTO (ϊεοΐς, they prayed to the gods. 

άναβλεπ&ν τιιί, to look up to any one. 

JifhjVQ χείρας άησχον, they lifted up their hands to Minerva* 

5 43. — Rem. 4. This rule maybe considered as general, applying to 
all eases in which a verb expressing action is followed by the dative, 
the action not being exerted upon, but simply directed to the object 
expressed in the dative. Hence, if the verb is transitive, it will govern 
also its immediate object in the accusative (584); if intransitive, it will 
be followed by the dative only. More particularly to this rule belong 

544. — I. Verbs expressing action, compounded with επί, 
προς, εις, ανά, &c. These prepositions serve to mark more pre- 
cisely the direction of the action, or state of action, to an object ; 
as, είσε'ρχεσ&αί τινι, to come to one. 

545. — Obs. 6. These verbs sometimes govern the accusative 
by the force of the preposition with which they are compounded ; 
as, επεστράτευσε πόλιν, he waged war against the city, 693. 

546. — Obs. V. Hence the dative in this construction generally 
is equivalent to the preposition εις, προς, επί, &c. with the accu- 
sative. Further, to this rule belong 

547. — II. Verbs which signify — 

1. To profit or hurt ; to please or displease ; to reverence or 
to yield ; — to shew ; to seem ; to appear. 

2. To favour or assist ; and the contrary, to pray to, or en- 
treat. 

3. To command, exhort, or address ; to obey or disobey ; to 
serve or resist. 

4. To ft or accommodate ; to use and resemble. 

5. To give to, or to trust ; to approach, to meet or to follow. 

6. To reproach with, to censure, to reprimand or rebuke, to be 
angry with. 

548. — Exc. δεω or δέομαι, I ask, governs the genitive ; λίσ- 
ϋομαι and λιτανενω, always the accusative. 

549. — Obs. 8. Many of these verbs sometimes govern the da- 
tive, and sometimes the accusative, according as their action is 
viewed by the writer as directed to, or exerted upon, the object. 
In the former case they are viewed as intransitive verbs ; in the 
latter, as transitive. 



248 DATIVE GOVERNED BY IMPERSONAL VERBS. § 149. 

550. — Rule XXIII. Verbs implying connec- 
tion or companionship, govern the dative ; as, 

ομιλεΐν tin, to associate with any one. 

551. — In this construction, the dative is considered as corres- 
ponding to the ablative in Latin (517-2). To this rule belong 

1. Verbs compounded with σνν, ομον, μετά (with) ; as, σνζψ 
τιη, to live with any one. 

2. Verbs after which συν, ομού, μετά, may be supplied con- 
sistently with the sense, such as those which signify 

(1.) To follow (with), to converse, to mix, to be reconciled, 

to dwell (with). , 
(2.) To contend, or strive with, or against, &c. 

552. — Obs. 9. Verbs signifying "to contend," &c. m one 
point of view may come under the principle referred to 543, and 
hence are sometimes followed by an accusative with προς ; but 
then they signify more properly " to attack." 

553. — Obs. 10. If a dative of the manner or instrument (627) 
follows the verb μίγννμι, to mix, instead of the dative of the per- 
son associated with, the genitive is used, governed by the word 
in the dative; as, Μαία A Co ς εν φιλότητι μιγεΐσα, Maia 

BEING EMBRACED BY JUPITER. 

554. — Note. To the principle of this rule may be referred the con- 
struction of the dative, expressing repetition or succession ; as, &νελλα 
■Q -νίλλΎΐ, storm upon storm ; άλλον δ* άν αλλω ποοσίδοι,ς, "you might see 
one and then another " (scil. rushing to the regions of Pluto). 

For the dative, construed with the passive voice, see 604. 



§149. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY IMPERSONAL 
VERBS. 

555. — Rule XXIV. Impersonal verbs govern 

the dative ; as, 

εξεστί μοι, it is lawful for me. 

εδοζε αντφ, it seemed proper to him (i. e. he determined). 

556. — Obs. 1. Special Rule. Αεϊ, ελλείπει, δια- 
φέρει, μένεότι, μέλει, ενδέχεται, and προϋηκει, 



§ 149. DATIVE GOVERNED BY IMPERSONAL VERBS 249 

with their compounds, govern the dative of a per- 
son with the genitive of a thing ; as, 

δει πολλών σοι, you have need of much. 

μέτεστί μοι τούτον, I take part in that. 

τί δε προσήκει εμοί Κοριν&ίων ; what are the Corinthians to me? 

For the principle of this rule, as it respects the genitive, see 
605-1. 

557. — Rem. 1. The dative of the person is frequently omitted. 

558. — Rem. 2. The nominative, agreeing with the impersonal, 
is frequently used instead of the genitive ; as, διαφέρει τί σοι 
τοντο, or τούτον ; how does this concern you ? 

559. — JSxc. I. Λεϊ and χρή frequently take the 
accusative of the person with the genitive of the 
thing; as, 

ov γάρ σων με δει ΰεσπισμάτων, for I do not want your ω -acles. 
ονδε τί σε χρή ταντης αφροσύνης, you have no need of this folly. 

560. — Obs. 2. From analogy, the derivative substantives χρεώ, 
γοειώ, νοεία, are often construed with the accusative and geni- 
tive ; as, εμε όε χρεω γιγνεται αντης, 1 have need of it ; τις χρεία 
α εμον ; what need have you of me ? 

561. — Exc. II. χρή, πρέπει, and δει, it heJwveth, 
govern the accusative with the infinitive ; as, 

χρη (ημάς) ποιήσασ&αι την είρήνην, we ought to make peace, 
σοφωτερονς γαρ δει βροτών είναι $εονς, It behoves those who are 
wiser than men to be gods. 

562. — Obs. 3. The dative is used in certain phrases in which 
it appears to depend on an impersonal or some other verb under- 
stood ; viz., 

1st. After ως to show that a proposition is affirmed, not as 
generally true, but only with respect to a certain person ; as, 
μακράν ως γεροντι προνσταλης όδόν, you have travelled a 
long way for an old man ; scil. ώς φαίνεται γεροντι, long, 
as it appears to an old man. 
επείπερ ει γενναίος ω ς [δόντι, but since thou art noble in 
appearance ; i. e. ως είκάσαι εστί ίδόντι, as a person 
having seen you may suppose. 
2d. To express the opinion or judgment of a person with or 
without ώ^; as, c εγώ τίμησα τοις φρονονσιν εν, I have 



250 construction of the accusative. § 150. 

done honour to you according to the judgment of the wise ; 
i. e. ώς δοκεΐ τοις, &c. as it appears to those who are wise. 
Hence the common phrase, ώς εμοί, or ώς γ εμοί (scil. δοκεϊ), 
according to my judgment. 

For the dative governed by adverbs, see 655 and 664. 



§ 150. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 

563. — The accusative in Greek, as in other languages, is used 
to express the immediate object of a transitive active verb, that 
on which its action is exerted, and which is affected by it ; as, 
λαμβάνω την ασπίδα, I take the shield. When used to ex- 
press the remote object of a verb, or after verbs properly intran- 
sitive, it is governed by a preposition understood. 

564. — Eule XXV. A transitive verb, in the 
active or middle voice, governs the accusative ; as, 

γνώ&ι σεαντόν, . know thyself, 

ηρπαζον την πόλιν, they 'plundered the city, 

άγα&ον άνδρα, τιμάς, thou honour est a good man. 

565. — Obs. 1. Several verbs in Creek are used in a transitive 
sense, and have an accusative as their immediate object, which 
in Latin are considered as intransitive, and followed by some 
other case. They are chiefly the following ; viz., 

1st. πεί&ω ; as, πεί&ειν τινά, to persuade any one. 

2d. υβρίζω ; as, νβρίζειν τινά, to insult any one ; sometimes 
εις τίνα. 

3d. άδικέω ; as, άδικεΐν τίνα, to injure, or do injustice to any one 

4th. Several verbs which signify to assist, to profit, to injure ; as, 
ώφελέω, ονημι, ενεργετέω, βλάπτω, and with these verbs the 
adverbs more, very, are expressed by the accusative neuter 
of the adjectives πλείων, μέγας, viz. πλέον, μέγα. 

5th. The verbs αμείβομαι, ανταμείβομαι, τιμωρέομαι ; as, άμεί- 
βεΰ&αί τίνα, to remunerate any one ; τιμωρεϊο'&αί τίνα. 

566 — Note 1. Some of these verbs govern other eases, but then 
they generally convey a different idea ; thus, ω φ ε λ ε ΐν τννα, to assist 
any one ; 'ωφελεί ν τννν, to be useful to any one. 

567. — Obs. 2. Many verbs are followed by an accusative, not 
of the object on which the action is exerted, but to which it has 



§ 150. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 251 

nn immediate reference. Verbs thus used are properly intransi- 
tive, and the accusative is governed by the force of a preposition 
in composition with the verb, or understood after it. These are 
such as the following ; viz., 

1st. προσκυνάω ; as, προσχυνεΐν τίνα, to bow the knee to any one, 
to adore. 

2d. δορνφορέω ; as, δορνφορεΐν τίνα, to be a spearsman to any 
one. So also, 

3d. έπιτροπευειν, to be a tutor or guardian. 

4th. λανΰάιειν, to escape the notice of, or to remain unknown to. 

5th. ψ&άνειν, to come before, prevent, or anticipate. 

6 th. έπιλείπειν, to be wanting to, or to fail. 

7th. άποδιδράσκειν, to run away from. 

8th. άπομάχεβϋαι, to ward off ; όμννναι or επιόρκειν τινά, to 
swear by any one. 

9th. To these may be added, intransitive verbs expressing some 
emotion or feeling ; as, to be ashamed of, or afraid of, any 
one ; to compassionate any one, &c. &c, which are followed 
by the accusative of the object ; thus, αιδούνται τους αρχον" 
τ ας, they respected the rulers ; — τις αν τάδε γη-θΊ^σειεν ; who 
would rejoice at these things f — άλγεΐν τι, to be grieved at 
any thing ; — &αόρεΐν τι, to take courage with respect to any 
thing. The accusative in such cases may be governed by a 
preposition understood ; as, επί, περί, κατά ; or by the par- 
ticiple of a transitive active verb, to be supplied ; as, ορών, 
άκονων, &c. seeing, hearing. 

568 — Note 2. Instead of the accusative, many of these verbs are 
often followed by a genitive or dative, according to the rules for these 
cases. 

569. — Obs. 3. Special Kule. The infinitive 
mood or part of a sentence is often used as the 
object of a transitive verb instead of the accusa- 
tive ; as, 

Λέγω πάν τ ας εισφέρει? , I say that you should all con- 
tribute. 
δειξάτω ώς ονκ άλη&η λέγω, let him show that I do not 

SPEAK THE TRUTH. 

570 — Note. The infinitive is also used instead of the genitive and 
dative after verbs governing these cases. 714. 

571. — Obs. 4. In constructions of this kind, the object of the 
verb is frequently expressed twice. First, in a noun or pronoun 



252 CONSTEUCTION OF THE ACOUS/ FIVE. § 150. 

in the case required by the verb, and Secondly, in a dependent 
clause ; as, ανθρώπους τ ε οΊδα οία πεπόν&ασι νφ έρωτας, 1 
know men what things they have suffered from love ; "ίωνας φό- 
βε 'εαι μη μεταβάλλωσι, you fear the lonians lest they revolt ; άρ 
εμοϋ μεμνησ&ε οποία επρασσον ; do you remember me what things 
I did ? This construction is especially common with the demon- 
strative pronoun in» a sort of apposition with the clause which is 
the object of the verb, 396-5, 6 : it is also sometimes used in 
Latin (see Lat. Gr. 445, Ohs. 2) ; but the English' idiom requires 
these and similar sentences to be rendered as follows : " / know 
what things men have suffered from love v — " You fear that the 
lonians will revolt" — " Do you remember what things I did Ρ 

572. — Obs. 5. The accusative is often governed by a transi- 
tive verb or participle understood ; as, σε δη — φης δεδρακεναι 
τάδε (sc. ερωτώ), but thee, (I ask) dost thou confess thou didst 
these things ? 6 δε την πορφνρίδα (sc. έχων), the man with (hav- 
ing) the purple robe. 

573. — Obs. 6. In this way, the words όνομα, υψος, πλή&ος, 
ενρος, and others, are frequently construed in the accusative ; as, 
Ιππόδρομος σταδίου το πλάτος (sc. έχων), a race course {hav- 
ing) the breadth of a stadium. 

574. — Obs. 7. In like manner the accusative, apparently in 
apposition with an entire proposition, or placed in the beginning 
of a sentence, to express the leading idea, may be considered as 
depending on some preposition or verb understood ; as, Έλε'νην 
κτάνωμεν Μενελεω λνπην πικράν, let us slay Helen (sc. εις, in 
order to ; or, ποιονντες, causing) bitter grief to Menelaus ; μητέ- 
ρα, δε — axp ΐτω (i. e. περί, or γ,ατά, μητέρα), as to your mother — 
let her return. 

575. — Obs. 8. Special Rule. An intransitive 
verb used transitively, governs the accusative ; as, 
πολεμεΐν πόλεμον, to wage war. 

This is done — 
1st. When the accusative is a substantive of a similar significa- 
tion with the word that governs it ; as, ζη βίον ήδιστον, he 
lives a very agreeable life. 

Note. To this principle of construction may be referred such phra- 
ses as φρονίΐν μέγα (soil, φρόνημα), to be proud ; αθάνατα μεν φρόνιο 
(sc. φρονήματα), think as hecometh an immortal. 

2d. When they only signify to cause that state or feeling which 
they express as intransitives ; as, ήξεν χείρα, he caused the 



§151. ACCUSATIVE AND GENITIVE. 253 

hand το move forward, i. e. lie stretched out the hand ; at 
timat η to ν σι γάλα και μίλι, the fountains caused milk 
and honey το flow ; i. e. the fountains fiowed with milk and 
honey. So Virgil : 

" Et durae quercus sudabunt roscida mella." 

576. — Obs. 9. A passive verb used in an active sense governs 
the accusative, 195, Obs. 5, and 612 ; as, ηρνηνται πορείαν, they 
refused a passage. 



§151. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE AND 
GENITIVE. 

577. — Many transitive active verbs, together with the accusa- 
tive of the direct object, govern also another word to which the 
action has an indirect or remote reference, in the genitive, dative, 
or accusative, as the nature of that reference may require. 

5 Υ 8, — Rule XXVI. Verbs of accusing, con- 
demning, acquitting, and the like, govern the ac- 
cusative of the person with the genitive of the 
crime ; as, 

διώκομαι σε δειλίας, I accuse you of cowardice, 

απολύω σε της αιτίας, I acquit you of this blame. 

579. — The genitive after verbs of accusing, is often governed, 
by a preposition or some other word interposed, by which the ex~ 
pression is rendered more emphatic ; as, 

εγράχρατο (με) τούτων αυτών he accused me of these same 

ένεκα, things, 

διώκω σε περί θανάτου, I accuse thee of a capital 

crime, 
φεύγειν επ αιτία φόνου, to be accused of murder. 

580. — Obs. 1. Verbs of accusing, &c. are such as επεξειμι, 
γράφομαι, διώκω, επαιτιάομαι, to accuse or criminate ; φεύγω, 
to be accused, or to defend ; αιρέω, to gain one's suit ; αλωμι, to 
lose one's suit ; δικάζω, to judge ; λαγχάνω, to commence a suit ; 
επιλαμβάνομαι and αντιλαμβάνομαι, to blame, &c. απολύω, άφί- 
ημι, άποψηφίζομαι, &c. to acquit. 

581. — Obs. 2. Verbs of this signification compounded with 
■κατά take the person in the genitive, and the crime or punish- 

12 



25-i ACCUSATIVE AND DATIVE. § 152. 

ment in the accusative; as, κατηγορονσί σον στάσιν, they charge 
sedition against you. Sometimes the crime or punishment is 
also in the genitive ; as, καταγινώσκω σον -θάνατον or θάνατον : 
but the punishment, seldom, except the word -θάνατον, and the 
crime, only after κατηγορέω ; as, παρανόμων αντον κατηγορεΐν. 

582. — Obs. 3. Verbs of accusing sometimes govern the dative ; 
as, εγκαλώ σοι προσδοσίαν, I accuse thee of treason. 



583. — Rule XXVII. Verbs of hearing, enquir- 
ing, learning, <fcc. govern the genitive of the per- 
son with the accusative of the thing ; as, 

ηκονσε τον άγγελον ταντα, he heard these things from the 

messenger. 
πνν&άνεσ&αί τι τίνος, to hear any thing from any one. 

The genitive here is probably governed by από or εκ. 



§ 152. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE AND 
DATIVE. 

584. — A transitive active verb governs the accusative and 
dative when, together with the immediate object of the action, it 
is followed by the person or thing in relation to which it was ex- 
erted. The more common constructions of this kind are com- 
prehended under the following rule ; viz., 

585. — Rule XXVIII. Verbs of comparing, 
giving, declaring, promising, and taking away, 
govern the accusative and dative ; as, 

νπισχνεομαί σοι δέκα τάλαντα, /promise you ten talents, 
λοιγον άμνναι τοις άλλοις, to avert the plague from others. 

586. — Obs. 1. After verbs of promising, declaring, and the 
like, the promise or declaration, forming part of a sentence, and 
sometimes a number of sentences, often stands as the accusative 
with the dative of the person ; as, 

Λλεξανδρος απέστειλε τοις "Ελλψι &εον αντον ψηφίσασ- 
&αι, Alexander ordered the Cheeks το vote him a god. 

είπε iaoi ti αντφ χρήση, tell me what you would do 
with HIM. 



§153. VERBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES. 255 

587. — Obs. 2. Instead of the dative of the person, the accusa- 
tive with πρσς is often used, and sometimes without it. 

588. — Obs. 3. In all constructions under this rule, both in Latin 
and Greek, the verb, together with the accusative after it, is to be re- 
garded aa expressing the amount of what is done to the remote object 
in the dative. Thus in the expression narras fabulam surdo, the words 
narras fabulam express the whole amount of what is done (surdo) το the 
deaf man. With verbs of taking away, the English idiom requires the 
dative to be rendered by from; as, eripuit mihi gladium, "he forced the 
sword away from me." On this account, some have supposed that the 
dative in such expressions in Latin is governed by some such word as 
exisientem understood ; and others, to obviate the difficulty, have given 
the Greek an ablative. All this perplexity arises evidently from over- 
looking the principle of the construction. While the English idiom ex- 
presses that from which a thing is taken away, the Latin and Greek, 
with no less elegance, on the general principle of the rule, express in 
the dative, that το which the act of taking away is done. Thus in the 
above expression, the words eripuit gladium together, express what 13 
done (mihi) το me. So also Terence : Seni animam extinguerem ipsi ; — 
adolescenti oculos eriperem, "το the old man, I would put out the 
breath ; — το the young man, I would put out the eyes." In Greek, Θέ- 
μι,στυ δέχτο δέπας, το Themistis, he took away the cup ; i. e. taking away 
the cup was what he did το Themistis ; according to the English idiom, 
he took away the cup from Themistis. [See Hunter's Notes on Liv. B. I. 
Chap. I. line 2. JEnese Antenorique, <fec] 

589. — Obs. 4. Verbs of giving, govern the genitive and da- 
tive when their direct object is in the genitive, according to Rule 
XV. ; as, μεζαδίδωμί σοι των χρημάτων, I share the property 
with you. 



§ 153. VERBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES. 

590. — Many verbs are followed by the accusative not only of 
the immediate, but also of the remote object ; hence, 

591. — Rule XXIX. Verbs of asking and teach- 
ing, clothing, concealing, depriving • speaking or 
doing well or ill to, and some others, govern two 
accusatives, the one of a person, the other of a 
thing; as, 

Θηβαίους χρήματα ψησαν, they sought money from the 

Thebans. 
διδάσκουσι τους παΐδας σωφρο- they teach their youths pro- 

σννην, bity. 

τι ποιψω αυτό* ; what shall I do to him ί 



256 VEEBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES. §153. 

592. — Obs. 1. The immediate object of verbs which signify 
" to do" or " to speak" is the action done or the word spoken ; 
the remote object is the person or thing to which it is done or 
spoken; thus, 

τζοιεΐν άγαΰά (scil. έργα) τίνα, to do good to any one. 

λέγειν κακά (sc. επη) τίνα, to speak evil of any one. 

593. — Instead of these adjectives with verbs of this significa- 
tion, the adverbs ευ and κακώς are frequently joined ; thus, κα- 
κώς ποιεϊν τινα,^ to do a 'person evil ; ευ λέγειν τινά, to speak well 
of a person. Sometimes these words are in composition with the 
verb; as, ευλογεΐν, κακολογεϊν, εύεργετεϊν, κακονργεΐν — in which 
the accusative becomes the direct object, and is governed by the 
compound transitive verb; as, κακουργεΐν τινά, to maltreat a 
person. This corresponds to the English mode of expression, to 
maltreat a person, to eulogize a person. 

594. — On the same principle several verbs, such as λοιδορεο- 
μαι, λυμαίνομαι, &c. which are usually followed by a dative, fre- 
quently take an accusative; as, ολην την πόλιν λυμαίνεσ&αι, 
to abuse the whole city. 

595. — Obs. 2. When a verb admits of either of the words 
that follow it, as its immediate object, they are both put in the 
accusative ; thus, ενδύειν τινά τον χιτώνα, to clothe a person with 
a tunic, and, to put a tunic on a person, convey the same idea. 

596. — Obs. 3. A transitive verb, besides the accusative of the 
immediate object, may be followed by the accusative of a noun 
of similar signification with itself; as, ov Ζευς φίλει παντοίην 
χριλότητα, whom Jupiter loves with great affection ; ενίκησε τους 
βαρβάρους την εν Μαρα&ώνι μάχην, he conquered the barbarians 
in the battle of Marathon ; ώρκησ.αν τζάντας τους στρατιώτας 
τους μέγιστους όρκους, they bound all the soldiers with the 
greatest oaths. 

597. — Obs. 4. When ποιεΐσ&αι, with a noun derived from a 
transitive verb, is used as a circumlocution for the verb itself, it 
will of course be followed by two accusatives ; thus, τζοιεΐσ&αι 
την μά&ησιν for μαν&άνειν ; υπόμνησιν τζοιεΐσ&αι for υτζομναν ; 
ποιεϊσ&αι την άρπαγην for άρπάζειν ; as, σκεύη και άνδράποδα 
άρπαγην ποιησάμενος, plundering the furniture and slaves ; sc. 
making plunder of &c. 

598. — 06s. 5. Verbs which signify to call, or name, choose, 
reckon, make, constitute, and the like, besides the accusative of the 
object, take also the accusative of the name, office, character, &g 



§ 154. CASES CONSTRUCTED WITH PASSIVE VOICE. 257 

ascribed to it; as, στρατηγον αντον άπέδειξεν, he appointed 
Bin general. In this construction the verb είναι is frequently 
interposed ; thus, σοφιστην ονομάζονσι τον άνδρα, or τον άνδρα 
thai, they call the man a philosopher, 743-2d. 

599. — Obs. 6. The accusative neuter of pronouns and adjec- 
tives is often admitted in this construction, as well as with verbs 
which govern the genitive or dative, when the accusative of the 
substantive could not be used ; as, 

τοντό με ΐ)δίκησε, he injured me in this, 

τι χρώμαι αντφ ; for what may I use it ? 

600. — Obs. 7. Instead of the second accusative, many verbs 
under this rule frequently take the genitive or dative ; and, on 
the other hand, some verbs which are usually followed by an ac- 
cusative with the genitive or dative, sometimes take the double 
accusative ; thus, og δη πολλά κάκ άν&ρώποισι (for άνϋρώπονς) 
εώργει, who verily inflicted many evils on men ; άποστερεϊν τίνα, 
τά χρήματα, and των χρημάτων, to deprive a person of his goods. 

601. — Obs. 8. The second accusative is often to be explained 
by a preposition after such verbs as προκαλέω, αναγκάζω, απο- 
κρίνομαι, and verbs which signify to divide, as, διαιρέω, δάζω, 
&c. ; as, προκα^β&αί τίνα (ες) σπονδάς, to invite a person to 
a treaty ; Κύρος το στράτευμα κατένειμε (εις) δώδεκα μέρη, 
Cyrus divided the army into twelve parts. 

602. — Note. "With verbs of dividing, the whole which is divided is 
sometimes put in the genitive, and the word μέρος, μοίρα, &α, referred 
to the verb ; as, δώδιχα Πέρσο)ν φνλα,ι δι^ρ^νταν, the tribes of the Per- 
sians were divided into twelve, for, the Persians were divided into twelve 
tribes ; μοίρας δι elkfv f £ xai innkwv -/.at οπλιτών, literally, he divided 
the parts of cavalry and infantry into six ; i. e. he divided the cavalry 
and infantry into six parts. This construction is imitated in Latin, Cic. 
de Orat. Deinde eorum generum quasi qucedam membra dispertiat, for ea 
genera quasi in quazdam membra, &o. 



§ 154. CONSTRUCTION OF CASES WITH THE PASSIVE 
VOICE. 

603. — The passive voice is usually followed by a genitive of 
the doer, governed by the prepositions νπο, εκ, παρά, προς, and 
consequently, the government of the case falls under the rules for 
prepositions ; as, μη νικώ νπο τον κακόν, be not overcome of evil. 
Sometimes, though very seldom, it follows the preposition in the 
dative ; as, νπο σατράπαις διοικεΐσίται, to be governed by viceroys. 



258 CASES CONSTRUCTED WITH PASSIVE VOICE. § 154 

But instead of this, and equivalent to it, the dative without a pre- 
position is common ; hence the two following rules ; viz., 



604. — Rule XXX. Passive verbs frequently 
govern the dative of the doer ; as, 

επράττετο αυτοΐς τα της πό- the affairs of the city were con- 

λεως, ducted by them, 

πεποίηταί μοι, it has been done by me. 

605. — Note. This construction most commonly takes place with the 
perfect passive, and the dative is equivalent to the genitive with νπό, 
which is in common use ; as also προς, and sometimes παρά, in or εξ, 
and από. On the same principle, the verbal adjectives in τος and τίος, 
having a passive signification, govern the dative of the doer, 528. 



606. — Rule XXXI. When a verb in the active 
voice governs two cases, in the passive it retains 
the latter case ; as, • 

κατηγορεομαι κλοπής, I am accused of theft 

έδό&η μοι, πάσα εξουσία, all power is given to me. 

μουσικην μεν υπό Λάμπρου being taught music by Lam- 

παιδευΰείς, prus. 

607. — Obs. 1. Any passive verb may be followed by an ac- 
cusative of similar signification with itself, on the principle laid 
down 596 ; as, τυπτεται πληγάς πολλάς, he is struck with many 
blows. 

608. — Obs. 2. "When a verb in the active voice governs the 
accusative with the dative of a person, the passive frequently re- 
tains the former case, the latter being used as the subject of the 
verb. Thus, the same idea may be expressed in three different 
ways; viz., 

1st. With the active voice ; as, ό δήμος επίστευσε Λυκυύργφ την 
της πόλεως επιμελειαν, the people committed the care of the 
city to Lycurgus. 
2d. By the passive voice with the latter case ; as, Λυκουργω 
επιστευ&η υπο του δήμου η της πόλεως επιμέλεια, the man- 
agement of the city was entrusted to Lycurgus. 
3d. By the passive voice with the former case, according to the 
Obs. ; as, Λυκούργος την της πόλεως επιμελειαν υπο του 
δϊ'ιμου επιστευ&η, Lycurgus was entrusted with the manage 
of the city by the people. 



§ 155. COXSTR JCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 259 

The following are examples of this construction : 01 επιτετραμ- 
μένοι ftp φνλαχηρ, those entrusted with the watch ; for ο'ις η cpv- 
Xcua ίπιτετοαπτο : τψ δ* εχ χαρών αρπάζομαι, she is torn from 
my hands ; for // δ' εκ χειρών αρπάζεται. 

609. — Hence, also, such phrases as the following : Αιθίοπες 
παρδαλεα^ έτημμενοι, the Ethiopians girded until panthers' skins ; 
)*είπει δελτοΓ εγγεγραμμένη» ζνν&ηματα, he leaves a tablet inscri- 
bed with writings ; because in the active voice it would have 
been ενάπτειν Λιΰιόπεβι παρδαλεας — εγγράφει» ξνι&ί,ματα δεί- 
τφ. The accusative, in almost all such cases, may be explained 
by supplying κατά. This construction is not used in Latin, ex- 
cept in a few instances, which are manifest Grsecisms ; e. g., in- 
scripti nomina rcgum fores, " flowers inscribed with the names 
of kings." Lat. Gr. 525. 

6 1 0. — Note. This construction, used in Latin only as a Grsecism, is 
common in English with such verbs as, to ask, teach, offer, promise, 
pay, tell, allow, deny, and the like ; as, He allowed me great liberty ; 
passively, great liberty was allowed me, or, I was allowed great liberty. 
So, "They were offered (to) me," or, "I was offered them." See Ana- 
lytical and Practical English Grammar, 812, 813. Crombie's Etymolo- 
gy, P• 2?0. 

611. — Obs. 3. On the same principle the part affected (505-3), 
is often put in the accusative after the passive voice ; thus, instead 
of το τραύμα μου επιδεϊται, my wound is bound up, the genitive 
is changed into the nominative to the verb, and the nominative 
or part affected into the accusative ; thus, (εγώ) επιδεομαι τ ο 
τραύμα, I am bound up as to my wound ; Προμηθεύς εκεί- 
ρετο το ήπαρ , literally, Prometheus was torn out as to his 
liver ; i. e. his liver was torn out. See also 622. 

612. — Obs. 4. When the passive is used in a middle sense 
(195, Obs. 5). it becomes deponent, and may be followed by an 
accusative in the same manner as the active voice ; as, παρεσκεν- 
αααενοι πάντα επ)*εον•> having provided every thing, they sailed ; 
ηριηνται πορείαν, they refused a passage, 5*76. 



§155. CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 

613. — Words and phrases are often thrown in between the 
parts of a sentence in an adverbial manner, to express some cir- 
cumstance connected with the idea of the simple sentence, and 
which do not depend for their case on any word in the sentence 



260 EEMOTE CAUSE OR ORIGIN. § 156. 

to which they belong, but on a preposition, or adverb, or other 
word understood ; as, 

εξελαννει βτα&μους δυο εις Ίσσονς, καΐ ενταϋ&α εμεινεν ημέ- 
ρας τρεις, he advanced two days' journey to Issus, and 
remained there three days. 

μεγάλη σπονδή τζάντα επράττετο, every thing was done with 

GREAT HASTE. 

Under the general name of circumstances may be included 
words which indicate, 1. The remote cause or origin, § 156 ; 2 
A particular qualification or direction of a general expression, 
§ 157 ; 3. Cause, manner, or instrument, § 158 ; 4. Place, § 159 ; 
5. Time, § 160 ; 6. Measure, § 161 ; 1. Price, § 162 ; 8. Excla- 
mation, § 163. 



§ 156. I. THE EEMOTE CAUSE OR ORIGIN. 

614. — Exile XXXII. The cause, source, or ori- 
gin, and trie part affected, are put in the genitive ; 

as, 

μακάριος της τύχης, happy from his fortune. 

φιλεΐ αυτόν της αρετής, he loves him on account of his virtue. 

λνκον κρατειν ώτων, to take a wolf by the ears. 

615. — Obs. 1. Instead of the genitive, the accusative is often 
used, governed by κατά, διά, &c. understood. 

616. — Obs. 2. The circumstance of cause expressed by the 
genitive, differs from that expressed by the dative ; the genitive 
expresses the remote or moving cause — the dative, the immediate 
or effective cause. 

617. — Obs. 3. The material of which a thing is made is ex- 
pressed in the genitive ; as, σχεδίαι διφ&ερών, rafts made of 
skins. See 456. 

618 — Note. The genitive of the material is considered by some 
grammarians as depending on εκ. or από understood ; and an argument 
in favour of this ellipsis is drawn from the circumstance of εκ or από 
being sometimes expressed. In all such passages, the preposition seems 
to contain a more direct reference to the material than could be done 
by the common construction, especially if a passive participle be like- 
wise used ; as, ϊδοα l£ αδάμαντος πεποίημένη, a seat made of adamant. 
Sometimes the dative is used for the genitive, when the material of 



§ 157. CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. 261 

which any thing is made may be considered also as the means by which 
it is made; a*, at μεν γαρ χέοαίσσι, τίχινχαται, at d' έλέφαν τι>, 
some were made of hor> t , some of ivory. 



§157. Π. CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. 

619. — A particular qualification of a general expression, made 
in English by the phrase " in respect of" " with regard to" is 
expressed by the genitive and dative ; or, more briefly, as fol- 
lows : 

620. — Kule XXXIII. Respect wherein is ex- 
pressed in the genitive, sometimes in the dative, 
444. 

I. In the Genitive ; as, 

ίγγυτατα αντφ ειμί γένους, I ant very near him in respect of kin. 

δασνς δένδρων, thick with trees. 

πλησίοι αλλήλων, near {in respect of) each other. 

621. — The genitive is used : 

1. After gya, in the sense of to be (se habere), with such adverbs 
as εν, ως, όπως, πώς, όντως, καλώς, &c. ; as, παιδείας όντως 
έχει, he is so in respect of learning ; καλώς έχειν μέ&ης, to be 
pretty drunk ; ηκω is used in the same way ; as, Τέλλος του 
βίον εν ηκων, Tellus being well advanced in (respect of) life. 

2. After other verbs ; as, επείγεισ&αι άρηος, to be in haste with 
respect to the battle. 

3. After adjectives ; as, απαις αρρένων παίδων, childless with 
respect to sons ; i. e. without male offspring. 

4. With adverbs ; as, πρόσω αρετής άνίμειν, to carry it far with 
respect to virtue. 

5. AYith substantives ; as, αγγελία της Χίον, the relation con- 
cerning Chios. 

6. With entire propositions ; as, ει πατρός νέμει τιν ωραν τον 
καλώς πράσσειν δοκεϊν, if he possesses any care of his 
father, in respect of his appearing to prosper. 

622. — Obs. 1. Respect wherein is also put in the accusative 
governed by κατά understood ; viz., when the idea expressed by 
a verb or adjective is to be more accurately determined by an 
additional circumstance ; as, τον δάκτνλον άλγώ, I am pained 

12* 



262 CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. §157. 

IN my finger ; χερείων ov δέμας, ονδε φρένα ς, inferior nei- 
ther in body nor mind ; πόδας ώκνς ^χιλλενς, Achilles swift 

OF FOOT. 

623. — Note 1. This is the construction so often imitated by the Latin 
poets ; thus, Os humerosque deo similis. Lat. Gr. 538. 

624. — Note 2. The accusative in this construction is in signification 
adverbial, and hence is frequently used as an adverb ; thus, άοχήν, above 
all, originally ; τάχος, quickly ; τέλος, finally ; την ποώτην, at first, &c, 
κατά being understood. So also such expressions as το εναντίον, on the 
contrary ; το λΐγόμίνον, according to the proverb, &c. 

II. In the Dative. 

625. — This case is used in a sense nearly similar, 
to express that with respect to which a thing is 
affirmed to he or take place. This usage, in Greek, 
may be illustrated by the following examples : 

1. άξιος ην θανάτου τη πάλει, he was worthy of death, with 
respect το the state ; i. e. he was guilty of a capital crime 
against the state. 

2. και. δη μεϋίεν χαλεποΐο χόλοιο Τηλεμάχφ, and now they 
laid aside their grievous anger against (with respect to) Tele- 
machus ; so εγωγε λίσσομαι Λχιλλΐμ με&έμεν χόλον, I will 
pray him to lay aside his anger against Achilles. 

3. το μεν εξω&εν άπτομενφ σώμα ονκ άγαν ϋερμον ην, the 
surface of the body was not very hot when one touched it 
(lit. with respect to one touching it). 

4. Έπίδαμνός εστί πόλις εν δεξιά εσπλεοντι τον Ίόνιον κόλ- 
πον, Epidamnus is a city on the right hand as you enter 
(with respect to one entering) the Ionian bay. 

5. δυωδεκάτη δε οι ?)ώς κειμε'νφ, the twelfth day since he lay 
(to him lying). 

6. Ηρακλεϊ μεν δη οσα αντοι Λϊγυπτιοί φασι είναι ετεα eg 
Ιίμασιν, the Egyptians themselves tell how many years passed 
from Hercules (or since the death of Hercules) to Amasis. 

*7. τιμήν άρννμενοι Μενελάω, looking for the advantage (or 

pleasure) of Menelaus. 
8. όρχησάμενοι Φεοΐσι, dancing in honour ο/"τηε gods. 

626. — Bern. Respect wherein is also sometimes expressed in 
the dative governed by εν understood ; as 

ποσι ταχύς, swift of foot. 



§ 158. CAUSE, MANNER, AND INSTRUMENT. 263 

§ 158. ΙΠ. THE CAUSE, MANNER, AND INSTRUMENT. 

627. — Rule XXXIV. The cause, manner, and 
instrument, are put in the dative ; as, 

ςρόβω επραττον, I did it from fear. 

εγ&ετο τ ώδε τφ τρόπω, it happened in this manner. 

πατάσσειν ράβδω, to strike with a stick. 

628. — Obs. 1. The cause or motive may be considered as in- 
terned or external. The internal cause represents the act as pro- 
ceeding from some particular state or disposition of the subject, 
or quality residing in it, and contains the answer to the question 
from what? or whence? and consequently may generally be ren- 
dered from : έννοια γ ανδώ, I speak from good-will. The 
external cause represents the action as caused by something with- 
out the agent, and may generally be rendered " for," " on ac- 
count of," sometimes " according to," " in consequence of; " as, 
χρημασιν επαιρόμενος, elated with, or in consequence of riches ; 
Αεοντίνων κατοικίσει, for (i. e. in order to) the re-establishment of 
the Leontines, the motive being derived from the end ; &ανμάζω 
τ// αποκλείσει μον των 7ζνλών, I am astonished at the shutting 
up of my gates. 

629. — Obs. 2. In this construction the dative expresses the 
nearer or immediate cause, the more remote being usually ex- 
pressed by the genitive, or by διά with the accusative (615); as, 
άσϋενεία σωμάτων διά την σιτόδειαν νπεχώρονν, they (the 
Lacedemonians) gave way, from the weakness of their bodies in- 
duced BY WANT OF PROVISIONS. 

630. — Obs. 3. The dative of the cause is probably governed 
by the preposition άμφί, περί, or επί understood. Sometimes 
they are expressed ; but whether with or without a preposition, 
the whole expression is adverbial in its nature ; and hence, disre- 
garding its case, a neuter adjective or pronoun is sometimes piy, 
in the same construction with it, in the accusative ; as, ει τίνος 
μέγα ψ το σώμα φνσει, η τροφή, η αμφότερα, if the body of 
a person was large naturally, or by nourishment, or both 

631. — Obs. 4. The dative of the manner is governed by iv 
or σνν understood, and may be considered as adverbial. Hence, 
perhaps, verbs of punishing are followed by the punishment in 
the dative; as, ζημιονν τίνα χτανάτεο, φνγτ], &c. to punish any 
one with death, with banishment, &c. 



264 CIRCUMSTANCES OF PLACE. § 159. 

632. — Obs. 5. The dative of the instrument or mean may be 
a person ; as, τοις τταρονσιν ετείχιζεν, he built the wall by 

MEANS OF THOSE WHO WERE PRESENT. It IS also put With Sub- 

stantives ; as, κινήσεις τ φ σώματι, motions made with the 

BODY. 

633. — Note. Hence the construction of χρησ&αί with the dative; 
that which we use being considered as an instrument. On the same 
principle, the dative is put after other verbs which imply the idea of 
using; τίχμαίοΐσ&αι, τοις πρόσ&εν ώμολογη μένους, to infer from what was 
granted ; i. e. to use as proofs the things formerly granted. 

634. — Obs. 6. Instead of the dative, the prepositions εν, από, 
διά, συν, with their cases, are sometimes used. 



§159. IV. CIBCUMSTANCES OF PLAGE. 

635. — The oircumstances of place respect motion to, or from, 
or through, a place, and motion or rest in a place ; in all of 
which the Greek writers generally use a proper name with a 
preposition ; thus, εξ Λ&ψων, from Athens ; εις Βριταννίαν, to 
Britain ; εν Πυλφ, in Pylos ; δια της πόλεως, through the city. 
But, 

636. — Rule XXX Y. The place where, without 
a preposition, is expressed in the genitive or da- 
tive; as, 

Άργεος, at Argos ; Μαρα&ώνι, at Marathon. 

637. — Obs. 1. In this construction the genitive may be gov- 
erned by επί or περί ; and the dative by εν understood. The 
preposition is also often understood before common nouns de- 
noting place ; as, ερχεσ&ον κλισίην, they two come to the tent. 

638. — Obs. 2. The genitive after εις, to a place, or εν, in a 
place, is governed by a substantive understood ; as, εις αδου (sc. 
δόμον), to Hades ; εν Λργεος (sc. πάλει), at Argos, 451. 

639. — Obs. 3. The terminations fti and σι, added to a noun, 
denote at a place ; as, άγρόϋΊ, in the country ; Θήβησι, at 
Thebes ; — δε and σε, το a place ; as, Λ&ψασδε, to Athens ; κλι- 
-ϊίψδε, to the tent ; — &εν and &ε, from a place ; as, κλισίη$εν 
άνείλετο εγχος, he took a spear from the tent, 324. 



§ 160, 161. CIRCUMSTANCES OF MEASURE. 265 

§160. V. CIRCUMSTANCES OF TIME. 

640. — Kule XXXVI. Time when is put in the 
dative ; time how long, in the accusative ; thus, 

when ; as, ήμερα tgi'ty, on the third day. 
how long ; as, τρεις όλους μήνας παρεμεινεν, he remained 
three whole months. 

641. — Obs. 1. When the reference is to a fixed time at which 
a thing took place, the dative is used as in the rule ; but if the 
idea of duration is implied, it is put in the accusative ; as, τάς 
ημέρας και τάς νύχτας, by day and by night ; sometimes in the 
genitive ; as, εκάχωσε βιη 'Ηρακληείη των προτέρων ετεων, Her- 
cules distressed us informer years. 

642. — Obs. 2. Time how long, may respect the time during 
which, since which, or after which, some event took place. The 
first is put in the accusative, as above ; the second is more com- 
monly expressed in the genitive ; as, πολλού αυτούς ονχ εώρα- 
xa χρόνου, I have not seen them for a long time; the third, 
generally in the dative ; as, ου πολλαΐς ημεραις νστερον, not ma- 
ny days after. But sometimes in the genitive, when protracted 
and indefinite ; as, εχεΐαε ουκ άψκνεϊται ετών μυρίων, he 
comes not thither in ten thousand years. In this, however, 
there is some variety. 



§161. VI. CIRCUMSTANCES OF MEASURE. 

The circumstances of measure respect magnitude, distance, 
and the measure of excess, as follows : 

643. — Rule XXXVII. The measure of magni- 
tude is put in the genitive ; as, 

άνδριάς δυώδεκα πήχεων, a statue of twelve cubits. 



644.— Rule XXXVIII. The measure of dis- 
tance is put in the accusative, sometimes in the 
dative ; as, 



206 EXCLAMATION. § 162, 163. 

"Εφεβος απέχει τριών ήμερων οδόν, or οδφ, Ephesus is distant 

three days 1 journey. 
πεντεκαίδεκα πήχεις νψ(ά$η το ΰδωρ, the water rose fifteen 

CUBITS. 

645. — Obs. When measure of magnitude or distance is found 
in the nominative after a substantive verb, or in• the accusative 
after an infinitive, the construction is according to 436. 



646. — Rule XXXIX. The measure of excess is 
put in the dative after the comparative degree ; 
as, 

εννιαντφ πρεσβύτερος, older by a year. 

647. — Obs. Hence the expressions πολλφ, όλίγω, βραχεί, <fcc 
with the comparative. It is, however, sometimes put in the ac- 
cusative ; as, πολύ μείζων, much greater ; πολλον άμείνων, much 
better. 



§ 162. VII. CIKCUMSTANCE OF PRICE. 

648. — Rule XL. The price of a thing is put in 
the genitive ; as, 

δος τοΰτο δραχμής, give this for a drachma. 

649. — Obs. The price is put sometimes in the dative, with the 
preposition επί expressed or understood ; as, ε πι μισ&φ μεγάλφ, 
for a great reward. Sometimes in the accusative ; as, πιπράσκει 
6 κακός πάντα προς άργνριον, the wicked man sells every thing 
for silver. 



§ 163. VIII. EXCLAMATION. 

650. — Rule XLI. Exclamations of praise, in- 
dignation, compassion, &c, are put in the geni- 
tive, sometimes in the accusative ; as, 

της αναίδειας, Ο the impudence I 

φεν τον ανδρός, Alas ! the man. 

ω εμε δείλαιον, Ο wretched me ! 



§ 164, 165. ADVERBS AS PREPOSITIONS. 267 

651. — Obs. Sometimes with the genitive, there is an addition 
of the nominative ; as, οϊμοι των εμών εγώ κακών, ah ! my mise- 
ries. y Ic6 t οναί, οι, and ω, govern the dative ; as, ιώ μοι, woe 
is me. 



§ 164. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

652. — Adverbs are joined to adjectives, verbs, and other ad- 
verbs, to express some circumstance, quality, or manner, of their 
signification. 

653. — Many adverbs in Greek have the force of prepositions 
in Latin and English. These are often joined with substantives, 
as will appear in the following rules. They are also sometimes 
used as substantives or adjectives ; as, anb τότε, from that time / 
6 εξω άν&ρωπος, the outward man. 3*73-2d. 

654. — Rule XLII. Derivative adverbs com- 
monly govern the case of their primitives ; as, 

άξίως ημών, in a manner worthy of us. 

μάλιστα πάντων, most of all. 

ομοίως τοις άλλοις, in a manner similar to the rest, 

πάρεκ vija, without the ship. 



§165. ADVERBS AS PREPOSITIONS. 

655. — Adverbs having the force of prepositions govern the 
same case with the prepositions which, in meaning, they resem- 
ble ; thus, ομοΰ, άμα, together, having the force of συν, govern 
the dative ; ένεκα, on account of resembling οιά, governs the 
genitive. This general principle authorizes the two following 
rules : 

656. — Rule XLIII. Some adverbs of time, 
place, and quantity, likewise of number, order, and 
exception, govern the genitive ; as, 

ov γης ειμί ; where am I? 

άχρι της σήμερον ημέρας, to this day. 

657. — Obs. 1. To these may be added adverbs of cause, cow.- 



268 ADVERBS AS PREPOSITIONS. § 165. 

parison, distinction, concealment, separation, or exclamation ; and 
also nouns used adverbially, as, χάριν, δίκην, ενώπιον, &c. ; as, 
δίκην ποταμών, like rivers. 

658. — The adverbs which come under this rule are the follow- 
ing : άνευ, άτερ, δίχά, χωρίς, without ; αντίκρυ, άντικρύς, άπαν- 
τικρυ, against, opposite ; άχρι, μέχρι, to, even to ; ένεκα, ένεκεν, 
on account of; εγγνς, πλησίον, άγχι, άσσον, near ; εκτός, εξω, 
εκτοσ&εν, without ; εντός, εσω, εϊσω, εντοσΰεν, within ; πλην, 
παρεκτός, except, but ; μεταξύ, among ; οπίσω, όπισ&εν, be- 
hind ; πρόσ&εν, before ; πέραν, επεκεινα, beyond, &c. 

659. — Exc. 1. αγχι and άλις sometimes govern the dative. 

660. — Exc. 2. πλην, except, has sometimes the nominative 
after it; as, πλην ol των παίδων διδάσκαλοι, except the 
teachers of the boys. 

66 1 — Note. Adverbs of the final cause are frequently omitted ; as, 
ϊγοα-ψα τοΰδβ, I wrote for this reason, sup. IWxa. 

662. — Obs. 2. Adverbs of time, place, &c. are frequently 
changed by the poets into adjectives; as, οϊδε πανημεριοι 
μολπη &εον ΐλάσκοντο, they propitiated the god with song the 
whole DAT. 381. 

663. — Certain adverbs are joined sometimes with one case, 
and sometimes with another ; as follows : 

1st. άμμιγα, άμμίγδην, εγγνς, εγγύιτεν, πάρεγγνς, σύνεγγυς, έξης, 
εφεξής, σχεδόν, σχεδό&εν, αυτοσχεδόν, are put with the gen- 
itive or DATIVE. 

2d. αγχι, άγχόΰι, εκποδών, πλησίον, επίπροσ&εν, oftener with 

the GENITIVE. 

3d. άνάπαλιν, εμπαλιν, oftener with the dative. 

4th. ε'ίσω, μεσφα, πάρεκ or πάρεξ, περΐξ, with the genitive οϊ 
accusative. 

5th. δεϋρο, with the dative or accusative. 

6th. άχρι, άχρις, μέχρι, μέχρις, with the genitive, dative, or ac- 
cusative. 



fi64. — Eule XLIV. Adverbs of accompanying 
govern the dative ; as, 

άμα τη ήμερα, at day-break. 



1 



§ 166. NEGATIVES. 269 

06 5. — Rule XL V. Adverbs of swearing govern 
the accusative ; as, 

νη Αία, by Jupiter ; μα τόδε σκεπτρον, by this sceptre. 

666. — Obs. 3. In sentences of this kind, μά commonly denies, 
unless joined with ναι ; and νη affirms, unless joined with a nega- 
tive. 

667. — Obs. 4. Adverbs of showing are put with the nomina- 
tive ; as, ιδού 6 αν&ρωπος, behold the man ; ιδε η μητηρ μου 
χαι οι αδελφοί μου, behold my mother and my brethren. 



§166. NEGATIVES. 

668. — The Greek language has two simple negatives, ov and μη, 
from which all the compound negative terms are formed, and to 
which, in their use and manner of construction, they are similar. 
Between these two negatives and their respective compounds there 
is a total diiference of use, the foundation of which is as follows : 
669. — 1. Ov is the direct and independent negative, which 
expresses a positive denial without reference to any thing else ; 
as, ovx εϋελω, I will not ; ουκ άγα&ον εστί, it is not good ; ov- 
δεις παρην, no one was present. A direct negation of this kind 
can never be expressed by μη or its compounds. 

670. — 2. Μη, on the other hand, is uniformly a dependent 
negative. It is therefore used in all propositions in which the 
negative is represented, not as a fact, but as something dependent 
on the conception, as a condition, supposition, &c. ; and hence 
it is used in the manner following : 

1st. After the conditional conjunctions ει, εάν, ψ, or αν, επειδάν, 
εως, αν, and those which intimate an end, design, motive, as, 
ΐνα, ως, όπως, ώστε ; as, ει μη ορ&ώς λέγω, if I do not 
speak correctly ; άπεδημησε Ινα μηάναγκαϋΰ?}, κ. τ. λ., he 
(Solon) went away that he might not be compelled, &c. 
2d. Without any such particle, μη is always put with the im- 
perative mood in all the tenses ; with the subjunctive, in the 
aorists used imperatively ; and with the optative, when it ex- 
presses a wish ; as, μη με βάλλε, or μη με βάλνς, do not 
strike me ; μη γένοιτο, may it not be. 
3d. Μη is used after relatives, and with participles when they 
express a condition or supposition ; as, τις δε δούναι δύναται 



270 DOUBLE NEGATIVES. §167. 

ετε'ρφ α μη αυτός 'έχει; who can give a thing to another, 
if he has it not himself? α ουκ αυτός έχει would mean, 
that which he has not himself. So also, ό μη πιστεύων, if a 
person does not believe. But ο ου πΐΰτενων, is, one who 
does not believe. 

4th. Μη is used with infinitives whether they are dependent upon 
another verb, or used with the article as a verbal noun (714) ; 
as, ανάγκη τούτο μη ποιεΐν, it is necessary not to do this ; 
το μη ποιεΐν, the not doing. 

5 th. With verbs which signify to fear, to warn, and the like, μη 
is used, like ne in Latin, where a positive expression is used 
in English ; as, δεδοίκω μη τι γενηται, vereor ne quid acci- 
dat, / am afraid that something mag happen. Sometimes 
the preceding verb is understood ; as, μη τοντο άλλως εχη 
(scil. δεδοικα), I fear lest this be otherwise. 

So also, after verbs which signify to forbid, deny, prevent, 
refrain, disbelieve, to be cautious, and the like, it is frequently 
put with the infinitive, where the negative is not used in 
English ; as, άπαυδώ τούτον μη παριεναι, I forbid this man 
to enter. 

6th. Μη is sometimes merely an interrogative particle like num 
in Latin, giving, however, greater emphasis to the question ; 
as, μη άνελεΐν με συ &ελεις ; wilt thou kill me ? 

671. — 3. A negative placed between the article and its noun, 
converts it into a sort of compound negative term ; as, η ου διά- 
λυσιςτών γεφυρών, the not destroying of the bridges ; η μη εμ- 
πειρία, the inexperience. 

672. — Rem. In the same manner, it is used with certain verbs, 
not as a negative, but to reverse their meaning; thus, φημί, I say, 
ου φημι, I deny, contradict ; εάω, I allow, ονκ εάω, I forbid ; 
νπισχνεομαι, I promise, ουχ νπισχνεομαι, 1 refuse ; thus, ονκ 
εφασαν τοΰτο είναι does not signify, they did not say that this 
was, but, they denied that this was, or, they said this was not. 



§ 16V. DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 

673. — When to a proposition already negative, and also to 
verbs which signify to deny, to contradict, to hinder or oppose, 
and the like, other qualifications of a general nature are to be 
attached ; such as ever, any body, any where, &c. ; it is usual to 



§ 167. DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 271 

do this by compounds of the same negative. Hence the follow- 
ing rules : 

674. — Rule XL VI. Two or more negatives, 
joined to the same verb, strengthen the negation ; 

as, 

ουκ εποίησε τούτο ουδαμου ουδείς, no one any wl^re did this. 

675. — Obs. 1. To the negation of the whole, is joined, in the 
same sentence, the negation of the parts ; as, ου δύναται ούτε 
λέγειν ούτε ποιεϊν, he can neither speak nor act. 

Note. Consequently, in translating such propositions into English, 
only one negative can be used. 

676. — Rule XLYII. Two or more negatives 
joined to different verbs, destroy the negation, 
and are equivalent to an affirmative ; as, 

ου δυνάμεθα μη λαλεΐν, we cannot but speak, 
ουδείς όστις ου γελάσεται, there is nobody who will not laugh, i. e. 
" every body will laugh ;" εστί being understood with ουδείς. 

677. — Obs. 2. Indeed, so common is the ellipsis of εστί in 
this expression, that it is lost sight of, and the antecedent ουδείς, 
which should be its nominative, is often attracted into the case 
of the relative which follows ; as, ουδενι οτφ ουκ αρέσκει, there 
is nobody whom it does not please, for ουδείς οτφ, &c. ; ουδενα 
οντινα ου κατέκλαυσεν, he caused every one to weep, for ο ν δ ε ίς 
εστίν οντινα, &c. there is no one whom he did not cause to 
weep. 

678. — 05s. 3. It is also proper to observe the use of the nega- 
tive in such sentences as the following : και ου ταϋτα μεν γράφει 
6 Φίλιππος τοις ό° εργοις ου ποιεί, Philip does not write these 
things and not perform them ; i. e. think not that Philip writes 
these things and does not execute them ; where the first ο υ does 
not affect the verb γράφει, but the two propositions together. It 
denies an assertion which might be thus expressed : γράφει μεν 
ου ποιεί δε, he writes but does not execute. So also ου δη των 
uh χειροτεχνών εστί τι πέρας της εργασίας, του δ' ανθρωπίνου 
βίου ουκ εστί, " it cannot be that there is some object in the la- 
bours of the artist, but none in the life of man." 

679. — Note. Id phrases of tins kind, the two propositions, as here, 
are usually distinguished by μέν and δέ ; and the second is negative. 



272 peepositions. § 168. 

680. — Obs. 4. ΐη some phrases ov and μη are united ; as, ov 
μη and μη ov. Ov μη is a stronger and more emphatic negation 
than ov, and is used in the same way, 669. Μη ov, in general, 
is only a stronger expression of μη, and is used in the same man- 
ner, subject, however, to the following modifications : 

1st. In dependent propositions, when the verb of the principal 
proposition is either accompanied by a negation, or contains 
a negative idea in itself, μη ov destroy each other, and may 
generally be rendered "that;" as, ova άρνονμαι μη ο ν 
γένεβ&αι, I do not deny that it has taken place ; πεί&ομαι 
γαρ ov τοσοντον ονδεν ώστε μη ο ν καλώς &ανεΐν, for I am 
persuaded that there will nothing happen to me so bad but 
that / shall die nobly. 

2d. Μη ov, after verbs signifying to fear, to warn, &c, as above, 
670-5th, render the sentence negative, which, with μη alone, 
would be positive ; as, δέδοικα μη ο ν τι γενηται, I am afraid 
lest something may not happen ; φοβονμαι μη ο ν καλόν r[, 
vereor ne non honestum sit, / fear that this may not be 
proper. 

3d. In independent propositions with the subjunctive mood, μη 
joined with ov makes the negative expression less positive ; 
as, άλλα μη ονκ y διδακτον η αρετή, but virtue may per- 
haps be a thing not to be taught. The sentence may be ex- 
plained by supplying an omitted verb, as ορα, or the like, 
and be rendered literally : but see whether virtue may not 
be, &q. 



§168. PREPOSITIONS. 

681. — Prepositions are used to express the relation in which 
one thing stands to another. For the primary and various de- 
rived meanings of prepositions in different constructions, see § 124. 
The influence they exert over the words with which they are 
joined, as far as it respects their case, is regulated by the follow- 
ing rules : 

682.— Eule XLVIII. 'Αντί, από, εκ or εξ, and 
πρό, govern the genitive only ; as, 

όφ&αλμος αντί όφ&αλμον, an eye for an eye. 



§ 168. prepositions. 273 

683. — Rule XLIX. 3 Ev and αύν govern tne da- 
tive. 



684. — Rule L. Εις (or ες) and ανά govern the 
accusative. 

Obs. 1. Ανά, among the poets, also governs the dative. 

685. — Rule LI. Aia, κατά, μζτά, νπερ, govern 
the genitive or accusative. 

686. — Obs. 2. Μετά, among the poets, also governs the da- 
tive of a plural noun, or a noun of multitude ; as, μετά τριτάτοισι 
ανασσεν. 

687. — Rule LII. *Αμφί, περί, επί^ πάρα, προς, 
and υπό, govern tne genitive, dative, or accusa- 
tive. 

Note. — For the meaning of the prepositions, as modified by the case 
with which they are joined, see § 124. 

688. — Obs. 3. Prepositions are often used as adverbs, their 
case being understood. This is the case especially with εν in the 
Ionic and προς in the Attic. Hence, in the Ionic writers, they 
are often put twice, once adverbially without a case, and again 
with a case or in composition with a verb ; as, εν δδ και εν Μεμ- 
φι, in Memphis also. 

689. — Obs. 4. Prepositions are sometimes separated from 
their case ; as, εν γάρ as r-j/ ννκτι ταύτη άναίρομαι. In Attic, 
this takes place, according* to the rule, with the coni unctions 
μεν, όε, γαρ, ονν ; as, εν μεν γαρ ειρήνη ; — ες μεν ονν τας Άνψ 
νας ; and with προς with the genitive when it signifies per. 

690. — Obs. 5. Prepositions are often put after their case, par- 
ticularly by the Ionic and Doric writers, and the Attic poets ; as, 
νεών απο και κλισιάων. In the Attic prose writers, it takes place 
only in περί with the genitive. When so placed, the accent is 
always thrown back to the first syllable ; thus, απο περί, <fcc. 

691. — Obs. 6. When a preposition should stand twice with 
two different nouns, it is often put only once by the poets, and 
that too with the second noun ; as, η αλός η επί γης, Horn, by 
sea or land. 

692. — Obs. 7. A preposition is frequently understood. 



274 THE INDICATIVE MOOD. § 169, 170. 



§169. PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 

693. — Rule LIII. A preposition in composition 
sometimes governs the same case as when it stands 
by itself; as, 

εξηλθ-ε rijg οικίας, he went out from the house. 

694. — Obs. 1. This is done when the preposition can be sepa- 
rated from the verb, and joined with the substantive, without 
altering the sense. 

695. — Obs 2. In Homer, Herodotus, and other old writers, 
the preposition is frequently found separated by one or more 
words from that with which it may be considered in composition ; 
as, ημϊν άπο λοιγον άμνναι (II. 1. 67), for ημϊν άπαμϋναι λοιγόν ; 
άπο μεν σεωϋτον ωλεσας (Herod. 3. 36), for σεωϋτον μεν άπώλε- 
σας. Hence, when the verb is to be repeated several times, after 
the first time, the proposition only is often used ; as, άπολεϊ πά- 
λιν, άπο δε πάτερα. Grammarians, however, consider the prepo- 
sition in such cases as used adverbially, and not properly in com- 
position. Instances of the proper tmesis are very rare, especially 
in the Attic prose writers. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 



§170. THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 

696. — The indicative mood is used, in Greek, when any thing 
is to be represented as actually existing or happening, and as a 
thing independent of the thought and ideas of the speaker. Hence 
it is often used where the subjunctive, and sometimes the accusa- 
tive with the infinitive, would be used in Latin ; as, 

1. It is used after negative propositions with the relative ; as, 
ονδείς εστί όστις τοϋτο ποιεί, there is no one who does this. 
Lat. nemo est qui hoc faciat. Lat. Gr. 636. 

2. It is used in indirect interrogations, where the Latin re- 
quires the subjunctive ; as, οράτε τι π οίον μεν, you see what 
we are doing. Lat. vides quid faciamus. Lat. Gr. 627. 

3. It is used in quoting the language of another, stating what 
is actual and fact, after οτι, ώς, &c, where the Latin uses the 



§ 170. THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 275 

accusative with the infinitive, or the subjunctive with quod ; as, 
ηγγελλ& οτιοιπολψηι εφενγον, he announced that the enemy ivere 
fleeing. Lat nunciavit hostes fugere, or hoc nunciavit, quod hos- 
tes fugerent. 

THE INDICATIVE T N CONDITIONAL PROPOSITIONS. 

697. — The indicative, m Greek, is used in conditional propo- 
sitions in various ways, as follows : 

1 . When the thing supposed in the condition is regarded as 
a fact, and neither contingent nor uncertain, the indicative in any 
tense is used with et in the condition, followed by the indicative 
or imperative, and sometimes by the subjunctive used impera- 
tively (709), without av in the conclusion ; as, ύ εισί βωμοί, είσϊ 
και fttoi, if there are altars, there are also gods ; el εβρόντησε, 
και ηστραψεν, if it thundered [as it did), it also lightened; ει 
βροντήσει, και αστράψει, if it shall thunder, it will also lighten. 
This accords with the Latin construction. Lat. Gr. 624-2. 

2. When the thing supposed in the condition is not a fact, or 
when a denial of it is implied, the indicative in the past tenses is 
used with ει in the condition, and with av in the conclusion ; 
and here there are three cases ; viz., 

1st. WTien the reference is to present time, or to past and pres- 
ent time, the imperfect tense is used in both parts ; as, ει τι 
εϊχεν, εδίδον αν, if he had any thing (now), he would give it. 
Lat. si quid haberet, daret. 

2d. When the reference in both clauses is to past time, the aorist 
must be used instead of the imperfect in both, or, at least, 
in one of them ; as, ει τι εσχον, εδων αν, if I had had any 
thing, I would have given it. Lat. si quid habuissem, dedis- 
sem ; ουκ αν ττροελεγεν, ει μη επίστενσεν άλη&ενσειν, he 
would not have foretold it, unless he Iwd believed he would 
speak the truth. 

3d. When the condition refers to past time, and the conclusion 
to present, the indicative aorist with ει is used in the former, 
and the imperfect with av in the latter ; as, ει εμα&ον, εγί- 
γνωσκον αν, if I had learned (then), / should know (now). 

698. — Obs. The indicative without ει or av is sometimes used 
in suppositions, where, in other languages, the subjunctive would 
be put ; as, τέ&νηκα τη cij &νγατρ\, και μ απώλεσε, suppose 
that 1 had been slain by thy daughter, and that she had madb 
λν end of me. 



276 SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. § 171, 172. 



§171. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

699. — The imperative in Greek is used as in other languages, 
in addresses, entreaties, commands, &c. The pronouns (being 
the nominative) are omitted, except where emphasis or distinc- 
tion is required. In the use of this mood the following peculi- 
arities of construction may be observed ; viz., 

1. The second person sometimes stands for the third ; as, 

άλλα, φνλαττε πάς τις, but let each one watch, 
τζελάς τις ϊ&ι, let some neighbour go. 

2. As in English, the plural is sometimes used for the singu- 
lar ; as, προσέλθετε, ω παΐ πατρί, come, Ο my child, to thy fa- 
ther. Also, sometimes the singular, when more than one person 
is mentioned ; as, είπε μοι, ω Σώκρατες τε καϊ Ίππόκρατες. 

3. In prohibitions with μη, the present imperative is most 
commonly used. If the aorist is used, μη must be put with the 
subjunctive. The few exceptions to this rule belong to Homeric 
usage. 

4. The imperative after ohtf on, ofatf o, ohtf ως, seems to 
be used elliptical ly, and to have arisen from a transposition of 
the imperative ; as, oictf ως ποίησον ; knowest thou in what 
way thou must act ? (i. e. act, knowest thou in what way ?) οΊσΰ 3 
ovv ο δράσον ; knowest thou what to do ? (i. e. do, knowest thou 
what?) 

5. Sometimes the imperative is used for the future; as, τι 
ovv ; κείσ&ω νόμος ; what then ? shall a law exist ? i. e. What 
then ? {do you say,) let a law exist ? . On the other hand, the 
future is still more frequently used for the imperative ; as, γνω- 
σεαι Λτρείδην Αγαμέμνονα (for γνώ&ι), recollect Agamemnon, 
Atreus 1 son. Especially is this the case with a negative inter- 
rogatively ; as, ονκονν μ 3 εάσεις ; will you not leave me alone ? 
i. e. leave me alone. 



§ 172. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. 

700. — The subjunctive and optative moods represent an ac- 
tion, not as actually existing, but rather as dependent upon, and 
connected with, the ideas and feelings of the speaker. The sup- 
junctive represents this dependence as present ; the optative rep- 
resents it as past (197-2). Hence the following general rule : 



§ 172. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. 277 

I. The Subjunctive and Optative in Dependent Propositions. 

701. — Rule LIV. In dependent clauses, the 
subjunctive mood is used in connection witl^. the 
dti'ii tenses; the optative, with the second- 
ary (199-3); as,, 

πάρειμι ha Ί'δω, I am present that I may see. 

παρψ ha ιδοιμι, I was present that I might see. 

On this general principle the whole construction of these 
moods depends, as may be illustrated by the following observa- 
tions : 

702. — Obs. 1. These moods are used after conjunctions whose 
use is to introduce a subordinate or dependent clause, in which 
actual existence is not definitely expressed ; as, ha, όψρα, όπως, 
ως ; thus, ε&ελεις 6 φ ρ' αυτός ε χ η ς γέρας ; do you wish that 
you yourself may have a reward ? μη μ ερε&ιζε, σαώτερος ω ς 
χέ νεηαι, provoke me not, that you may return the safer. This 
sentence, which contains the direct address (oratio directa) of Aga- 
memnon to Chryses, has the subjunctive after ως, in connection 
with the present ερέθιζε. When this is afterwards related as a 
past event, in the style of the indirect address (oratio obliqua), the 
subjunctive is changed into the optative; thus, άπιεναι ε κ ε' λ εν ε 
χαι μη ερεθίζει); ίνα σώς or /.αδε ελΰοι, he commanded him to 
depart and not provoke him, that he might return safe. 

703. — In like manner when a person, without quoting the di- 
rect language of another, relates what was said by him, not as 
actual and fact, but as a supposition or the opinion of that pev- 
son, as the reference must be to what is past, the optative is 
used with ότι or ως prefixed ; as, "Ελε'ξέ μοι, ότι η οδός φεροι 
εις τ)\ν πάλιν, (fee. ; he told me, that the road would lead me in t 
the city, (fee. See also 696-3. 

When ότι has been already expressed, it is often omitted before 
succeeding clauses in the same construction. 

Note. "Οτι, that, is also used, in Greek, when the words of another 
are quoted -without change in direct discourse. It is then equivalent 
to quotation marks only, and is to be omitted in translation; as, ant- 
y.q Ίν «to, oTt" Βασΰίίαν ovv, αν δίϊαίμην, he answered: " I will not re- 
eeive the kingdom; " ϊσως αν ίίποιίν, οτν' "SI Σώο-λατιο,, μη &ανμαζί τα 
λΐγόμίνα, perhaps they (the laws) might say, "0 Socrates, wonder not 
at the saying % " (lit, things said). 

704. — Obs. 2. When a past event is related in the present 
time (198, Obs. 1), the verb in the dependent clause may still be 

13 



278 SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. § 172. 

in the optative ; and in like manner, after the historical tenses, 
the subjunctive is used when the event, though past, yet continues 
in its effects and operation, to, and through, the present time. 
Thus, in the address of Minerva to Diomede, "I removed the 
mist from your eyes that you mat distinguish (όφρα γινώσκης) a 
deity from a man in the field of battle." Here, however, there 
may be a change of reference, i. e. the subjunctive γινώσκνς may 
refer, not to the time of the removal, but to the time of the ad- 
dress, as if she had said, " I removed the mist from your eyes 
that you may from this time forward distinguish" <fec. Such 
changes of reference are not uncommon in all languages. 

705. — Obs. 3. It was noticed, 197, Obs. 3, that the future in- 
dicative is used in a subjunctive sense. Accordingly it is often 
found in a dependent clause, especially after όπως, in the same 
construction as the subjunctive ; as, " Cyrus deliberates {όπως 
μί\ποτε Wi εσται) how he may no longer be subject to his brother 
but, if possible, (βασιλεύσει) may reign in his stead." Σκεπτεον 
— όπως ασφαλέστατα, άπίωμεν (subj.), και όπως τα επιτήδεια 
εξομεν (fut.), We ought to consider how we may get away most 
safely, and obtain the necessary supplies. 

706. — Obs. 4. After adverbs of time, when the precise point 
of time is not determined but left indefinite, the subjunctive and 
optative are used. These are επην, επειδάν, όταν, οπόταν, refer- 
ring indefinitely to the present, and so followed by the subjunc- 
tive — επεί, επειδή, ότε, οπότε, referring indefinitely to the past, and 
followed by the optative ; as, " Menelaus entertained him when 
(from time to time) he came from Crete" όποτε Κρήτη&εν 
ικοιτο. Here όποτε Κρητηϋεν ίκετο would mean, when he actu- 
ally came from Crete. The primary part of the sentence, then, 
may be considered as understood, — when it happened, — that he 
came from Crete. 

707. — Obs. 5. When the relatives ός, όστις, οίος, όπου, &c. 
refer to definite persons or things, and to what actually took 
place, they are followed by the indicative mood. But if the per- 
son or thing to which they refer is indefinite, and the whole pro- 
position affirms of past time, then the verb is in the optative 
without av ; as, όντινα μεν βασιληα κιχείη, whatever monarch he 
found ; πάντας ότφ εντνχοιεν — κτείνοντες, slaying all whomsoever 
they might meet. On the other hand, if the proposition affirms 
something of present or future time, the verb is in the subjunctive 
with av ; as, εν f δ 3 αν των φυλών πλείστοι ωσι, &c, in which- 
soever of the tribes there may be the greatest number, &c. ; εττξσ&ε 



§ 172. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. 279 

οποί αν τις ?ιγηται, follow where (it is possible that) any one may 
lead the ivay. In such sentences the primary part may be under- 
stood, such as " it is possible that," " it happened that," &c. 

II. The Subjunctive and Optative in Independent Propositions. 

708. — Obs. 6. Both the subjunctive and optative are used 
without being preceded by another verb, and so apparently in 
independent clauses. In all such instances, however, there is an 
ellipsis of the verb on which they depend. 
709. — I. The subjunctive is thus used, 
1st. To command in the first person ; as, ϊωμεν, let us go, ι. e. 

it is necessary that we go ; and so of others. 
2d. In forbidding, with μη or its compounds in the aorist, not in 

the present ; as, μη ομόανς, swear not. 
3d. In deliberating with one's self; as, not τράπωμαι, whither 

shall I turn ; είπωμεν •/} σιγώμεν, shall we speak or be silent. 
710. — II. The optative is thus used, 
1st. To express a wish or prayer ; as, τοντο μη γένοιτο, Ο that 

this might not be. In this case εΐϋε, ει, ώς, πώς αν, are 

often used with the optative. 
Rem. A wish relating to what is past, or that cannot be realized, 18 
expressed by the indicative of the histoi'ical tenses, with ii&e, tifir ft 
γάρ, ως, prefixed ; as, fttf-f δυνατόν ην, vjould that it were possible. — Or, 
by the 2 aorist indicative of οφείλω {ωφελον, -{ς, -f, 200-8.) with the 
infinitive; as, μήποτ ωφίλον ποιιιν, would that I had never done it I ti 
γαρ ωφίλε &avtlv, Ο that he had died! 

2d. In connection with av, to express doubt, conjecture, bare pos- 
sibility ; as, τίνες αν είεν νομείς, they were perhaps (or, it is 
probable that they were) shepherds ; and in volitions, to ex- 
press, not a fixed resolution, but only an inclination to a 
thing ; as, ηδεως αν &εασαίμην, I would gladly see them. 

3d. To express a definite assertion with politeness or modesty ; 
as, ονχ ηκει ο ν δ' αν ηξοι δενρο, he has not come, and 
will not come back ; i. e. I rather think it was his purpose 
that he would not come back. 

4th. Sometimes it is used for the imperative, to convey a com- 
mand or request in milder terms ; as, χωροις αν εϊσω, you 
may go in, i. e. go in. 

5th. It is sometimes used for the indicative, to give an air of in- 
determinateness to the circumstances of an action which is 
determinate in itself ; as, των νεών ας καταδυαειαν, the ships 
which they may (or might) have sunk ; i. e. which *hey have 
sunk. 



280 CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. §172. 

6th. It is also used in a potential sense, to denote power or vo- 
lition ; as, ουκ av οε μεινειας αυτοί ; could you not with- 
stand him ? ε&ελησειεν αν ; would he be willing ? 

III. The Subjunctive and Optative in Conditional Propositions. 

711. — Obs. 7. The use of the indicative in conditional propo- 
sitions has been noticed, 697. The subjunctive and optative are 
also used in conditional propositions, as follows : 
1st. Uncertainty in the condition, with an actual result, is ex- 
pressed by εάν with the subjunctive in the condition, ana 
the indicative future or imperative in the conclusion ; as, 
εάν τι εχω μεν δώσομεν, if we have any thing we will give 
it ; εάν τι εχης, δός, if you have any thing, give it. 
2d. A mere hypothetical supposition with a determinate result, 
puts the condition in the optative with ει, and the result in 
the indicative ; as, ους έδει της νυκτός τταραγενέσ&αι nav- 
στρατια, ε'Ι τι άρα μη προχωροίη τοις εσελελυ&όσι, who 
were to come in the night with the whole army, if success 
should not attend those who had entered. On the contra- 
ry, an actual case supposed in the condition with a hypo- 
thetical result, would require the first in the indicative with 
h, and the last in the optative ; as, ει γαρ μηδέ ταύτα οίδα, 
και των άνδραπόδων φαυλότερος αν ε'ίην , if 1 did not know 
these things, I should be more worthless than the slaves. 
3d. When the case is altogether hypothetical, the condition is 
expressed by the optative with ει, and the result by the op- 
tative with av ; as, ει τις ταύτα τζράττοι, μέγα μ αν 
ώφελΐ/σειε, if any one should do this he would greatly 
assist me. 

Sometimes the subjunctive with εάν or av, instead of the 

optative, is put in the condition. 

712. — Obs. 8. All conditional propositions in Greek may be 

tm.-ied into the infinitive or participle with av ; as, οΐονται άνα- 

μάχεσ&αι αν συμμάχους τζροςλάβοντες, " they think they might 

retrieve their fortune in war if they should obtain 



CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. 

713. — The infinitive mood expresses the meaning of the verb 
in a general and unlimited manner, without the distinctions of 
number or person, 197-4. In construction it may be considered 



§ 173, 174. INFINITIVE WITHOUT SUBJECT. 28J 

under the four following divisions : viz., as a verbal noun ; — with- 
out a subject, as the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb oi 
adjective ; — with a subject ; — absolutely after certain particles. 



§173. I. THE INFINITIVE AS A VERBAL NOUN. 

714. — The infinitive, with the neuter article prefixed, 403-14, 
is used as a verbal noun, in all the cases except the vocative ; 
and, as such, is subject to the same rules of construction as the 
noun, being used in the nominative as the subject of a verb, and 
governed, in the oblique cases, by verbs or prepositions. 

715. — Obs. 1. When the infinitive, with, or without, a clause, 
is used as the nominative to a verb, or the accusative governed 
by it, it is frequently without the article ; very rarely so after a 
preposition ; as, πάσιν ημϊν χατ&ανεΐν οφείλεται, dying is due to 
all of us. 

716. — Obs. 2. Not only the simple infinitive, but the infini- 
tive with the whole clause to which it belongs, may often be re- 
garded as a substantive, and stand in almost every variety of 
construction in which a substantive can be placed ; as, Nom. το 
τους άνβρωπονς άμαρτάνειν ονδεν &ανμαστόν (εστί), that men 
should err is nothing wonderful ; Gen. νπερ του μηδένα άτζο- 
ΰρήσχειν, that no one might perish ; Dat. Ινα άπιστώσι τφ εμί 
τετιμησ&αι νπο δαιμόνων, that they may disbelieve my having 
been honoured by the gods ; Ace. εαρινά το μη πάλιν έλ&ειν, Ι 
determined not to come again. 

717. — Obs. 3. With the article alone, the infinitive is gener- 
ally equivalent to the Latin gerund ; as, ένεκα τον λέγειν, causa 
dicendi ; εν τφ λέγειν, dicendo ; προς το λέγειν, ad dicendum. 

718. — Obs. 4. Without the article, it has often the force of 
the Latin supine ; as, ηλ&ε ζητησαι, venit quwsitum ; ηδν άκον- 
ειν, Suave auditu ; αΐσχιστος όφ&ηναι, turpissimus visu. 



§ 174. Π. THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT A SUBJECT. 

Υ 19. — Rule LV. One verb, being the subject 
of another, is put in the infinitive ; as, 

φενγειν αυτοϊς άσφαλέστερόν εστίν, to fly is safer for them. 



282 INFINITIVE WITHOUT SUBJECT. §174. 

720. — Rule LVI. One verb governs another 
as its object, in the infinitive ; as, 

ηρξατο λέγειν, he began to say. 
Mem. Both these rules apply to the infinitive with a subject, § 175. 

721. — Rule LVII. The infinitive mood is gov- 
erned by adjectives denoting fitness, ability, capa- 
city, and the contrary ; as, 

δεινός λέγειν, powerful in speaking, 

άξιος •&αυμάσαι, worthy to be admired. 

Note. It is also used after substantives ; as, έξονσίαν γ&ισ&αι,, 
power to become. 

722. — Obs. 1. The infinitive under these rules is in the same 
clause with, and expresses the cause, end, or object, of the action, 
state, or quality expressed by, the verb or adjective that governs 
it. The verbs that govern the infinitive directly in this way are 
such as denote desire, ability, intention, endeavour, and the like ; 
as, ε&έλει γράφειν, he wishes to write ; δεομαί σου ελ•&ειν, I beg 
of you to come. 

723. — Obs. 2. The infinitive is sometimes placed after verbs, 
to express the design or consequence of that which they affirm. 
Thus used it is governed, not by the verb, but by some such word 
as ώστε understood ; as, εγων όοε πάντα παρεσχειν, ι. e. ώστε 
πάντα παρεσχειν, lam here (so as) to furnish all things ; ηχομεν 
(ώστε) μανΰάνειν, we have come (in order) to learn. 

724. — Obs. 8. After a verb or adjective, a verb denoting an 
incidental object not directly in view, is put in the infinitive 
with ώστε ; as, φιλοτιμοτατος ην ώστε πάντα νπομειναι, lie was 
very ambitious, so as to endure all things, &c. This construction 
ta*kes place especially after such words as τοσούτος, τοιούτος, όν- 
τως, and the like. 

725. — Obs. 4. The infinitive is sometimes put after verbs or 
adjectives which indicate some state or quality, in order to ex- 
press the respect in which that state or quality obtains, and would 
be expressed in Latin by the supine, or gerund in do, and in En- 
glish, by the substantive ; as, 



ως ιό ε ιν εφαινετο, as it appeared το the sight. 

& ει ε iv άνεμοισιν όμοιοι, like the winds in running. 
ουδέ προυφαίνετ ιδέσΌ'αι, nor did he appear το the sight. 



§ 175. INFINITIVE WITH SUBJECT. 2S3 

726. — Obs. 5. The infinitive active is used often in Greek in 
the sense of the latter supine, or infinitive passive in Latin ; as, 

άνηο όάων (γνλάσσειν, a man is more easy to be guarded against, 
ήαδία ποιεί}; things easy to be done. 



§175. III. THE INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT. 

727. — 1. A subordinate or dependent clause containing a verb 
and its subject, is connected with the leading or primary clause, in 
two ways. First, by a conjunctive particle, such as on, ως, and 
the like ; as, λεγονσι οτι b εταίρος τε'&νηκε, they say that our com- 
panion is dead. Here the verb is finite, and its subject in the nom- 
inative. Second, without a conjunction ; as, λεγονσι τον εταΐρον 
τε&νάναι, they say that our companion is dead. In this case, the 
verb is in the infinitive, and its subject, usually in the accusative. 

728. — 2. Sometimes both modes of expression are united in 
the same sentence; as, εστί λόγος ώς Ξέρξης εκομίζετο ες 
την Λσ'ιην πλω οντά δε' μιν άνεμο ν Στρυμον ίην νπολαβεΐν. 
Sometimes a sentence begins with the one form and ends with 
the other ; as, λεγονσι ft ημάς, άχίνδννον βίον ζώμεν, they say 
that we live a life free from danger ; as if it had been intended 
to say, λεγονσι $ ημάς άχίνδννον βίον ζψ ; 13 δ. 

The construction of the subordinate clause connected by the 
first method mentioned above, is subject to the rules §§ 138, 139 ; 
connected by the second, it comes under the rules that follow : 



729. — Rule LVIII. The infinitive mood in a 
dependent clause, has its subject in the accusative ; 
as, 

τονς {τεονς πάντα είδεναι ελη>εν, he said that the gods knew all 
things. 

730. — Exc. When the subject of the infinitive 
is the same with the subject of the preceding verb, 
it is put by attraction in the same case ; as, 

εφη είναι στρατηγός, he said that he was a general. 

731. — 3. In this construction, the subject of the infinitive is 
generally omitted, except when emphasis is required ; as, εφη 
αντος είναι στρατηγός, ονκ εκείνονς, he said that he was a gene- 



284: INFINITIVE WITH SUBJECT. § 175. 

ral, that they were not generals. This construction has been 
frequently imitated in Latin ; thus, Sensit medios delapsus in 
hostes. Virg. Uxor invicti Jovis esse nescis. Hor. 

732. — 006'. 1. In a few instances, constructions vary both 
from the rule and the exception. Occasionally, the subject of 
the infinitive is in the nominative, when it signifies a different 
thing from the subject of the preceding verb, and in the accusa- 
tive, when it signifies the same. 

733. — Obs. 2. If the subject of the infinitive be the same with 
the object of the preceding verb, it may either be in the accusa- 
tive according to the rule, or stand before the infinitive, in the 
case governed by the preceding verb ; thus, 

κελενω σοι τούτο ποιεϊν, or ) Τ 7 , 7 ±Ί . 

λ f ~ ». > 1 command you to do this, 

κελενω σε τούτο ποιειν, j ** 

734. — In either case there is an ellipsis ; — in the first form, of 
σε, the immediate subject of the infinitive ; and in the second, of 
σοι, the remote object of the preceding verb. Both these modes 
of construction are common, and sometimes they are intermixed 
in the same sentence ; thus, Lysias, δέομαι ν μ ων τα δίκαια ψη- 
φίσασ&αι, εν&νμονμε'νονς ότι, κ. τ. λ:, I beg of you to deter- 
mine, justly considering that, &c. Here ν μ ων stands before 
the infinitive governed in the genitive by δέομαι, and yet iv&v- 
μονμενονς follows in the accusative, evidently agreeing with νμάς 
the subject of the infinitive understood. With equal propriety, it 
might have been put in the genitive. 

735 — Rem. Constructions of this kind, in "which the end of a sen- 
tence does not grammatically correspond to the beginning, are called 
anacolutha. For other examples of this, see 535 and 728. The most 
common form of anacoluthon appears to be, when the speaker commen- 
ces a period in the manner required by the preceding discourse, but 
afterwards, especially after a parenthetic clause, passes over into ano- 
ther construction. This method of construction, however, is never 
adopted by Greek writers unless something is thereby gained in con- 
ciseness, perspicuity, smoothness, or emphasis. 

736. — Obs. 3. When used in the passive voice, the subject of 
the infinitive is changed into the subject of the preceding verb, 
or it remains unchanged in the accusative, the passive verb being 
used impersonally ; as, 

λέγεται Κνρος, ) , α ^ Ω , 
ν ττ~ γ Ί^εσ&αι Καμβνσον. 

λέγεται Kvqov, \ * rr 

Cyrus is said to have been ) ±1 „ „ ■, 

rf • • ι λ * n y the son of Camay ses. 

It is said that Cyrus was \ J J 



§ 176. INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE. 285 

737. — Obs. 4. The same observation is true of the verb δοκεϊ; 
thus, δοκεΐ αυτός thai, he seems to be ; or δοκεϊ αυτόν είναι, it 
seems that he is. The following sentence unites the two : και 
μην ηνγελταί γ ε η μάχη ισχυρά γεγονεναι και πολλούς 
τ ε & ν αν a l, and indeed it was said that the battle was obsti- 
nate, and that many died. In like manner, the adjectives δίκαι- 
ος, ΰηλος, φανερός, (fee, with the verb ειμί, are used for the neuter 
gender with εστί, as impersonals ; thus, δίκαιος είμι, for δίκαιον 
εστί, tfec, it is just that /, &c. ; δηλός εστίν, for δηλόν εστίν αυ- 
τόν — , it is manifest that he — . 755. 

738. — Obs. 5. The case after the infinitive of a copulative verb 
(437), must be the same with the case before it, if the word re- 
fers to the same thing (438) ; as, Nom. εφη {αυτός) είναι στρατη- 
γός, he said that he was a general ; Gen. κατεγνωκότων ηδη μη- 
κετι κρεισσόνων είναι, having learned that they are no longer 
superior; Dat. εφ ημϊν εστί το επιεικέσι είναι, it depends 
upon ourselves το be reasonable. And this observation holds 
good whether the word before the infinitive be its proper subject, 
or (that being omitted, 731), the subject or the object of the pre- 
ceding verb. 

739. — Obs. 6. Whatever case is required before the infinitive 
by the preceding rules, it continues the same though preceded 
by ώς or ώστε, or a preposition, because the preposition affects 
not the subject of the infinitive, but belongs to the infinitive it- 
self, or to the whole clause ; thus, ουδείς τηλικουτος έστω παρ 
υμϊν ώστε τους νόμους π άραβας μη δούναι δίκην, let no one 
be so great among you, that, breaking the laws, he can go unpun- 
ished ; ημάρτανον δια το μη σοφοί είναι, they erred be- 
cause they were not wise. 



§176. IV. THE INFINITIVE ABSOLUTE. 

Ϋ40. — Rule LIX. The infliLitive is often put 
absolutely with the particles ώς, ωΰτε, πριν, άχρι, 
ιιέχρι, &c, before it ; as, 

ώς ίδεΐν άν&ρωπον, when the man saw. 

πρίν άπο&άνειν το παιδίον, before the child died. 

ώς μικρόν μεγάλω είκάσαι, to compare small with great. 

741. — Obs. 1. Ώς, with the infinitive, is frequently used to 
limit a proposition in the sense of "as far as ;" thus, ώς εμε ει 

13* 



28β THE PARTICIPLE. § 177. 

μεμνησ&αι, as far as 1 recollect distinctly ; ως γε μοι δοκεΐν, as 
it seems to me. But ως is frequently omitted ; hence such ex- 
pressions as, ov πολλφ λόγω ειπείν, in few words ; μικρόν δεΐν, 
little is wanting, almost ; πολλον δεΐν, much is wanting. 

742. — Obs. 2. The infinitive is often .used for the imperative 
mood, ορα, βλέπε, σκοπεί, &c. being understood; as, χαίρειν 
μετά χαιρόντων, κλαίε ι ν μετά. κλαιόντων, rejoice with them 
that do rejoice, and weep with them that weep. Sometimes, also, 
for the optative, δός, &έλω, or εύχομαι, being understood ; as, 
ω Ζεν έκγένεσϋ'αί μοι Ά&ψαίονς τισάσ&αι, Jupiter ,. may 
it be granted to me to punish the Athenians : — sometimes ex- 
pressed ; as, ώ Ζεν, δός με τίσασ&αι μόρον πατρός. 

743. — Obs. 3. The infinitive είναι is sometimes absolute and 
redundant, both with and without the article ; viz., 
1st. After adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions ; thus, εκών είναι 
for εκών, willing ; as, εκών αν είναι τοντο ποιψαιμι, 1 
would willingly do this. So the phrases, το σνμπαν είναι, 
generally ; σε γ είναι, with respect to you ; το μεν τημερον 
είναι, to-day at least ; κατά τοντο είναι, with respect to this ; 
το vvv είναι, now ; το επ έκείνοις είναι, as far as depends 
on them. 
2d. After verbs of calling, choosing, making, &c. ; as, σοφιστην, 
όνομάζονσί γε τον άνδρα είναι, they call the man a philoso- 
pher ; οι δε σνμμαχόν μιν είλοντο είναι, they chose him as 
an ally (598). 



§ 177. THE PARTICIPLE, 201. 

744. — Rule LX. Participles, like adjectives, 

agree with their substantives in gender, number, 

and case, 372. 

• 

745. — Rule LXI. Participles govern the case 
of their own verbs ; as, 

οι πολέμιοι το λογίον ειδότες, the enemies knowing the oracle, 
τοντων εμον δεομένον, I being in want of these things. 

745, — The Greek language, having a participle in every tense 
of every voice, uses it much more extensively than the Latin. 



§ 177. THE PARTICIPLE. 2S7 

The principal purposes for which it is employed are the follow- 

7 17. — I. A participle is joined with another verb agreeing 
with its. subject, for the following purposes; viz., 

1st. Simply to connect an accompanying with the main action 
in the same subject. Thus used, the participle and verb 
are to be rendered as two verbs with a conjunction ; as, 
mxQetehw τις δειξάτω, let any one come forward and shew. 

2d. To combine the accompanying with the main action as the 
cause, manner, or means of accomplishing it ; in which use 
it is equivalent to the ablative gerund in Latin, as in the 
following examples. 

Cause; as. τί π οι ι] σας χατεγνω&η θάνατον; for having 
done what [quid faciendo) icas he condemned to die f 

Means: as, ευεργετών αυτούς εχτησάμφτ, I gained them by 
kindness (benr faciendo) ; λ η ι ζόιι εν ο ι ζώσιι, they live by 
plunder (pop u land ο). 

Manner: as, φενγω* εχφενγει, he escapes by flight (fugien- 
do)\ τολμήσας ειςήλ&ε Ί he went in boldly {audendo). 
This construction is found also in Latin writers ; thus. Hoc 
faciens vivam melius^ Hor. by doing this I shall live bet- 
ter ; as if, hoc faciendo. &C, 

Note. The participle thus used agrees with the asent in any ease ; 
e. g. in the dative: as, « τοις ά ν&οώποις ϊόο>-/.αν ol &ioi u α&ονσ ι> 
dia/.oirttr, which the god» have put it in the power of mex to find out by 
study; the accusative; as. α (ϊίστι>ν αρι,&μ^σαντας η ufTot-aavrcu η 
στήσαντα- tidtrcu, which we may know by counting, by measuring, or by 
■weighing. 

3d. It is used, to limit a general expression, by intimating the 
action in respect of which the assertion is made; as, αδικείτε 
πολψον άρχοντες, ye do wrong in beginning the war. 

748. — Obs. 1. In this way, the participle is used with verbs 
that signify any emotion of the mind, to show the cause of the 
emotion: as, ηδομαι μεν σ είςιδών, I am rejoiced at seeing 
you; ουδεηοτε σοι μεταμεληΰεί εν π ο ι η σ αντί, you will never 
repent of having done a kindness. 

749. — II. The participle is used for the purpose of further de- 
scribing a person or thing mentioned in a sentence, and may be 
rendered by the relative and the verb ; or for connecting with a 
statement some relation of time, cause, or condition, expressed in 
English by such words as when, while, after that ; — because, 
since, as ; — if, although, are. ; — the relation intended, and of 



288 THE PARTICIPLE. § 177 

course the proper rendering of the participle, will generally have 
to be ascertained from the nature of the sentence itself, or from 
the connection in which it stands ; thus, επεσκεπτόμην τον εται- 
ρον νοσοΰντα, may signify, according to the context, I visited 
my comrade who was sick ; or when, or because, he was sick ; 
δένδρα μεν τμη&εντα ταχέως φύεται, trees, though lopped 
(which have been lopped, — after they have been lopped, — 
when lopped, as to their branches), quickly grow again. 

750. — Obs. 2. When the article precedes the participle refer- 
ring to a word already expressed or easy to be supplied, the two 
may be rendered by the relative and the indicative; as, 6 ερχό- 
μενος, he that cometh, 402-8. 

751. — Note. The participle, with the article before it, is frequently 
equivalent to a noun designating the doer of the action expressed by 
the verb; as, oi γραψάμίνον Σθ)χράτην, the accusers of Socrates. There 
is, however, this difference ; the participle expresses the doer in a state 
of action, the substantive does not ; thus, ό δούλος is a man in the con- 
dition of a slave ; 6 όονλίύον is one, at the time referred to, performing 
the part of a slave. 

The Participle as the Infinitive. 

752. — III. The participle, in ι Greek, is often used as the in- 
finitive, and has for its subject, according to the sense, either the 
subject or the object of the preceding verb, with which it always 
agrees in gender, number, and case. 

753. — In the construction of the participle with its subject, 
there occur the following varieties; viz., 

1st. The participle takes as its subject, the subject of the pre- 
ceding verb, and agrees with it in the nominative or accusa- 
tive ; as, Nominative, ου παναομαι γράφων, I will not cease 
to write ; οίδα <&νητ6ς ων, I know that I am a mortal. 
Accusative, as λεγονσιν αντον με'μνησ&αι ποιησαντα, they 
say that he remembers having done it, or, that he did it. 
2d. The participle agrees with the immediate object of the pre- 
ceding verb' as its subject, in the accusative ; as, σαφώς κα- 
τεμα&ον φάρμακα αυτόν υμΐν εγχεαντα, I plainly perceived 
that he had infused poison for you. 
3d. The participle agrees with the remote object of the verb as 
its subject, in the genitive or dative. Genitive, as, ?)σ\ϊό- 
αψ αυτών οιομενων είναι σοφωτάτων, I perceived that they 
fancied themselves to be very wise ; Dative, μηδεηοτα μετε- 
μελησε μοι σιγψαντι, I never repented of having been silent, 
or, that I was silent. 



§ 177. THE PARTICIPLE. 289 

4th. When the verb is followed by a reflexive pronoun, the par- 
ticiple may agree either with the pronoun or the nominative 
to the verb ; as, σννοιδα εμαντω άμαρτάνων or αμαρτάνοντι, 
I am conscious that I am doing wrong ; εαντον ουδείς ομο- 
λογεί κακούργος ων, or, κακονργον οντά, nobody confesses 
that he himself is wicked. 

754. — Obs. 3. The verbs after which the participle is thus 
used, are 1st. Verbs of sense ; as, to see, hear, &c. 2. Verbs de- 
noting any act or feeling of the mind ; as, to know, perceive, dis- 
cern, consider, observe, experience, shew, recollect. 3. Verbs sig- 
nifying to overlook, to permit, to happen, to persevere, bear, en- 
dure, to be pleased or contented with, to cease, and to cause to 



755. — It is used, also, with adjectives signifying clearness; as, 
δϊ]λος ει συκοφαντών, it is clear that you are a sycophant. Some- 
times ότι with the indicative is used ; as, ενδηλος ων ότι ηστζάζετο, 
by its being manifest that he loved, 737. 

756. — Obs. 4. Instead of the participle with the verbs men- 
tioned above, the infinitive is sometimes used ; but in that case, 
the idea expressed is usually different ; e. g., 1. αίσχννομαι ποιψ 
σας, I am ashamed to have done it ; αίσχννομαι ποιησαι, I am 
ashamed to do it, and therefore will not. 2. 6 χειμων ηρξατο 
γενόμενος, the winter was come on, had actually commenced ; ό 
χειμων ηρχετο γίγνεσθαι, the tvinter was beginning to come on, 
but had not yet arrived. 3. ηκονσα τον Αημοσϋενη λέγοντα, I 
heard Demosthenes speak ; ηκονσα τον /Ιημοσ&ένη λέγειν, I 
heard (i. e. I am told), that Demosthenes says. 4. εφαίνετο 
κλαίων, he evidently wept ; εψαίνετο κλαίειν, he seemed to weep. 
5. With verbs to declare, to announce, the participle represents 
the thing announced as a fact, the infinitive, as matter of report, 
but not asserted as a fact. With many verbs, however, it is in- 
different which construction is used; as, ξνμφορόν εστί ταντα 
πραχ&ψαι, or ταντα ξνμφορά εστί πραχ&εντα, it is unfortunate 
that these things were done. 

757. — Obs. 5. After verbs of motion, the future participle is 
used to point out the design or object of the motion expressed by 
the verb, and is rendered by the English phrase " in order to ;" 
as, σε γ ε διδάχων ωρμημαι, I have hastened forward in order 

TO TEACH THEE. 

758. — In this construction ως is often interposed before the 
participle ; as, παρεσκενάζοντο ως τζολεμησοντες, they prepared 
to make war. 



290 THE PAETICIPLE. § 177, 

759. — Sometimes the present participle is used in this way ; 
as, πέμπει με φέροντα, he sent me to carry. The future partici- 
ple after έρχομαι is only a circumlocution for the future tense ; 
as, έρχομαι φράσων, for φράσω, I will speak ; έρχομαι αποχτά- 
νουμενος, I shall die, or, / am about to die. 

760. — IV. Joined with λαν&άνω, φ&άνω, τυγχάνω, διατελέω, 
&c, the participle is used to express the main action or state, and 
rendered in the indicative, while the verb with which it is joined, 
expressing a subordinate circumstance, is often rendered as an 
adverb ; thus, έλα&εν υπεκφυγών, he escaped unperceived ; τον 
φονέα λαν&άνει βόσκων, he unconsciously feeds his murderer ; 
εφχΤψ αφελών, I took it away just before ; έτυχεν άπιών, he went 
away accidentally ; έτνχον παρόντες, they were accidentally pres- 
ent ; διατελεί παρών, he is continually present. 

76 1 — Note. The participle ων is wanting with adjectives, and some- 
times without them ; as, τυγχάνει* καλή (sc. ούσα), she happens to be 
beautiful. With a negative, φ&άνω may be rendered scarcely, no soon- 
er ; as, ουκ ϊφ&ησαν πυ&όμΐνοι>, they no sooner heard. Sometimes it is 
followed by the infinitive instead of the participle ; as, πονηρός αν 
φϋ-άσενε τίλευτήσαι, πριν, κ. τ. λ., a wretched man would sooner die than, 
&c. 

762. — Obs. 6. In the same sense, these verbs stand sometimes 
in the participle with other finite verbs ; as, άπο τείχεος άλτο 
λαχτών, he sprung unobserved from the wall ; ψπερ τυγχάνων 
νπεσχόμψ, which I happened to promise. 

763. — V. A participle with the verbs ειμί, γίνομαι, υπάρχω, 
έχω, and ηκω, is often used as a circumlocution for the verb to 
which it belongs, and these verbs take the place of auxiliaries ; 
thus, προβεβηκότες ήσαν for προεβεβήκεισαν, they had gone for- 
ward ; γήμας έχεις for έγημας, you have married ; ιτανμάσας 
έχω for τε&αύμακα, 1 have admired, &c. 

764. — Obs. 7. Instead of a simple verb signifying "to go 
away," the verb οϊχομαι is frequently joined with a participle ; 
the former, to express the idea of departure ; the latter, to con- 
nect with it the idea of the manner, both of which may generally 
be rendered by a simple verb ; thus, φχετ άποπτάμενος, he de- 
parted flying, i. e. he flew away ; φχετο φευγων, he departed 
fleeing, he escaped ; φχοντο άπο&έοντες, they ran away ; οΐχεται 
Φανών, he is dead. Homer uses βαίνω in the same manner. 

765. — VI. The participle, in definitions of time, is often joined 
with the adverbs αντίκα, ευ&υς, μεταξύ, άμα, the last, with the 
dative ; as, ώς αντίκα γενόμενος, as soon as he was born ; μεταξύ 



§ 178. THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 2 ( J1 

οηνσσων, during the digging ; άμα τφ ?jqi εύ&νς άρχομενω, on 
the first commencement of spring. 

766. — VII. The participles of some verbs, when joined with 
other verbs, appear to be used in an adverbial sense, or at least, 
to denote a circumstance which, in our language, is better ex- 
pressed by an adverb ; as, αρχόμενος εϊπον, I said in the begin- 
ning ; άρξάμενος από, especially ; τελευτών, lastly ; διαλιπών 
χρόνον, after some time. Φερών and άγων with verbs which 
signify to give, to place, and the like, are redundant ; as, φε'ρων 
δώκε, he gave ; — with verbs of motion φέρων expresses zeal, 
quickness, &c. : with their cases, they are equivalent to the Latin 
cum, with. A participle joined to its own verb, or to one of sim- 
ilar signification, appears to be redundant ; as, ίασιν ΐοντες, they 
went ; εφη λέγων, he said ; λέγει φάς, he says. 

jtST For the dative of the participle with a personal pronoun 
after the verb εστί, see 540. 



§178. THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

767. — Rule LXII. A substantive with a par- 
ticiple whose case depends on no other word, is 
put in the genitive absolute ; as, 

Θεον δίδοντος, ονδεν ισχύει φ&όνος, when god gives, envy 
avails nothing. 

768 — Hem. The genitive is said to be absolute, in this construction, 
because it is neither governed by, nor is dependent on, any word ex- 
pressed or understood, in the sentence with which it is connected, and 
might be separated from it without affecting its construction. Yet, 
strictly speaking, it is not really absolute in such a sense as to be with- 
out government, or that there is no more reason for its being in the 
genitive than in any other case ; for the absolute clause will generally 
be found to express a circumstance of time, and so may come under 642 ; 
as, 

Kvqov βασιλεύοντος, in the reign of Cyrus (sc. επί). 

Θίάγντις σώίίτα» Θεών &ΐλόντο)ν, Theagnes is safe from the gods 

WILLING ΓΓ. 

769. — Obs. 1. The participles of ειμί, γίνομαι, and some 
others, are frequently omitted ; as, εμού υ,όνης, sc. ονσης, I being 
alone. 

770. — Obs. 2. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence, as if 
it were a noun, is used absolutely with the participle ; as, πυρ 



292 CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. § 179. 

πνεϊν τους ταύρους, μυ&ολογη'&έντος, that bulls breathe fire, being 
circulated as a story. 

771. — Obs. 3. The dative absolute is used to express the 
fixed time (see 641) ; as, περι'ίόντι δε τω ενιαυτφ, after the year 
had elapsed ; and also when the subject of the participle may be 
considered as that in reference to which the action of the verb 
takes place. 

772. — Obs. 4. The nominative and accusative are some- 
times used absolutely. These instances, however, probably arise 
from an omission of some words, which, being supplied, complete 
the construction ; as, άνοίξαντες του σώματος πόρους, πάλιν 
γίνεται το πυρ, when they have opened the pores of the body, there 
is again fire ; i. e. ώς άνοίξαντες ώσι, &c. ; ταύτα γενόμενα, 
these things being done ; i. e. μετά ταϋτα, &c. 

773. — Obs. 5. The participles of impersonal verbs, and other 
verbs used impersonally, are put absolutely in the nominative or 
accusative neuter ; as, εξόν, it being permitted ; δέον, it being 
necessary ; δοκούν, since it seems proper ; thus, δια τι μένεις, 
εξόν άπιέναι, ivhy dost thou remain, it being in thy power to 
depart ? 

774. — Obs. G. The construction with the participle is often 
preceded by the particles ώς, ώστε, άτε, οία, δη, οίον, when a 
reason of something done by another is expressed ; as, εσιώπα 
ώς πάντας είδότας, or πάντων ειδότων, he held his peace be- 
cause ALL KNEW. 



§179. CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

775. — Conjunctions serve to connect words or sentences to- 
gether ; this connection is of two kinds : 

776. — I. Of the parts of a sentence which are complete of 
themselves and independent of each other. These are connected 
by conjunctions, simply connective or disjunctive, 332-1, 2 ; and 
the parts thus connected have a similar construction : hence, 

? 1 7. — Rule LXIII. Conjunctions couple the 
same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns 
and pronouns ; as, 

ηλ&ον και εϊδον, they came and saw. 

τίμα τον πατέρα και την μητέρα, honour thy father and thy 



§179. CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 293 

778. — Obs. 1. To this rule there are many exceptions as it 
respects the tenses of verbs ; 'see an example, 198, Obs. 3. 



779. — II. But the parts of a compound sentence are often 
variously related, and have a certain dependence upon each other, 
the nature of which is indicated by the conjunction employed, 
and the mood of the verb with which it is joined. The general 
principles of this connection are expressed in the following rules : 

Τ 80. — Kule LXIV. Conjunctions which do not 
imply doubt or contingency, are for the most part 
joined with the indicative mood (696, 697) ; as, 

ούτοι ει ήσαν άνδρες αγαθοί, ονκ αν nor ε ταϋτα επασχον, 
if these had been good men, they would never have suf- 
these things. 



781. — Rule LXV. Conjunctions which imply 
doubt or contingency, or which do not regard a 
thing as actually existing, are for the most part 
joined with the subjunctive and optative moods 
(§172); as, 

ε ι τις αιρεσίν μοι δοίη, if any one should give me the 
choice. 

782. — Obs, 2. As the meaning of a conjunction varies in dif- 
ferent connections, the same conjunction is often found with dif- 
ferent moods. On this subject no very definite or satisfactory 
rules can be given. 

783. — The particles γάρ, δαί, δη, δηποτε, είτα, έπειτα, ν,αί, 
are often used not so much to connect, as to give strength to a 
question, like the English then, but, yet. 

784. — The Greeks do not distinguish direct and indirect ques- 
tions, like the Latins, by different moods (Lat. Gr. 627-5). In 
Greek, the direct question is usually made by the definite inter- 
rogative particles πώς, πότερος, πότε, πον, ποΐ, πηνίκα, τις, &c. 
— the indirect by όπως, όπότερος, οπότε, οπον, όποι, όπψίχα, 
όστις, &c. But here there are many exceptions. 

For further remarks on conjunctive and adverbial particles, 
see §125. 



294: ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. § 179 



785.— ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete sense ; 
as, ό αν&αωπός εστιών -θ-νητός, man is mortal. 

All sentences are either simple or compound. 

A simple sentence contains only a single affirmation ; as, ό βίος εστί 
βραχύς, life is short. 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences con- 
nected together ; as, Ό-εός εστνν ος πάντα κνβεονα. 

786. — SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

A simple sentence or proposition consists of two parts — the subject 
and the predicate. 

The subject is that of which something is affirmed. 

The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject. 

The subject is commonly a noun or pronoun, but may be any thing, 
however expressed, about which we can speak or think. 

The predicate properly consists of two parts — the attribute affirmed 
of the subject, and the copula, by which the affirmation is made ; thus, 
in the sentence, ό Θεός εστίν άγαϋός, the subject is Θεός; the predi- 
cate is εστίν άγα&ός, of which άγα&ός is the attribute, and εστίν the 
copula. In most cases, the attribute and copula are expressed by one 
word ; as, ϊππος τρέχει,, the horse runs. 357. 

The name of a person or thing addressed forms no part of a sen- 
tence. 

The predicate may be a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a preposi- 
tion with its case, an adverb, a participle, an infinitive mood, or clause 
of a sentence, as an attribute, connected with, and affirmed of, the sub- 
ject by a copulative verb (437) ; or, it may be a verb which includes in 
itself both attribute and copula, and is therefore called an attributive 
verb. 

787. — THE SUBJECT. 

The subject of a proposition is either grammatical or logical. 

I. The grammatical subject is the person or thing spoken of, unlim- 
ited by other words. 

The logical subject is the person or thing spoken of, together with 
all the words or phrases by which it is limited or defined ; thus, in the 
sentence, ό μέλας οίνος εστί &ρεπτι,•/.ώτατος, the grammatical subject is 
οίνος ; the logical, ό μέλας οίνος. Again : 

II. The subject of a proposition may be either simple or compound 

A simple subject consists of one subject of thought, either unlimited, 
as the grammatical, or limited, as the logical subject. 

A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects, to 
which belongs but one predicate ; as, Σοαιράτης και 2όλο)ν σοφοί ήσαν. 



§179. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 295 

788. — MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT. 

A grammatical subject may be modified, limited, or described in va- 
rious ways ; viz., 1. By a noun in apposition. 2. By a noun in the 
genitive or dative. 3. By an adjunct, i. e. a preposition and its case. 
4. By an adjective word,*L e. an article, adjective, adjective pronoun, 
or participle, 5, By a relative and its clause. 

Each grammatical subject may have several modifications ; and if 
Η has none, the grammatical and logical subject are the same. 

789. — MODIFICATION OF MODIFYING• WORDS. 

Modifying, or limiting words, may themselves be modified. 

1. A noun modifying another may itself be modified in all the ways 

in which a noun, as a grammatical subject, is modified. 

2. An adjective qualifying a noun may itself be modified — 1. By an 
adjunct. 2. By a noun. 3. By an infinitive mood or clause of 
a sentence. 4. By an adverb. 

3. An adverb may be modified-:— 1. By another adverb. 2. By a 

substantive in an oblique case. 

790. — THE PREDICATE. 

I. The predicate, like the subject, is either grammatical or logical. 
The grammatical predicate consists of the attribute and copula, not 

modified by other words. 

The logical predicate is the grammatical, with all the words or 
phrases that modify it ; thus, η μέθη μικρά μοννία. εστίν : the gramma- 
tical predicate is μανία εστίν ; the logical, μικρά μανία, εστίν. 

When the grammatical predicate has no modifying terms, the logi- 
cal and grammatical are the same. 

II. The predicate, like the subject, is either simple or compound. 

A simple predicate affirms but one thing of its subject ; as, 6 βίος 
βραχύς εστίν ; επεπνεον οι άνεμοι. 

A compotcnd predicate consists of two or more simple predicates 
affirmed of one subject ; as, Κάδμος άπεκτανε τον δράκοντα, xat έσπει- 
ρε τους οδόντας αντον. 

791. — MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE. 

The grammatical predicate may be modified or limited in different 
ways. 

I. When the attribute in the predicate is a noun, it is modified — 1. 
By a noun or pronoun limiting or describing the attribute. 2. By an 
adjective or participle limiting the attribute. 

II. When the grammatical predicate is an attributive verb, it is mod- 
ified — 1. By a noun or pronoun as its object. 2. By an adverb. 3 
B} 7 an adjunct. 4. By an infinitive. 5. By a dependent clause. 



296 EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS. §179. 

792 — Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and other -words modifying the 
predicate, may themselves be modified, as similar words are when 
modifying the subject. 

Infinitives and participles modifying the predicate, may themselves 
be modified in all respects, as the attributive* verb is modified. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

793 — A compound sentence consists of two or more simple senten- 
ces or propositions connected together. The propositions which make 
up a compound sentence, are called members, or clauses. 

794 — The propositions or clauses of a compound sentence, are ei- 
ther independent or dependent ; in other words, coordinate, or subor ■ 
dinate. 

An independent clause is one that makes complete sense by itself. 

A dependent clause is one that makes complete sense only in con- 
nection with another clause. 

The clause on which another depends, is called the leading clause ; 
its subject is the leading subject; and its predicate, the leading predi- 
cate. 

795. — Clauses of the same kind, whether independent or dependent, 
are connected by such conjunctions as και, τέ, η, ήτοι,, &c. 

796 — Dependent clauses having finite verbs, are connected with 
their leading clauses in three different ways ; as, 1. By a relative. 2. 
By a conjunction. 3. By an adverb. 

797 — A subordinate clause, consisting of an infinitive with its sub 
ject, is joined to a leading clause without a connecting word. 

ABEIDOED PKOPOSITIONS. 

798 — A compound sentence is sometimes converted into a simple 
one, by rejecting the connective, and changing the verb of the depend- 
ent clause into a participle. A simple sentence thus formed is called 
an abridged proposition ; as, δοελ&ών δε Θράκην, ήκεν εις Θήβας, hav- 
ing gone through Thrace, he came to Thebes = επευδάν δε δίηλ&ε Θράκην, 
ήκεν εις Θήβας. 



799.— EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS. 

1. — Ό φόβος του Κυρίου εστίν άρχη της αοψας, the fear of the 
Lord is the beginning of wisdom. 

This is a simple sentence, of which — 

The logical subject is ό φόβος τον Κυρίου. 

The logical predicate is εστίν αρχή της σοφίας. 

The grammatical subject is φόβος, shown to be definite by the article 

6, and restricted by τοΰ Κυρίου. 
The grammatical predicate is εστίν αρχή, of which εστίν is the copula 

and αρχή the attribute, restricted by τής σοφίας. 



§179.' 



SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 297 



2. — Ό Ηρακλής το ρόπαλον, ο εφόρει, αυτός ετεμεν εκ Νεμέας 
Hercules himself cut, from the forest of JVemea, the club which 
he ivas accustomed to carry. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of one leading, and one depend 
ent chaise connected by the relative o. 

The leading clause, ό 'Ηρακλής το ρόπαλον αυτός ετεμεν εκ Νεμέας, is a 
simple sentence, of which — 

The logical subject is 6 'Ηραχλης αυτός. 

The logical predicate is ετεμεν εκ Νεμέας το ρόπαλον. 

The grammatical subject is Ήραχλ.ης, shown to be definite by the arti- 
cle ό, and rendered emphatic by the definite pronoun αυτός. 

The grammatical predicate is ετεμεν, modified by its object το ρόπαλ.ον, 
and by the adjunct εκ TV ε μίας. 

The dependent clause is δ (αυτός) εφόρει,, of which — 

The logical subject is αυτός understood, a substitute ίον'Ηραχλης. 

The logical predicate is ο εφόρει,. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is ετεμεν, modified by its object o, standing 
instead of υόπαλ.ον, and, being a relative, it is the object of the 
verb, and also connects its clause with the leading clause. 



800.— SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

These two sentences, thus analyzed, may be parsed syntactically in 
the following manner : 

First Example. — Ό φόβος τον Κυρίου εστίν άρχη της σο- 
φίας. 

Ό, the, the definite article, in the nominative singular, masculine, agree- 
ing with φόβος, and showing it to be definite. Rule, "The 
article agrees," (fee. 400, declined thus, o, rj, τό, &c 

φόβος, fear, is a noun, masculine, second declension, φόβος, -ου. It is 
found in the nominative singular, the subject of εστίν. "The 
subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative," 421. 

τον, of the, the definite article, genitive singular, masculine, agreeing 
with Κυρίου, and showing it to be definite. Rule, as before, 
400. 

Κυρίου, Lord, is a noun, masculine, second declension, Κΰρι,ος Κυρίου. 
It is in the genitive singular, governed by ό φόβος, which it 
limits. Rule V. (449), " One substantive governs another," «fee. 

εστίν, is, is a verb intransitive irregular, ειμί, εσομαι,, ην, Root ε. It is 
found in the present indicative, third person singular, and 
agrees with its subject φόβος. Rule IV. (420), "A verb 
agrees," <fec. 

αρχή, the beginning, is a noun, feminine, first declension, άρχη, -ης, (fee. 
It is found in the nominative singular, the predicate after 
εστίν its copula, and is therefore without the article, 403-4. 
Rule VI. (436), "Any verb," &c. 



298 SYNTACTICAL PAUSING•. § 179. 

της (not translated), the definite article, in the genitive singular, femi- 
nine, agreeing with σοφίας, an abstract noun, _j3-3. Rule, 
"The article agrees," <fec. 400. 

σοφίας, of wisdom, a noun feminine, first declension, σοφία, -ας. It is 
found in the genitive singular, governed by αρχή, which it 
limits. Rule V. (449), " One substantive governs another," (fee. 

Second Example. — Ό Ηρακλής το ρόπαλον, ο εφόρει, αντός 
έτεμεν εκ Νεμέας, — construed thus : Ό Ηρακλής αυτός 
έτεμεν εκ Νεμέας το ρόπαλον ο εφόρει. 

Ό (not translated), the definite article, in the nominative singular, mas- 
culine, agreeing with 'Ηρακλής, definite, 403-1. Rule, "The 
article," (fee. (400), declined 6, ή, το, (fee. 139. 

'Ηρακλής, Hercules, contracted for Ήρακλέης (133), a proper noun, mas- 
culine, third declension, 'Ηρακλής, -έος, contr. -οΰς. It is found 
in the nominative singular, the subject of έτεμεν. "The sub- 
ject of a finite verb is put in the nominative," 421. 

αυτός, himself, a definite adjective pronoun, αυτός, -ή, -ό, 182. It is 
found in the nominative singular, masculine, and agrees with 
'Ηρακλής, rendering it emphatic. Rule II., "An adjective 
agrees," (fee. 371 and 394. 

ετιμεν, cut, is a verb transitive, first conjugation, liquid, τέμνω, to cut, 
1 Root τίμ, 2 ταμ, 3 τομ. It is found in the 2 aorist indicative 
active, third person singular, and agrees with 'Ηρακλής. Rule 
IV., "A verb agrees," (fee. An irregular form for ϊταμε. See 
the word, § 117. Give the tenses from the first root — from the 
second — from the third. 

εκ, from, is a preposition atonic (εξ before a vowel), of, out of , from, and 
governs Νεμέας. 

Νεμέας, the forest of Nemea (without the article, being the first mention- 
ed), a proper noun, feminine, first declension, Νεμέα, -ας. It is 
found in the genitive singular, governed by εκ. Rule XL VIII. 
" Αντί, από, εκ or ε£," (fee. (652). 

τό, the, the definite article, ό, ή, τό. It is found in the accusative sin- 
gular, neuter, agrees with ^άπαλον, and shows it to be definite. 
Rule, "The article agrees," (fee. (400). 

ρόπαλον, club, is a noun, neuter, third declension, ρόπαλον, ροπάλου. It 
is found in the accusative singular, the object of, and governed 
by, έτεμεν. Rule XXV., "A transitive verb," &c. (564). It is 
limited by the relative clause following it. 

o, which, the relative pronoun, ός, ή, ο. It is found in the accusative 
singular, neuter, agreeing with its antecedent ρόπαλον. Rule 
III., "The relative agrees," (fee. 404. It is governed in the ac- 
cusative by εφόρει. Rule XXV., "A transitive verb," (fee. 564; 
it connects its clause with ρόπαλον, and limits it. 

εφόρει, was accustomed to carry (198, Obs. 2), is a verb, transitive, first 
conjugation, pure, φορέω, to carry, kindred to φάρο), to bear. 
Root φόρε (216). It is found in the imperfect indicative active, 
third person singular, contracted for έφόρεε, and agrees with 
its nominative αυτός understood, referring to 'Ηρακλής. Rule 
IV., "A verb agrees," <fec. (420). 



§ 180, 181. prosody. 299 



PART IV. 



PROSODY. 

801. — Prosody, in its common acceptation, treats of the 
quantity of syllables and the construction of verses ; in other 
words, of Quantity and Metre. In the ancient grammarians, 
προσωδία applies to accents. 



§180. QUANTITY. ' 

802. — Quantity means the relative length of time taken up in 
pronouncing a syllable. 

1. In respect of quantity, every syllable is either long or short. 
When a syllable is sometimes long, and sometimes short, it is 
said to be common, or doubtful. 

2. The quantity of syllables is determined by certain estab- 
lished rules ; or, when no rule applies, by the authority of the 
poets. 

3. In Greek, the quantity of certain vowels is determined as 
follows : 

1. The vowels 8, o, are naturally short ; as, λεγομεν. 

2. " η, ω, are naturally long ; as, Αψώ. 

3. " a, ι, v, are doubtful ; as, άμννω. 

4. Diphthongs and contracted syllables are long ; as, έχει, 
όφϊες, contracted όφϊς.* 



§181. I. POSITION. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

803. — Rule I. A short or doubtful vowel, before two conso- 
nants or a double letter, is almost always long ; as, 

πδλλάς, — προΐάψεν, — ωτε Ζενς. 

* In the Prosody the accents are omitted, as they often interfere 
with the mark for the quantity. 



SOO peosody. * §182. 

Tin's rule holds good in Epic poetry, except in proper names, and in 
words which could not be used in any other situation in the verse. In 
dramatic writers, observe the following exceptions : « 

Exc. A short or doubtful vowel before a mute and a liquid, 
is common ; as, Πάτροκλος, or Πάτροκλος. 

Obs. 1. A short vowel before a mute and a liquid is generally short. 
But before a middle mute {β, γ, δ), followed by ρ in tragedy, it is mostly 
long; and followed by λ, μ, ν, almost always long, both in tragedy and 
comedy. 

Obs. 2, A short vowel before two liquids is always long, and some- 
times before a single liquid, which in this case should be pronounced as 
if double ; thus, έλαβε, pronounced ελλαβε. 

Note 1. A short vowel in the end of a word, before q in the begin- 
ning of the word following, is long in the dramatic poets; as, εμε ^επον. 

Note. 2. We sometimes find a short syllable before two consonants 
(both mutes), but this is rare and should not be imitated. 



§182. II. ONE VOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER. 

804. — Rule II. A vowel before another vowel is short, unless 
lengthened by poetic license ; as, πολϋάϊκος. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. a is long in the penult of nouns in do)v, αονος; as, Μ<χχάο)ν, Μαχαυ- 

voq. And sometimes when the genitive ends in owoq; as, 
Ποσείδαων, ΊΊοσενδαωνος. 
in feminine proper names in αϊς ; thus, Θάϊς. 

2. ν is long in the penult of nouns in νων, t,ovoq, and sometimes ι,ωνος ; 

as, Ι1ρίο)ν, ΐίρωνος or SLgiowoq; except yloiv. 

in the penult of verbs in ma ; as, τϊω : but the Attic 

tragic writers have -ϊω. 

3. ν is common in the penult of nouns in ia and νη ; as, ν.αλϊα and χαλϊα. 

4. ν is common in the penult of verbs in vo) ; as, ίσχνο) or ισχνό). 

805. — Rule III. Long vowels and diphthongs are mostly 
short at the end of words, when the next word begins with a 
vowel ; as, 

Λ"ξώ ε\λών 6 δε | κίν κεχδ\λώσεταϊ | δν κεν ϊκ\ώμαΐ. 

Obs. 1. A vowel in the end of a word, before a word beginning with 
a vowel, does not suffer elision, as in Latin, unless an apostrophe is 
substituted (35). 

Obs. 2. Two vowels, forming two syllables, frequently in poetry 
coalesce into one; as, χρυσέω, Π. ά. 15, where ίφ form a short syllable. 
This frequently takes place though the vowels be in different words; 
as, ΪΓονκ άλϊς, II. i. 349. 828-2. 



§ 183, 184. prosody. 301 



§183. III. THE DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN FIRST AND 
MIDDLE SYLLABLES. 

806. — Rule IV. A doubtful vowel before a simple consonant 
is short ; as, κάκος. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. α is long in nouns in αμο)ν, ανωρ, «ξ»ος; as, πεδοβαμων, άγάνωρ, 
μυσαρός. 
in mimerals in όσιος ; as, διάκοσιος. 



in derivatives from verbs in ao) pure, and ραο> ; thus, 

ανίατος from άνιάω ; Ιάσιμος from ιάομαι ; κατάφυτος from 
καταράομαι] ϋίατης and &ίάμα from ϋ-^άομαν; πΐράσιμος 
from πΐράο) ; πράσις from (πιπράσκο) for) πράο). 

2. ι is long in the penult of nouns in ινη, ιτη, ιτης, ιτις ; thus, δίνη, 

3 Αφροδίτη, πολίτης, πολίτις. 

in the penult of verbs in ι,βο), ivw ; thus, τρϊβο), πϊνο) ; 

so also κίνέω, δϊνέο), &c. 

3. ν is long in verbals in νμα, νμος, υτηρ, ντος, ντω% ; as, λϋμα, 

χϋμος, ρντο)ρ. 

in pronouns ; as, 'ϋμΐΐς. 

in the penult of verbs in ννω, νρω, νχω, vfU ; as, πλϋνο), 

χϋρο), βρϊ'/ο), ψϋμι, ζευγνϋμι. 
in adverbs in νδον ; as, βοτρϋδον. 



§ 184. IV. THE DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN FINAL SYL- 
LABLES. 
807. — Rule V. a, ι, v, in the end of a word, are short ; as, 
μονσά, μύϊ, γλν/.ν. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. A in the end of a word is long, viz : 

— In nouns in ea, δα, &a; as, &ta, Λήδα, Μαρ&ά ; exc. άκαν&ά. 

— In the dual number ; as, προφητά, μούσα. 

— In polysyllables in aia; as, Σίληναια. 
in na, derived from verbs in evo) ; as, δουλειά, 

βασνλΐίά, from δουλίΰο), βασιλίύο). But βασνλαά, a queen, 
has the final a short. 

— In ια; as, valid, except verbals in τρία', as, ψαλ.τριά', and 

δίά, μια, ποτννά. 

— In the vocative of nouns in ας of the 1st declension ; as, Alvtia 

from Αινείας. 

— In feminines from adjectives in ος; as, όμοια, ημέτερα. 

— In nouns in ρα not preceded by a diphthong ; as, ήμερα, χήρα. 

Except άγκυρα, γέφυρα, Κέρκυρα, ολυρά, σκολοπενδρά, σφυρά, 
τανα^α, and compounds of μέτρο) ; as, γεωμετρά 

— In poetic vocatives ; as, Παλλά for Παλλάς. 

14 



ο 02 prosody. § 184. 

2. ι, final is long in the names of letters ; as, πϊ. 

3. ν final is long in the names of letters ; as, μν, νΰ. 

in verbs in νμν ; as έψϋ. 

in μιταζϋ and γρϋ. 

808. — Rule VI. A doubtful vowel in the final syllable, fol- 
lowed by a simple consonant, is short ; as, μελάν, λαμπάς. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. αν is long in masculines; as, Tntiv; and παν, when not in com- 
position. 

in accusatives when their nominatives are long; as, 

Alvziav from Λίνπάς. 

in adverbs ; as, άγαν. 



2. αρ in καρ and ψαρ is long ; in γαρ it is either long or short. 

3. ας is long in nouns of the first declension ; as, Λϊνπάς, μούσας. 
in words having α^τος in the genitive ; as, τνψάς, 

τνφαντος. 
; — also in ημάς, υμάς, κράς. 



4. w is long in nouns in w which have ινος in the genitive ; as, 
ρηγμϊν, ρηγμινος. 
— in nouns which have two terminations in the nomina- 



tive ; as, ακτϊν, or ακτις. 
also in ημϊν, νμϊν. 

δ. *ς is long in monosyllables ; as, λϊς ; but the indefinite τις is 
common. 

in nouns which have two terminations in the nomina- 
tive ; as, άχτϊς, άκτΐν. 

in feminine dissyllables in ι,ς, ι,δος, or ν&ος ; as, κνημΐς, 

κνημιδος ; ορνϊς, ορν^&ος ; except άσπϊς, έρϊς, χαρϊς, and a 
few others. 

in polysyllables preceded by two short syllables ; as, 

τιλόκάμΐς. 
6. υ ν is long in nouns which have ννος in the genitive ; as, μοσσνν, 
μοσσυνος. 

in nouns which have two terminations in the nomina- 
tive ; as, φορκνς, or φορκϋν. 

— ■ in accusatives from νς in the nominative ; as, οφρνν 

from οφρνς. 

in the ultimate of verbs in νμν; as, (,φϋν from φνμι>. 

νυν, now ; but in νυν, enclitic, it is short. 

V. νρ in the end of a word is always long ; as, μαρτνρ 

8. vq is long in monosyllables ; as, μνς. 

in nouns which have two terminations in the nomina- 
tive ; as, φορκυς, φορκυν. 

in nominatives which have νντος or ος pure in the gen- 
itive; as, δίικνϋς, δζικνυντος; οφρϋς, οφρύος. 

in κο)μνς, κωμν&ος ; and 

— in the last syllable of verbs in νμι\ as, εφϋς. 



§ 185, 186. prosody. 303 



§185. V. DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN THE INCREMENT 

OF NOUNS. 

809. — Rule VII. The quantity of the nominative remains in 
the oblique cases ; thus, Τιτάν, Tixavog ; χνημίς, κνημϊΰος. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. ϋρ in the nominative shortens the crement ; as, μαρτϋρ, μάρτυρος. 

2. A vowel, long by position, in the nominative, shortens the cre- 
ment in the oblique eases ; as, αυλαξ, αυλά/.ος. But nouns in α'ξ after 
a vowel have the crement long ; as, vtai-, νίάκος. 

Likewise -Θ-ωραξ, ίίραξ, χνωδαί, χορδαξ, λαβραξ, οίαξ, ραξ, συρφαξ, 
φιναΐ~, with many words in ί-ψ, ί-ττος, and ti, ι,γος or ικος ; to which add 
yony, γυιρ, and generally Βίβρυί, δ ο tool;, ορτυζ, σανδνξ. 

3. ος• pure in the genitive, from a long syllable in the nominative, 
varies the crement; as, δρυς, δρυός, or δρυός. 

4. The dative plural, after a syncope, has the penult short; as, 
πατράσι*, ανδράσν. 



§ 186. VI. DOUBTFUL VOWELS IN THE INFLECTION 
OF VERBS. 

The doubtful vowels, α, ι, υ, are short in verbs, unless it be other- 
wise specified in the Rules. 

810. — Rule VIII. a and ν before σα in participles, and al- 
ways before σι in verbs, are long;• as, τνιράσα, δεικννσα, τετν- 
φάσι, δεικννσι (§ 6, 18). 

FUTURE. 

811. — Rule IX. The future in ασω, ισω, νσω, from αω after 
a vowel, or from ραω, ιω, ι&ω, νω, lengthen the penult ; as, 

εαω, εάσω ; δραω, δράσω ; βρι&ω, βρίσω ; ίσχνω, ίσχνσω. 

But the future in ασω, ισω, νσω, from αζω, ιζω, νζω, shorter 
the penult ; as, 

αρπάζω, άρπάσω ; οπλίζω, οπλίσω ; κλνζω, κλνσω. 

812. — Rule Χ. Liquid verbs shorten the penult in the future ; 
as, κρίνω, κρίνω. 

813. — Rule XL The second future, in the passive voice, 
shortens the root-syllable ; as, τέμνω, τάμήσομαι ; φαίνω, φάνη- 
σομαι. 



304 peosody. § 187. 

THE OTHER TENSES. 

814. — Rule XII. The doubtful vowels have the same quan- 
tity in the tenses as in their roots ; thus, 

1 Root, γ.ρϊν, — κρίνω, έγ.ρϊνον, γ.ρϊνομαν, έκρΐνομην. 

2 Root. γ.ρϊν, — κεκρϊλα, ε/.ίΥ.ρΪΥ.α,ν, κρϊ&ησομαν, έγ.ρϊ&ην, κρϊνησομαι,, 

εκρϊνην, Y.f /.ρϊμαυ, έ/.ίλρϊμην. 

2 Root, τΰπ, — ετυπον, ετυπομην, τυπησομαί, ετΰπην. 

8 Root, τνττ, — τιτνπα, ετζτνπίΐν. 

Exc. 1. Liquid verbs in the future active and middle, as in Rule X. 

Exc. 2. The initial u and υ, in the augmented tenses and moods, are 
long ; as, 'ϊγ.ομαν, 'ϊκόμην. 

The quantity of a doubtful vowel in the root is ascertained as fol- 
lows: 

815. — I. Verbs in αω pure, or in ραω, too, ι&ω, and νω, have 
the final vowel of the first root long, unless followed by a vowel ; 
if followed by a vowel, it comes under Rule II. All others are 
usually short. 

8 1 6. — II. The final syllable of the second root is always short, 
unless made long by position. 

8 1 7. — III. The first root of liquid verbs is shortened in the 
future, 244-1. 

SPECIAL RULES FOR VERBS IN μΐ. 

8 1 8. — Rule XIII. The proper reduplication is short, unless 
made long by position ; as, τϊΰ-ημι. The improper reduplication 
is common ; as, c ϊημι or 'ϊημι. 

819. — Rule XIV. «, not before σα or σι, is every where 
short ; as, ιστάμεν, Ιστάτε. 

820. — Rule XV. υ is long in polysyllables, only in the sin- 
gular of the indicative active ; every where else it is short ; as, 
δεικνϋμι, δείκνυα ι, δεικνϋτω, δειν,ννμαι, &c. 

821. — In dissyllables, it is every where long; .as, δϋμι, δϋτον, δϋ- 
μαο, ώα 

§187. VII. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. 

822. — Rule XVI. Derivatives follow the quantity of their 
primitives ; and compounds, that of the simple words of which 
they are composed ; as, 

τϊμη — άτιμος, ομότιμος, Τϊμανο)ρ, ώα 

λαός — Λάομεδον, Μίνίλαος, ώα 

λνο), λϋσο) — Λύσανδρος, λϋσνγ.ακος, ώα 

οναξ, ονα/.ος — οιάγ.οστ ροφός, ονάγ.ονομος, ώα 

πυρ — πϋρανστης, πυρφόρος, ώα 

υΐς or ρϊν — ρΐνηλατίω, πολλνρϊνος, ώα 



§ 188, 189. prosody. 305 

823. — Rule XVII. a privative before two short syllables, ia 
frequently long ; as, ακάματος. 

824 — Also σύν in composition is sometimes long ; as, σϋννημι>. 



§188. VIE. DIALECTS. 

ATTIC. 

825. —Rule XVIII. The Attics lengthen a in the accusative 
of nouns in εν ς ; as, βασιλεύς, ace. βασιλέα, contrary to Rule V. 

Also, t instead of a, ε , ο ; as, ταυτΐ for ταύτα ; όδϊ for 6δε. 
The Paragogic υ in pronouns (the dative plural excepted), and in 
adverbs, is long ; as, ουτοσΐ, νννϊ, Dat. pi. τοντοισϊ. 

826. — IONIC. 

1. The Comparative in ιον shortens the neuter ; the Attics lengthen 
it; as, χαλλϊον, Ι. γ.αλλΐον, A. 

2. In adjectives of time, ι is long; as, 6πο)ρΐνος. 

3. In verbs, the Ionic α, σν not following it, is short ; as, Ιάτα* for 
ηνται,. 

827. DORIC AND ^EOLIC. 

1. The Doric α is long ; the iEolic is short ; as, Αινεία, Doric for 
Αινείου; ιπποτα, iEolic for Ιππότης, &e. 



828.— §189. IX. POETIC LICENSE. 

1. The last syllable of a verse is common, except in Iambic, Trochaic, 
Anapaestic, and Greater Ionic. 

2. The Σνζενξίς unites two syllables into one ; as, 

-J ι J l 

Χρυσεο) ara σχηπτρω -/.αν ΐλυσσετο παντας A/atovq, 
Ή λα&ετ η ονχ ενοησεν άασατο δε μέγα &νμο), 

Ή με χελεαι, σ/εδιη περααν μέγα λαιτμα, θαλάσσης. 

3. The Arsis makes a short syllable in the end of a word long ; as, 

Αιοοίος τε μοι> εσσν φίλε r /.ιιρε δεινός τε, 

■ι Ά•λ> 1 λ J" :% I J 

J. r πους σ Λυτομεοοντα #οως ί,ενγννμεν α.νωγε. 

Nate 1. The Arsis means the elevation of the voice, which, in Hexa- 
meter verse, is always on the first syllable of a foot. 



306 prosody. § 190 

Note 2. A short syllable is sometimes, and but very rarely, length- 
ened at the end of a foot ; thus, 

, , ι • ι ι, ι 

Tt\ δ tTto μεν Γοργω βλοσυρο)7Τϊς εστεφανωτο. 

829 — Besides these deviations from the usual rules of quantity, 
the Poets sometimes varied the quantities of syllables, as follows ; 

I. They lengthened a syllable, 1. By doubling or inserting a conso- 
nant ; as, εδδενσε for ε δει,σε ; απτούς for απολυς. 2. By changing a 
vowel into a diphthong ; as, δευομαυ for δε ομαν. 3. By Metathesis ; as, 
ϊπρα&ον for επαρ&ον. 

II. They shortened a syllable, By rejecting one vowel of a diph- 
thong ; as, ίλον for είλον. 

III. They increased the number of syllables, 1. By resolving a diph- 
thong ; as, ά'ύτω for αυτω. 2. By inserting or adding a letter or sylla- 
ble; as, άασχετος for άσχετος; ήίλιος for ηλνος ; βντ^φο for βιψ 

IV. They lessened the number of syllables, 1. By aphseresis ; as, νερθε 
for ενερ&ε. 2. By syncope; as, εγρετο for εγενρετο. 3. By apocope 
and apostrophe ; as, δω for δυ)μα ; μνρϊ for μνρυα. 

Other varieties will be learned by practice. Many conjectures have 
been made with regard to the ancient orthography, and the principles 
of versification as depending upon it. But the best of them deserve 
the credit of ingenuity alone ; for, as they rest on no unquestionable 
authority, they are of little or no use. 



§ 190. FEET. 

830 — A foot, in metre, is composed of two or more syllables 
strictly regulated by time ; and is either simple or compound. Of the 
simple feet, four are of two, and eight are of three syllables. There 
are sixteen compound feet, each of four syllables. These varieties are 
as follows: 

831. — Simple feet of two Syllables. 



Pyrriehius w w 
Spondeus — — 
Iambus *~ ' — 
Troehseus — w 


S -εος. 
τνπτώ. 
λεγώ. 
σώμα. 


832. — Simple feet of three Syllables. 


Tribrachys w ■ w w 
Molossus — — — 


πόλεμος, 
εϋχώλη. 


Dactylus — ^ ^ 
Anapsestus w ^ — 
Bachius «— ' — — 
Antibachius — — w 
Amphibrachys — ' — •— ' 
Amphimacer — w — 


μάρτυρος. 

βάσϊλεϋς. 

επητης. 

δεϊχνϋμϊ. 

τϊ&ήμϊ. 

δεϊκνΰτώ. 



§ 191, 192. prosody. 307 

833. — Compound feet of four Syllables. 

Choriambus — —■' *-" — σώφρόσννή a trochee and an iambus. 

Antispastus *-* »-' αμάρτημα an iambus and a trochee. 

Ionic a majore -— - s ~' κοσμήτορα a spondee and a pyrrich. 

Ionic a minore w ^ πλ•<οι•ί/.της a pyrrich and a spondee. 

First Paeon — v_ ^ s^ αστρολόγος a trochee and a pyrrich. 

Second ^ — ww< άν«|<ο,• an iambus and a pyrrieh. 

Third w v_. — w άνάόημά a pyrrich and a trochee. 

Fourth w v_^ w^ — ΰίόγενής a pyrrich and an iambus. 

First Epitrite -^ αμαρτωλή an iambus and a spondee. 

Second — +-* άνδρόφδντής a trochee and a spondee. 

Third — ' — ενρϊσ&ϊνης a spondee and an iambus. 

Fourth *--' λώβήτήρά a spondee and a trochee. 

Proceleusmaticus *•— ' ^ w <-* πόλεμίδς two pyrrichs. 

Dispondeus σΓτ&η'/ίΰσώ two spondees. 

Diiambus >— ' — *-* — επιστάτης two iambi. 

Ditrochseus — ^ — ^ δυστύχημα two trochees. 



191. OF METRE. 



834 — Metre, in its general sense, means an arrangement of syllable* 
and feet in verse, according to certain rules ; and in this sense applies, 
not only to an entire verse, but to a part of a verse, or to any number 
of verses. Λ metre, in a specific sense, means a combination of two feet 
(sometimes called a syzygy), and sometimes one foot only. 

835 — Note. The distinction between rhythm and metre is this: — 
the former refers to the time only, in regard to which, two short sylla- 
bles are equivalent to one long ; the latter refers both to the time and 
the order of the syllables. The rhythm of an anapaest and dactyl is the 
same ; the metre different. The term rhythm, however, is also under- 
stood in a more comprehensive sense, and is applied to the harmonious 
construction and enunciation of feet and words in connection ; thus, a 
line has rhythm when it contains any number of metres of equal time, 
without regard to their order. Metre requires, α certain number of 
metres, and these arranged in a certain order. Thus, in this line, 
"Αρχετε, Σνγ.ελι,γ.αι, τω πέν&εος άρχετε Μοΐσαι>. 

there is both rhythm, as it contains six metres of equal value in respect 
of time ; and metre, as these metres are arranged according to the canon 
for Hexameter heroic verse, which requires a dactyl in the 5th, and a 
spondee in the 6th place. Change the order thus, 

"Αρχετε, Μοΐσαι, Συν.ελν/.αΙ, τω πέν&εος άρχετε. 

and the rhythm remains as perfect as before, but the metre is de- 
stroyed ; it is no longer a Hexameter heroic line. 



§ 192. THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. 
836. — 1. Metre, in the general sense, is divided into nine species: 

1. Iambic. 4. Dactylic. 1. Ionic a majore. 

2. Trochaic. 5. Choriambic. 8. Ionic a minore. 

3. Anapaestic. 6. Antispastic 9. Paeonic or Cretia 



308 pkosody. §192. 

These names are derived from the feet which prevail in them. 
Each species was originally composed of those feet only, from which it 
is named ; but others, equal in time, were afterwards admitted under 
certain restrictions. 

It often happens that two species, totally dissimilar, are united in the 
same verse, which is then termed Asynartetes. When the irregularity 
is great, and it cannot be reduced to any regular form, it is called Poly- 
schematistic or anomalous. 

837. — Note. The invention or frequent use of any species of metre 
by a particular poet, or its being used in some particular civil or reli- 
gious ceremony, or appropriated to some particular subject or sentiment, 
has been the occasion of certain kinds of verse receiving other names 
than those specified above. Thus, we have the Asclepiadean, Glyco 
nian, Alcaic, Sapphic, and others ; named from the poets, Asclepiades, 
Glycon, Alcceus, Sappho, Phalcecus, Sotades, Archilochus, Alcman, 
Pherecrates, Anacreon, Aristophanes, cfec. So also the Prosodiacus 
(from πρόσοδος), so called from being used in the approach to the altars 
on solemn festivals ; and the Parcemiacus, a kind of verse much used in 
the writing of proverbs (παοοϊμίαή. 

838 — In the iambic, trochaic, and anapaestic verse, a metre con- 
sists of two feet ; in the others, of one only. 

839 — 2. A verse or metre is farther characterized by the number 
of metres (in the specific meaning of the term) which it contains, as 
follows : 

A verse containing one Metre is called Monometer. 
two Metres Dimeter. 

three Metres Trimeter 

four Metres Tetrameter. 

five Metres Pentameter. 

six Metres Hexameter. 

seven Metres Heptameter. 

840 — 3. A verse may be complete, having precisely the number 
of metres which the canon requires ; or it may be deficient in the last 
metre ; or it may be redundant. To express this, a verse is further 
characterized as follows : viz. 

1. Acataleotic, when complete. 

~ ( Catalectic, if wanting one syllable. 

\ Brachycatalectic, if wanting two syllables or one whole foot. 
3. Hypercatalectic, when there is one or two syllables at the end, 
more than the verse requires ; thus, 

χη λίών δράκοντας ως. JEsch. Lept. Theb. 

is denominated " trochaic dimeter catalectic ;" the first term referring 
to the species, the second to the number of metres, and the third to the 
apothesis or ending. 

841. — Note. The two last terms, viz. that designating the number 
of metres, and that which refers to the ending, are sometimes reduced 
to one ; thus, when a verse of a given species consists of two feet and 
a half, it is called Penthemimer ; of three and a half, Hephthemimer (five 
half feet, seven half feet) ; and when it consists of one metre and a 
half, it is called Hemiholius. 



§ 193, 101, 195. pkosody. 309 

842 The respective situation of each foot in a verse is called ita 

place (scdes). 

The rules or canons of the different kinds of metre are briefly aa 
follows. 



§ 193. I. IAMBIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, 1. 

843 — A pure iambic verse consists only of iambuses. 

A mixed iambic verse admits in the first, third, and fifth place, an 
iambus or a spondee. 

In the second, fourth, and sixth, an iambus only. 

Variation 1. The iambus in the odd places may be resolved into a 
tribrach ; the spondee, into a dactyl or an anapaest. 

Variation 2. The iambus in the even places (except the last), may 
be resolved into a tribrach. An anapaest is substituted for it in the 
case of a proper name only. 

Observe, however, 1st. that a dactyl should be avoided in the fifth 
place ; and, 2d. that resolved feet should not concur. 

Of this verse there are all varieties of length, monometers, dimeters, 
trimeters (called also senarian, each line having six feet), and tetra- 
meters. 



§ 194. II. TROCHAIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, Π. 

844. — A pure trochaic verse consists of trochees only. 

A mixed trochaic verse admits in the odd places, a trochee only ; in 
the even places, a trochee or a spondee. 

The trochee may, in any place, be resolved into a tribrach, and the 
spondee into a dactyl or anapcest. 

A dactyl, in the odd places, occurs only in the case of a proper name. 

Trochaic verses are mostly catalectic. A system of them generally 
consists of catalectic tetrameters ; sometimes of dimeters, catalectic and 
acatalectic intermixed. 

In tetrameters, the second metre should always end a word. 



§195.111. ANAPAESTIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, III. 

845. — An anapaestic verse, without any restriction of places, admits 
either an anapaest, spondee, or dactyl. 

Exc. 1. The dimeter catalectic, called paraemiacus, requires an ana- 
paest in the last place but one ; and is incorrect when a spondee is found 
there. 

Exc. 2. In some instances the proper foot is resolved into the proce- 
leusmatic. 

Anapaestic verses are sometimes intermixed with other species, but 
are oftener in a detached system by themselves. 

846. — A system is chiefly composed of dimeters under the following 
circumstances : 

1. When each foot, or at least each metre (syzygy), ends a word. 
14* 



810 prosody. § 196, 197. 

2. When the last verse but one of the system is monometer acata- 
lectic, and the last, dimeter catalectic, with an anapaest in the second 
metre. 

In a system, this peculiar property is to be observed, that the last 
syllable of each verse is not common (as in other species), but has its 
quantity subject to the same restrictions as if the foot to which it be- 
longs occurred in any other place of the verse. 

847 — A series, therefore, of anapaestic verses, consisting of one or 
more sentences, is to be constructed as if each sentence was only a single 
verse. 

848. — Note. The monometer acatalectic is called an anapcestic base. 
This is sometimes dispensed with in a system ; in the parcemiacus, rarely 

849. — To this metre belong the Aristophanic, being catalectic tetra- 
meters ; and the proceleusmatic, consisting of feet isochronal to an ana- 
paest, and, for the most part, ending with it. 



§ 196. IV. DACTYLIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, IV. 

850. — A dactylic verse is composed solely of dactyls and spondees. 
In this species one foot constitutes a metre. 

The common heroic is hexameter acatalectic, having a dactyl in the 
fifth place and a spondee in the sixth. 

Sometimes in a solemn, majestic, or mournful description, a spondee 
takes the place of the dactyl in the fifth foot; from which circumstance 
such lines are called spondaic. 

85 1 — The elegiac pentameter consists of five feet. The first and 
second may be either a dactyl or a spondee at pleasure ; the third must 
always be a spondee ; the fourth and fifth anapaests. 

852. — Though a heroic verse is confined to a smaller number of ad- 
missible feet than an iambic verse, several licenses are allowed which 
are not used in the latter. 

The most considerable of these are : 

1. The lengthening of a short final syllable in certain cases, viz. at 
the caesural pause, and where its emphasis is increased by its beginning 
a foot. 

2. The hiatus, or the concurrence of two vowels, in contiguous words. 
853. — That irregular sort of dactylics which Hephsestion calls 

JEolics, admits, in the first metre, any foot of two syllables ; the rest 
must be all dactyls, except where the verse is catalectic, and then the 
catalectic part must be part of a dactyl. 

854. — A second sort of dactylics, called by the same author Zogace- 
dics, requires a trochaic syzygy at the end, all the other feet being dactyls. 



§ 197. V. CHORIAMBIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, V. 

855 — The construction of an ordinary choriambic verse is very 
simple. Each metre, except the last, is a choriambus, and the last may 
be an iambic syzygy, entire or catalectic. 

856 The iambic syzygy (two iambie feet) is sometimes found at 



§ 198, 199. prosody. 311 

the beginning, and, in long verses, in other places ; but this happens 
less frequently. 

857 If any other foot of four syllables is joined with a choriambus, 

the verse is then more properly called epichoriambic. Of this there is 
a very great variety, and they sometimes end with an amphibrach, 
sometimes with a bachius. 



§198. VI. ANTISPASTIC METRE. Scheme, §204, VI. 

858 An antispastic verse, in its most usual and correct form, is 

constructed as follows : 

In the first place, beside the proper foot, is admitted any foot of four 
syllables ending like an antispastus in the last two syllables ; i. e. either 

In the intermediate places, only an antispastus. 

In the last, an iambic syzygy, complete or catalectic, or an incom- 
plete antispastus. 

There is scarcely any limit to the varieties in this species. 
859 — The following are the must usual: 

1. Id short verses, the proper foot frequently vanishes, and the verse 
consists of one of the above-mentioned feet and an iambic syzygy. 

2. All the epitrites, except the second, are occasionally substituted 
in the several places in the verse, particularly the fourth epitrite in the 
second. 

3. If an antispastus begins the verse, and three syllables remain, 
whatever those syllables are, the verse is antispastic; because they 
may be considered as a portion of some of the admissible feet,' or of 
some of them resolved. 

4. In long verses, an iambic syzygy sometimes occurs in the second 
place, and then the third place admits the same varieties as the first. 

An antispastus, with an additional syllable, is called Dochmiac. 
An antispastus, followed by an iambic syzygy, is called Glyconian. 
Two antispasti, with an iambic syzygy, is called Asclepiadean. 
Antispastic dimeter catalectic, is called Pherecratian. 



§ 199. VR IONIC METRE A MAJOHE. Scheme, § 204, VIL 

860. — An Ionic verse admits a trochaic syzygy promiscuously with 
its proper foot. The verse never ends with the proper foot complete, 
but either with the trochaic syzygy or the proper foot incomplete. The 
varieties of this metre are numerous, among which observe the follow- 
ing: 

Var. 1. The second pceon is sometimes found in the^rsi place. 

Var. 2. A molossus ( ) in an even intermediate place, with a 

trochaic syzygy following. 

Var. 3. The second ρωοη is occasionally joined to a second or third 
epitrite, so that the two feet together are equal in time to two Ionic 
feet. , This is called an "Άνάχλασυς ; the defect in time of the preceding 
foot being, in this case, supplied by the redundant time of the subse- 
quent ; and the verse so disposed is called Άνακλώμίνος. 



812 prosody. § 200, 201, 202. 

Var. 4. Resolutions of the long syllable into two short "ones, are 
allowed in all possible varieties. 

86 1 — If the three remaining paeons, or the second paeon in any place 
but the first, without an *Ανάκλασι,ς : or, 

If an iambic syzygy or third epitrite — a choriambus, or any of the 
discordant feet of four syllables, be found in the same verse with an 
Ionic foot, the verse is then termed JEpi-ionic. 



§ 200. VIII. IONIC METRE A MINORE. Scheme, § 204, 

VIII. 

862 — An Ionic verse a minore is often entirely composed of its own 
proper feet. It admits, however, an iambic syzygy promiscuously, and 
begins sometimes with the third pceon followed by one of the epitrites 
for an ^Λνακλασις. 

863 — A molossus sometimes occurs in the beginning of the verse, 
and also in the odd places, with an iambic syzygy preceding. 

864 — In the intermediate places a second or third pseon is prefixed 
to a second epitrite ; and this construction is called Ανάκλαση as before. 

Resolutions of the long syllables are allowed in this, as in the other 
Ionic metre. 

865. — An Epionic verse a minore is constructed by intermixing with 
the Ionic foot a double trochee, second epitrite, or pseon without an Άνά- 
λλασι^ς. 

PROSODIAC VERSE. 

866. — When a choriambus precedes or follows an Ionic foot of either 
kind, the name Epionic is suppressed, and the verse called Prosodiacus. 
/ ud, in general, 

This name is applied to a verse consisting of an alternate mixture 
of choriambic and Ionic feet, or of their respective representatives. 

Ν. B. The two species of Ionic are not to be intermixed in the same 
verse. 



§201. IX. P^EONIC METRE. Scheme, § 204, IX. 

867 — A pseonic verse requires all the admissible feet to have the 
same rhythm with its proper foot ; i. e. to consist of five times, or be 
equal to five short syllables. 

The first and fourth pseons are mostly used, but not in the same verse. 

The construction of this verse is most perfect when each metre enda 
with the several words of the verse, as was before remarked of the ana- 
paestic metre. 

To this head may be referred those verses which are called by some 
authors Bacchiac and Cretic verses. 



§ 202. THE (LESURAL PAUSE. 

868. — Besides the division of the verse into metres and feet, there 
is another division, into two parts only, owing to the natural intermis- 



§ 20ο, 204. prosody. 313 

βίοη of the voice in reading it, and relevant to the rhythmical effect. 
This is called the γ -ause, which necessarily ends with α word ; and its 
distance from the beginning is generally, though not invariably, deter- 
mined by the length of the verse. 

869 — Heroic verses and trimeter iambics are esteemed most har- 
monious when the pause falls upon the first syllable of the third foot. 
This is the pent hem imeral caesura. "When it falls upon the first syllable 
of the fourth, it is called the hephthemimeral. In iambic and trochaic 
tetrameters, its place is at the end of the second metre. These rules are 
more observed by the Roman than by the Greek poets. In anapaestic 
verse, and paeonic, no place is assigned to the pause ; because, since the 
metres (if rightly constructed) end with a word, the effect of a pause 
will be produced at the end of each metre. The same may be observed 
of the Ionic a minore. 



§ 203. COMPOUND METRES. 

870 — Besides the preceding nine species of meti-e, the compositions 
and modifications of these are very numerous. Of these, observe the 
following : 

1. A long syllable is sometimes inserted between the parts of a verse 
consisting of similar metres. 

2. In some species, the portions of an admissible foot of four sylla- 
bles are separated by the intermediate metres. 

3. It happens not unfrequently that two species, totally dissimilar, 
are united in the same verse ; which is then denominated Asynartetes ; 

1. Dactylic Tetram. -f- Troch. Hemiholius. 

2. Iambic Penth. -j- Troch. Hemiholius. 

3. Dactylic Dim. -f- Troch. Monom. or Logasedic. 

4. Iambic syzygy -j- Troch. Syzygy, and vice versa. 
This last is called Periodicus. 

4. When a verse is so irregular as to contain in it some glaring vio- 
lation of the preceding rules, it is called Polyschematistic or anomalous ; 
thus, 

871 — To this title may be referred, 

1. A verse otherwise iambic, having a spondee in the second or 
fourth place. 

2. An iambus in a trochaic verse, ike. &c. 

These rules are exemplified in the following tables. 



§ 204. METRICAL TABLES. 

872 — The following tables exhibit a scheme of the different feet 
allowed in each kind of metre, and the place which they occupy. In 
the tables the following abbreviations occur ; viz., A. C. for Acatalec- 
tic ; C. for Catalectic ; B. C. for Brachycatalectic ; H. C. for Hypercata- 
lectic ; and P. N. for Proper Name. 840. In Iambic, Trochaic, and 
Anapaestic verse, each metre consists of two feet, and is followed by a 
double line. 



314 



PROSODY. 



§204 



873.— I. IAMBIC METRE. §193. 
1. Monometer Base. 2. Dimeter Acatalectic. 



1. 


2. 


1 


i. 


2. 


; 3. 


4 


<—• — 


s-x 


v— ' 


w — 


! ^ ~ 


w — 













' 




— V^ V»» 










— w w 




V— ' — 




1 


w — ' 




| w s_/ 





3. Trimeter Acatalectic. 



1. 2. 3. 4 5. Λ_ 



P.N 



874.— II. TROCHAIC METRE. §194. 

Explanation of the Scheme. 

In this verse, each metre is alike. If from the trimeter scheme 
exhibited below, the first and the second metre be taken away, the 
remainder will be a scheme of the Monometer, which is always hyper- 
catalectic or acatalectic. If the first be taken away, the remainder 
will be a scheme of the dimeter ; and if a metre be prefixed, it will be a 
scheme of the tetrameter, which is always catalectic. 

Trimeter Acatalectic. 



, 1. 2. Μ 3. j 4 5. 6. 



875.— III. ANAPAESTIC METRE. §195. 

Explanation of the Scheme. 

This scheme is dimeter. The removal of the first motre leaves it 
Monometer (which is called an anapaestic base) ; by prefixing one 
metre, it becomes trimeter ; and by prefixing two it becomes tetra- 
meter, which is always catalectic. A catalectic dimeter is also called 
Parmniac. 



204. prosody. 315 

1. Dimeter Acatalectic. 2. Parcemaic or Dim. Cat. 



i- 


2. 


3. 


4. 


j 


1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


~ 33 


--- 


z 33 


Zww 






WW 
















876.— IV. DACTYLIC METRE. §196. 
1. Dimeter. 2. Trimeter. 



1. 


2. 


-~- 


— WW 


— 1 


— 


_ w w 


! 



α. α 

H.C. 

Adonic. 



1. 2. 


3. 


_ ww - w w 


rr~} 






— -- 


I 



α α 

Η. C, 





'ό. Tetrameter. 




I i• 


2. 3. 


4 









! 


III 


-WW "WW 


-WW 



JSOLIC. 



4. Pentameter. 



1. 


2. 


3. | 4. 


5. ! 


1 1 ) ) 1 
1 1)1) 






■ 




1 




— WW 


_^ w 


} — *- 


w w _ 



A. C. 
JLolic. 

ELEGIAa 



5. Hexameter. 



1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 



ΪΓ }> 



pure. 

impure. 

Heroic. 



316 



PKOSODY. 



§204 



Logacedics. 

called also Choriambic Dimeter Catalectic. 

— ^ — ^ I Alcaic (the most common). 

— w w |-v^ V |-v-v j-Logasedics only 



877.— V. CHORIAMBIC METRE. 8197. 



M. I. 



II. 



Trimeter. 
III. 



:i 



Cat. 

pure acatalectic seldom occurs. 

impure do. in which also other 
feet are intermixed, as the 
Pseons and Epitrites. 

Monometer is the same as Dact. Dim. Dimeter removes the first 
Metre. Tetrameter prefixes a metre, and is always Catalectic. 

878.— VI. ANTISPASTIC METRE. §198. 

An Antispastic Metre. 
Iambus. Trochee. 

— *-> In the varieties of this verse, any of the simple 
www feet under the Iambus may precede any of those 

under the Trochee. Dimeters, Trimeters, and 

<_, w — Tetrameters, are formed as directed § 198, and 

are catalectic, acatalectic, and hypercatalectic. 

The Dochmiac dimeter and trimeter is formed 

^ — by repeating the Dochmiac monometer. The 

~~ "-' Dochmiac also sometimes precedes, and some 

— ww times follows, the Antispastus. 



pure 



Metres. I. 



::!- 



II. 



A.ny form of 
an Antispas 
tic metre, 



xof) 
)as- > 

• ) 



Antispastic Varieties. 

Cat. is called Pherecratic 

A. C. is called Grlyconic. 

H. C. is called Sapphic. 

A. C. is called Grlyconic Polyschematistic. 



§204 



PROSODY. 



317 



879.— VII. IONIC METRE, a majore, § 199. 

Trimeter. 
Metres I. II. III. 

'^- ~ - - 1 — ~ ~l — Cat 

pure-! — *•* — "-^Jj^" ~~ ~~ I "~ w "" "** 

ι as above and 



as above. 



A. C. 



all the pseons. 
Pimeter may be formed by joining L and ΠΙ. 

VARIETIES OF THE IONIC A MAJORE. 

Ϊ3^Ι 3-^w( w — w Aloaio. 
Ionic a majore tetrameter B. C. is called Sotadic. 



>■ Pkosodiacus. 



880.— Vin. IONIC METRE, a minore, §200. 
Dimeter. Tetrameter. 

Metres I. is formed by joining a Dim. Cat. to 






C. 






a Dim. A. C. A Molossus ( ) 

in the odd places must always be 
preceded by an iambic syzygy. 



The Ionic a minore, preceded or followed by a choriambus, is an- 
other form of Prosodiacus. For the Epi -Ionic, see § 199. 

881.— IX. PHONIC OR.CRETIC METRE, §201. 
A Pceonic metre. Dimeter, Trimeter, and Tetrameter, 

— w «_/ w — . are formed by a repetition of the metre ; a reso- 

*"' ~~ ^ w or """ lution of — into ^ w is common. 



§ 205. SCANNING. 

882. — To those who are accustomed to the scanning of the Latin 
poets, the ordinary hexameter and regular systems of the Greek poets 
will present no difficulty. After a little exercise in these, the best 
praxis is furnished by the Choruses in the Dramatic writers, and the 
odes of Pindar ; as almost every line furnishes a different kind of verse. 



818 accents. § 206. 

and the student is compelled to make himself thoroughly acquainted 
both with the rules of quantity and of metre in order to discover it. 

883 — In scanning, for example, the Proodus in the Medea of Euri- 
pides, beginning at the 181st line, after ascertaining the quantity of 
each syllable, and comparing the whole line with the preceding tables, 
they will be as follows : 



131 


Anapaestic 


Dim. 


Ac. 


132 


Dactylic 


Trim. 


a 


133 


Anapaestic 


Dim. 


" 


134 


Dactylic 


Trim. 


H. C. 


135 


Paeonic 


Dim. 


Ac. 


136 


Antispastie 


" 


" 


137 


Dactylic 


" 


" pu 


138 


Antispastie 


« 


c< 



884 — Proceeding in the same way with the second Olympic ode of 
Pindar, it will be as follows : 

1. Periodicus, or circulating dimeter. 

2. Ionic Dimeter Catalectic. 

3. Paeonic Dimeter Hypercatalectic. 

4. Choriambic Dimeter Catalectic. 

5. Iambic Dimeter Brachycatalectic. 

6. Dochmiac — and so on of the others. 

885 — Note. In the choruses of the dramatic writers, and the odes 
of Pindar, each line of the antistrophe is the same kind of verse, and 
often, though not always, the order of syllables is the same, with the 
corresponding line of the preceding strophe. 



§ 206. ACCENTS. 

886 — In the proper modulation of speech, it is necessary that one 
syllable in every word should be distinguished by a tone or elevation 
of the voice. On this syllable, the accent is marked in the Greek lan- 
guage. The elevation of voice does not lengthen the time of the sylla- 
ble ; so that accent and quantity are considered by the best critics as 
perfectly distinct, but by no means inconsistent with each other. These 
can be of no use to us now, as far as regards the pronunciation of the 
language, however useful in this respect tht y may have been to those 
by whom it was spoken. Still, however, the study of these is useful, 
as they serve to distinguish between words which are spelled alike, but 
have different significations. This difference was doubtless marked in . 
the language as originally spoken by a different intonation, which, by 
the different marks called accents, it was intended to convey to the eye. 
Thus, in English, the words des'ert, and desert', though spelled with 
the same letters, differ both in sound and meaning ; and this is marked 
by the accent. So in Greek, ομο)ς and όμως, spelled with the same let- 
ters, differ in meaning ; and the difference of the accent would doubt- 
less lead the Greek to express this by a difference of tone which is now 
lost. Scapula has given a list of more than four hundred words which 



§206. accents. • 319 

are thus distinguished. The accents also indicate, in many cases, the 
quantity of one or more syllables of a word. 

887. — The accents in form are three : the acute (' ), grave ( x ), and 
circumflex ( ~ ). lBtrictly speaking, however, there is in reality but one V 
accent, the acutcj-which. is placed over a vowel to mark the emphatic 
syllable. When the accent is marked on a diphthong, it is placed, over 
tne subjunctive vowel; as, βασι,λεύς. 

888. — The accent is placed over one of he last three syllables 
only, and words are denominated accordingly, 

Oxytons, when accented on the final syllable ; as, ΰεός. 
Par oxytons, when accented on the penult ; as, άν&οώπον. 
Proparoxytons, when accented on the antepenult; as, άν- 
θρωπος. 

889 — -The two last are called barytons, because the final syllable l/ 
is not accented, for every syllable not accented is called grave (βαρύς): 
but the grave accent is never marked, as such, upon a syllable. 

890 — In the structure of a sentence, when any oxyton is followed 
by another word in continued discourse, the grave is used instead of 
the acute ; as, &e ός ημών : but the word is still considered an oxyton. 



891 — When two syllables, the first of which is accented, are con- 
tracted into one, the circumflex is used to denote that an acute or ac- 
cented syllable, and a % grave or unaccented, are united ; thus, φολέο), as 
if, φΰέώ, ψίλώ; φολέοψί, as if φιλΐοιμν, φυλοϊμι*. Hence, if there be no 
accent on the first of the syllables to be contracted, there will be no 
circumflex on the contraction ; thus, φώεοίμην, φνλοίμην. But w con- 
tracted for όα in the accusative singular of nouns in ώ has not the 
circumflex. 

892. — It is evident, also, that as the accent must be upon one 
of the last three syllables, the circumflex must be upon one of the 
last two ; and words are denominated accordingly, 

Penspomenons, when the last syllable is circumflexed ; as, 

φιλώ for φιλεω. 
Properispomenons, when the penult is circumflexed ; as, cpdov- 

μεν for φιλεομεν. 

#93 — Ν. Β. Of many words, both the uncontracted and contracted 
forms are in use ; but of others, the contracted form only remains, and 
we must conjecture from analogy what the uncontracted was; as, 
ϊαοχον, ήοχον, ϊον, ουν. This reasoning from analogy, however, pro- 
ceeds on the assumption that all syllables having the circumflex, were 
originally two, now united by contraction. Whether this was so oi 
not, cannot be satisfactorily ascertained; nor, if it could, would the 
knowledge be of much value, as the rules for the accentuation of words 
would still continue the same. 



y 



320 accents. § 207 



§ 201. PLACE OF THE ACCENT IN THE NOMINATIVE. 

894. — No rule can be given for ascertaining the proper place 
of the accent in the nominative of nouns and adjectives ; this 
is best learned from practice, and the use of a good Lexicon. 
The following observations, however, may be of use : 

1. The articles, pronouns, and prepositions, have the place of 
the accent marked in their inflexions in the grammar. 

2. In ver'hs, it is thrown as far back as possible, except ειμί 
and φημί. 

3. The following have the accent on the last syllable, and are 
therefore oxytons ; viz., 

I All monosyllables which are not contracted; as, χειρ, ος. "When 
they have differed contraction, they take the circumflex ; as, yrj, 
(j/ect), φως (φάος). So also at, νυν, ούν, υς, δρΐις, μυς, ναϋς, ους, 
παις, πυρ, most or all of which are contractions. 2. All nouns in 
fi /ς ; as, βασιλεύς. 3. All verbals in τηρ ; as, χαρακτήρ. 4. Ver- 
bals in της ; as, μα&ητής ; but those from verbs in μι,, on the 
penult ; as, &έτης. 5. Verbals in. μη and μος (from the perfect 
passive); as γραμμή, σπασμός. 6. Verbals iu τος, from the 3d 
singular perfect passive ; as, ποθητός ; except some compounds ; as, 
άποδει>τός. 1. Verbals in η and a from the 2 perf. active; as, 
στολή, διαφορά. 8. Diminutives, patronymics, and other deriva- 
tive nouns in tq\ as, κεραμίς, βασιλίς. 9. Compounds of ποιίω, 
άγω, φέρο), ονρος, έργον; as, παιδαγωγός, διαφορά, πυλουρός, 6μβρι<- 
μοεργός (but παρά and περί throw back the accent ; as, περίεργος). 
10. Adjectives in ης not contracted; as, άλη&ής. _ 11. Compound 
adjectives in ης; as, "'ευφυής ; except compounds of ή&ος and άρκέο) ; 
as, κακοή&ης, ποδάρκης. 12. Adjectives in υς, εια, υ ; as, ηδύς, 
ηδεία, ηδύ. 13. Adjectives in ρος ; as, αισχρός. 14. Adjectives in 
ικος, from verbals in τος; as, ποιητικός from ποιητός. 15. The 
adverbial terminations ι and δον; as, ά&εεί, ομοθυμαδόν. 

895. — Accent on the Penult. 

4. The following have the accent on the penult ; viz., 

1. Diminutives in ισκος, ιλος, ιων; as, νεανίσκος, παιδίσκη, ναυτίλος, 
μο)ρίο)ν. 2. Nouns in fto^ denoting a place ; as, ΛυκεΧον, &c. 
3. Nouns in ννη ; as, δικαιοσύνη. 4. Nouns in ta, if derived from 
adjectives iu ος; as, φάία. If derived from substantives, the 
accent varies ; as, στρατιά from στρατός. 5. Nouns in εια derived 
from verbs in evo) ; as, βασιλεία from βασιλεύο). 6. Almost all 
nouns denoting national relation ; as, 'Ρωμαίος. '7. Verbals in 
το>ρ; as, ρήτωρ, κτήτωρ. 8. Adjectives in εις εσσα εν; as, χα- 
ρίεις. 9. Adjectives in ω δης ; as, λιϋ-ώδης. 10. Verbal adjectives 
ίηίος; as, γραπτίος. 11. Comparatives in υων ; as, βε λτίων. 12. 
Adverbs of quantity in ακί.ς ; as, τρισάκις, πολλάκις. 13. Adverbs 
in δην\ as, σνλλήβδτν. 



§ 208, 209. accents. 821 

896. — Composition. 

5. Compound words in many instances, especially in adverbs, 
retain the accent on the syllable where it stood in the simple ; 
as, αντόφι, ονρανό&εν. In the following cases, however, the ac- 
cent is drawn back to the antepenult ; viz., 

1. Words compounded of particles, ά, εν, δνς, δι, όμο, άρτι, 
αντί, περί, παρά, νπό, &c. ; as, άπιστος from πιστός, δίψνχος 
from ψνχή. 

2. Words compounded of two adjectives ; as, cpiloaocpog : of 
two substantives ; as, νανκληρος : of adjectives and substantives ; 
as, φιλόστοργος. 



§ 208. GENERAL RULES. 

897. — I. If the final syllable is long, the accent on the penult 
is the acute ; thus, άν&ρώπου, δονσα (dual), όψεως, Πηλεϊάδεω, 
τνπτω, τνπτέσΰω. 

Obs. The Attic terminations εων and εως, in the second and 
third declensions, and the Ionic εω in the first, are considered as 
forming one syllable ; as, άνώγεών, πόλεως. 

898. — II. If the final syllable be short, then 

1. In dissyllables, the accent on the penult, if short, is the 
acute ; as, τνπτε ; if long, with the final syllable short, the accent 
is the circumflex ; as, χείρα, δονσα (sing.). 

2. In polysyllables, the accent on the antepenult is the acute ; 
thus, άν&ρωπος, αν&ρωποι, τνπτομεν, τνπτομαι. 

Obs. 1. The diphthongs οι and αι final, and syllables long by 
position only, are considered short in accentuation ; thus, ανλαξ, 
αύλακος. 

Obs. 2. These rules apply to the inflections of nouns, and to 
all the parts of verbs except as in the following — 



§ 209. SPECIAL RULES. 

899. 1. IN THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

1. The flrst declension has the circumflex on the ultimate of 
the genitive plural ; thus, μουσών, from μονσα. 

Exc. The feminine of baryton adjectives in ος follows the 
first general rule; αγίων from άγιος (not άγιώι) ; ξένων from 
ξένος ; also, χρηστών, χλοννων, ετησίων. 



322 accents. §209, 

2. Oxytons of the first and second declensions, circum fleet the 
last syllable in the genitive and dative ; thus, τιμή, τιμής, τιμΐ[, 
τιμήν, τιμών ; καλός, κάλου ; καλοί, καλοΐς. 

3. In the third declension, the acute accent on the last sylla- 
ble of the nominative is transferred to the penult in the oblique 
cases ; thus, σωτήρ, σωτήρος, σωτήρων (Rule I.) ; πατήρ, πατέ* 
ρος ; τριάς, τριάδος. 

Exc. 1. The final syllable of vocatives in ευ and οι change the 
acute into the circumflex ; as, βασιλεύς, βασιλεν ; κλω&ώ, κλω&οΐ. 

Exc. 2. Μήτηρ and ΰυγάτηρ, though barytons, accent the pe- 
nult ; as, μητερος. 

Exc. 3. Genitives and datives of t vo syllables, have the cir- 
cumflex on the final syllable long, and the acute on the final syl- 
lable short ; as, μηνός, μηνί, μψοϊν, μψών, μησί, δυών, δυσί. But 
τις and participles follow the general rule ; as, τίνων, ΰέντος, 
ουσι ; also, δάδων, δμώων, &ώων, κράτων, παίδων, Τρωών, όν- 
των, φώτων (of lights), πάντων, πάσι. 

Also syncopated nouns and γυνή, except the dative plural ; 
as, πατρός, πατρών, πατρώσι ; γυναικός. 

Also, a short vowel of the genitive from a long vowel in the 
nominative, throws back the accent in the vocative ; thus, άνήρ, 
άνερος, άνερ ; ευδαίμων, ενδαίμονος, ευδαιμον. Except when 
the penult is long not by position ; as, Μαχάον, Σαρπήδον. 

900. — II. IN VERBS. 

Ί. Monosyllables, being long, are circumflected; as, ω, εις, 
(prjg, βή for εβη. 

2. A long syllable after the characteristic is circumflected, 
1st. In the active and middle voices, both in the future of liquid 

verbs ; and in the Attic future of all verbs. 

2d. In the passive voice, in the subjunctive of the aorists, and in 

the subjunctive of the present of verbs in μι ; thus, σπερώ, 

σπερεΐς, σπερεϊν, σπερών, σπεροϋμαι — τυπώ, τυποϋμεν, τυπ- 

οϊμι, τυπουμαι — τυφϋ~ώ — τυπής — τιΰώ — τι&ώμαι. 

Exc. Except when the last syllable ends in ψ ; as, τυπτοίτψ 

(see 1st General Rule). 

3. The third person of the optative in οι and ai has the acute 
accent on the penult ; as, τετνφοι, άρέσαι. 

Except in the futures mentioned in rule 2d. 

4. The imperatives ελ&ε', είπε, εύρε, ίδε, λαβε', have the acute 
accent on the final syllable. 

But the imperative circumflects the last syllable in the second 



§ 210, 211. accents. 323 

person singular in the second aorist middle ; thus, τύπου. Ex- 
cept ytvov, τράπου, ενεγχου. 

5. The infinitive of the second aorist active circumflects the 
final syllable ; thus, τνπεϊν, viz. as if contracted from τυπεμεναι, 
τυπεμεν, τνπεεν, τνπεϊν. 

The infinitive of the first aorist active — of the second aorist 
middle — of both aorists passive — of all the perfects — and of the 
active voice of verbs in μι, has the accent on the penult ; viz., 
the circumflex on the long penult, and the acute on the short ; 
thus, χρΐναι, ελάσαι, άχονσαι — τυπε'σ&αι — τνφ&ηναι, τυπψαι — 
τετυηειαι, τετνπεναι, τετνφ&αι, πεφιλήσ&α,ι — ιστάναι. 

6. The participles of the second aorist active, and of the pres- 
ent active of verbs in μι, and all ending in ω? or εις, have the 
acute accent on the final syllable ; thus, τυπών, ιστάς, διδούς, 
τετνφώς, τνφ&είς. 

The participles of the perfect passive have the acute accent 
on the penult ; as, τενυμμένος. 

Except 'when abbreviated; as, δεγμενος for δεδεγμενος. 

V. Ειμί, I am, and φημί, I say, have the acute accent on the 
final syllable of the indicative (except the second singular) ; thus, 
εστί, φασί. 

Obs. When εστί is emphatical, or forms the copula between 
the subject and its predicate, it throws back the accent ; thus, 
άν&ρωπος εστί ζώον, man is an animal ; εστί άν&ρωπος, — τι 
δ' εστί ; This is commonly, though improperly, classed under 
enclitics. 



§210. IN CONSTRUCTION. 

901. — Words accented on the last syllable, when that is lost 
by apostrophe, throw the accent back ; as, δεινά — δείν επη. 

Exc. 1. Λλλά and the prepositions are excepted, which lose 
their accent. 

Exc. 2. Prepositions placed after their cases (ανά and διά ex- 
cepted), throw back the accent ; thus, περί — ψυχής περί. 



§211. PROCLITICS OR ATONICS. 

902. — The following ten words, when written by themselves or be- 
fore another word, have no accent, but seem to rest upon and form, as 
it were, part of the word following; viz. the articles 6, η, οί, at; the 
prepositions iv, tiq (ες), ex. έζ ; the conjunctions ft, ως ; and the nega<- 
tive adverb ov (ούκ, ονχ). 



824 accents. § 212. 

But these words have the accent when it is thrown back upon them 
from an enclitic following; as, εϊγε; in the end of a sentence; as, πώς 
γαρ ου, why not ? after the word on which they rest ; as, ϋεός ως, like 
a god ; κακών εξ, hi consequence of evils. Also the article, used as a 
personal pronoun, often has the accent ; as, δ γαρ -ηλ&ε. 



§212. ENCLITICS. 

903. — Enclitics (from εγχλίνω) are so denominated, because, like the 
Latin que, they lean or rest their accent upon the preceding word as 
forming a part of it, and have no emphasis on themselves. They are, 

1. Μου, μεΰ, μοί, με, — σον, σεΰ, σοι, σε, — ου, οϊ, ε, — μίν, νίν, σφίν, — 
σψο)έ, σφέ, σφέας, σφίσι, σφέων, and the indefinite τις, in all cases and 
dialects. 

2. Ειμί and φημί in the indicative present, except in the second per- 
son singular. 

3. 11η, που, πω, πως, πο&έν, ποτέ, not interrogative 

4. Γε, τέ, κέ, κέν, νυν, περ, ρά, τοί. 

904. RULES. 

I. Enclitics throw back their accent on the last syllable of the pre- 
ceding word when its antepenult has the acute accent, or its penult, 
the circumflex ; as, αν&ρωπός εστί — ηλ&έ μοι, σώμα μου, ου τι. 

Note 1. In this case the acute accent is always used, though the 
enclitic may have a circumflex. 

Note 2. When the preceding word ends in a double consonant, and 
will not easily coalesce with the enclitic following, the accent remains 
unchanged ; as, όμηλιξ μου. 

II. Monosyllabic enclitics lose their accent when the preceding word 
has any accent on the final syllable, or the acute on the penult ; as, 
αγαπάς με, άνήρ τις, τνπτω σε. 

Dissyllabic enclitics lose their accent when the preceding word has 
an acute, or a circumflex (in this instance regarded as an acute) on the 
final syllable ; as, καλός εστίν, καλοΰ τίνος, for καλός εστίν, κα^.οΰ τινός. 
But they retain their accent when the penult has the acute ; as, λόγος 
τινός, λόγος εστίν. 

Obs. The principle of these rules is, that two successive syllables in 
the same word cannot be accented, and that a circum fleeted syllable is 
equivalent to one acuted followed by another unaccented. 

III. If several enclitics follow each other, the last only is without 
the accent, the accent of each being thrown back on the word which 
precedes it ; as, ει — ft τις τίνα φασί μοι. 

IV. The enclitic pronouns retain their accent after prepositions, and 
after ένεκα and η ; as, δια σε. 

V. All the enclitics retain their accent when they are emphatic, and 
when they begin a clause. 

VI. 'Εστί accents its first syllable when it begins a sentence or is em- 
phatical, or follows αλλ' , ει, ουκ, ώς, or τοΰτ ; as, ουκ εστι>. 



CATALOGUE OF TEXT-BOOKS 



SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES; 

INCLUDING- THE PRIMARY, ENGLISH, AND CLASSICAL Di. 

PARTMENT, NATURAL SCIENCE, GEOGRAPHY, 

MATHEMATICS, BOOKKEEPING, Ac. 

%* It will be noticed that most of these works were written by 

TEACHERS OF THE HIGHEST EMINENCE. 



Dr. Bullions' Series of Works comprise: 

Eetail price. 

Practical Lessons in English Grammar and Composition, $0 25 

Principles of English Grammar, 50 

Progressive Exercises in Analysis and Parsing, . , 15 

Introduction to Analytical Grammar, . . . . 30 

New, or Analytical and Practical English Grammar, . 63 
Latin Lessons, with Exercises in Parsing. By George 

Spencer, A. M., Half cloth, enlarged, 63 

Bullions' Principles of Latin Grammar, . . . . 1 00 
Bullions' Latin Reader. With an Introduction on the Idioms 

of the Latin Language. An improved Vocabulary, . . 1 00 

Bullions' Caesar's Commentaries, 1 00 

Bullions' Cicero's Orations. "With reference both to Bullions' 

and Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar, . . . 113 

Bullions' Sallust, . 1 00 

Bullions' Greek Lessons for Beginners, . . . . Τ 5 
Bullions' Principles of Greek Grammar, . . . .118 
Bullions' Greek Reader. With Introduction on the Idioms of 

the Greek Language, and Improved Lexicon, . . . 1 7 5 

Bullions' Latin Exercises, 1 25 



Dr. Bullions' Series of Works. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE SERIES. 

I.— Practical Lessons in English Grammar. 

This little book contains a brief synopsis of the leading prin- 
ciples of English Grammar, every part of which is illustrated by 
a great variety of exercises, of the simplest character, adapted to 
the capacity of pupils at an early age. New edition, revised and 
improved. 

II.— The Principles of English Grammar. 
This work is intended as a School Grammar, for the use of 
classes pursuing this branch of study in the common schools, or, 
of the junior classes in academies. It embraces all that is important 
on the subject, expressed with accuracy, brevity and simplicity, 
and is peculiarly adapted to the purposes of instruction in public 
schools. 

III.— Introduction to the Analytical and Practical Grammar. 

This edition has been prepared expressly to serve as an intro- 
duction to the " Analytical and Practical Grammar of the English 
Language." The definitions and rules are the same throughout as 
in that work, and are arranged in the same order. 

IV.— The Analytical and Practical English Grammar. 

This work, designed for the more advanced classes in schook 
and academies, is prepared on a more extended plan than the pre- 
ceding, though not essentially different from it. The arrangement 
(except in syntax), the definitions and rules, are the same, but with 
much greater fulness in the illustrations and exercises, intended to 
lead the student into a thorough and critical acquaintance with the 
structure and use of the English language. 

V.— Exercises in Analysis and Parsing. 

This little work consists of selections in prose and poetry from 
standard writers, so arranged as to furnish a convenient and pro- 
gressive course of exercises in Analysis and Parsing, in every 
variety of style, with such occasional references to the grammars 
as are deemed necessary to explain peculiar or difficult construc- 
tions. To this is prefixed directions for the analysis of sentences, 
and models both of analysis and parsing. 

VI.— The Principles of Latin Grammar. 

This work is upon the foundation of Adams' Latin Grammar, 
eo long and favorably known as a text-book, and combines with all 



Di\ Bullions' Scries of Works. 



that is excellent in that work many important corrections and im- 
provements, suggested by subsequent writers, or the result of the 
author's own reflection and observation, during many years, as a 
classical teacher. 

VII.— Jacob's Latin Header, with Latin Idioms. 

This work forms a sequel to the Grammar, and an introduction 
to the study of Latin classic authors. It begins with a series of 
simple and plain sentences, mostly selected from classic writers, to 
exemplify and illustrate the leading construction of the language, 
followed by Reading Lessons, of pure and simple Latin, chiefly 
narrative, by which the pupil, while he becomes familiar with the 
construction of the language, is also made acquainted with many 
of the most prominent characters and mythological fables of an- 
tiquity, as well as with the leading events of Eoman history. 
Throughout the work, references are constantly made, at the foot 
of the page, to the Grammar and Introduction, when necessary to 
explain the construction, or assist the pupil in his preparations. 

VIII.— First Lessons in Greek. 

This work is intended chiefly for those who begin the study of 
Greek at an early age ; and for this reason contains only the out- 
lines of Grammar, expressed in as clear and simple a manner as 
possible. It is complete in itself, being a Grammar, Exercises, 
Reading Book, and Lexicon, all in one ; so that the pupil, while 
studying this, needs no other book on the subject. The knowledge 
acquired by the study of this work will be an important prepara- 
tion to the young student for commencing the study of Greek 
Grammar with ease and advantage. 

IX.— The Principles of Greek Grammar. 

This work is intended to be a comprehensive manual of Greek 
Grammar, adapted to the use of the younger, as well as of the 
more advanced students in schools and colleges. Both in Ety- 
mology and Syntax, the leading principles of Greek Grammar are 
exhibited in definitions and rules, as few and as brief as possible, 
in order to be easily committed to memory, and so comprehensive 
as to be of general and easy application. This work is now more 
extensively used than any other of the kind in the country. 

X.— Greek Header, with Greek Idioms. 

This work, like the Latin Reader, is properly a sequel to the 
Greek Grammar, and an introduction to the study of the Greek 
classic authors. It seeks to accomplish its object in the same way 
as the Latin Reader. (See above, No. VII.) With these are con- 
nected 



Dr. Bullions' Series of WorMs. 



SPENCER'S LATIN" LESSONS, with exercises in parsing, intro- 
ductory to Bullions' Latin Grammar. 

In this series of books, the three Grammars, English, Latin, 
and Greek, are all on the same plan. The general arrangement, 
definitions, rules, &c, are the same, and expressed in the same 
language, as nearly as the nature of the case would admit. To 
those who study Latin and Greek, much time and labor, it is be- 
lieved, will be saved by this method, both to teacher and pupil. 
Tue analogy and peculiarities of the different languages being kept 
in view, will show what is common to all, or• peculiar to each ; the 
confusion and difficulty unnecessarily occasioned by the use of 
elementary works differing widely from each other in language and 
structure, will be avoided, and the progress of the student rendered 
much more rapid, easy, and satisfactory. 

No series of Grammars, having this object in view, has here- 
tofore been prepared, and the advantages which they offer cannot 
be obtained in an equal degree by the study of any other Grammars 
now in use. They form a complete course of elementary books, in 
which the substance of the latest and dest Grammars in each lan- 
guage has been compressed into a volume of convenient size, 
beautifully printed on superior paper, neatly and strongly bound, 
and are put at the lowest prices at which they can be afforded. 

The elementary works intended to follow the Grammars — 
namely, the Latin Reader and the Gi;eek Reader— are also on the 
same plan ; are prepared with special references to these works, 
and contain a course of elementary instruction so unique and 
simple, as to furnish great facilities to the student in these lan- 
guages. 

XI.— Csesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War. 

In this work the plan of the Latin Reader is carried on through- 
out. The same introduction on the Latin idioms is prefixed for 
convenience of reference, and the same mode of reference to the 
Grammar and introduction is continued. The Notes are neither 
too meagre nor too voluminous. They are intended not to do the 
work of the student for him, but to direct and assist him in doing 
it for himself. It is embellished with a beautiful Map of Gaul and 
several wood-cuts, representing the engines of war used by the 
Romans. 

XII.— Cicero's Select Orations. 

With Notes critical and explanatory; adapted to Bullions' 
Latin Grammar, and also to the Grammar of Andrews and Stod- 
dard. This selection contains the four orations against Catiline, 
the oration for the poet Archias, for Marcellus, for Q. Ligarius, for 
king Diotarus, for the Manilian law, and for Milo. The Notes are 



Dr. Bui/ions' Scries of Works. 



more extended than those in Caesar's Commentaries, especially in 
historical and archaeological notices, necessary to explain the allu- 
sions to persons and events in which the orations abound ; a know- 
ledge of which is indispensable to a proper understanding of the 
subject, and to enable the student to keep in view the train of ar- 
gument pursued. In other respects, the proper medium between 
too much and too little assistance has been studied, and constant 
reference made to the Grammar, for the explanation of common or 
difficult constructions. 

XIII.— Sallust's Catiline and Jugnrtha. 

On the same plan. The text of this edition of Sallust is that 
of C. G. Zumpt, as given in " Chambers' Educational Course." 
This series will be continued. 

XIV.— Latin Exercises. 

Adapted to Bullions' Latin Grammar. 

The publishers refer with great satisfaction to the distinguished 
names of some of the best instructors and educators of the present 
age, whose names are appended, who have long used some or all of 
Dr. Bullions' books, and who have recommended them either in 
whole or in part. 

NOTICES. 

" Bullions' books, by their superior arrangement and accuracy, 
their completeness as a series, and the references from one to the 
other, supply a want more perfectly than any other books have 
done. They bear the marks of the instructor as well as the 
scholar. It requires more than learning to make a good school- 
book." Professor C. S. Pennel, 

Antioch College, Ohio. 

Dr. Hott, LL D, Κ Υ. Δ. Η. Lackey, Pa. 

Rev. Dr. Potter, LL D, Pa. Pro£ P. M. Moore, El. 

Dr. Beck, LL. D., Κ Υ. J. Ε. Lattimer, Κ Η. 

Dr. Proudfit, LL. D., Κ Υ. Β. P. Aydelott, Ohio. 

Joseph Mckerson, Ν. H. W. G. Finney, Ohio. 

R. M. Brown, Κ Υ. S. McCorniick, Ohio. 

W. E. Pierce, Ohio. Benjamin Smith, JS". Y. 

H. E. Whipple, Mich. M. Clanchy, Pa. 

A. McDougall, Κ Υ D. G. Frazer, Κ Υ. 

Μ. P. Covert, Ή. Υ. W. S. Boyart, Florida. 

J. F. Cady, R. I. P. McMurray, Ohio. 

M. G. McKoon, Κ Υ Rev. Ζ. S. Barstow, Κ Η. 

J. W. Allen, Κ Υ. Μ. Carpenter, Κ Η. 

Β. Wilcox, Κ Υ. Thomas Leonard, Tenn. 

Salem Town, LL. D. John Kelley, Pa. 

W. W. Benjamin, Χ. Η A. Holmes, Κ Υ 



Dr. Bullions 1 Series of Works. 

Jas. E. Lattimer, N. H. E. J. Avery, Mass, 

John Trembly, Ohio. p ro f. H. Wheeler, Ind. 

F. Crafts, Mass. p r0 £ J. Towler, Ν". Y. 

C. Walker, Mass. • W. L. Nicholas, Ohio. 

A. Smyth, Ohio. . Rev. George Loomis, Del 
W. B. Bunnell, Κ Τ. J. R e id, R. I. 

R. D. Van Kleck, R. I. W. E. Todd, ]ST. H. 

Jas. J. Helm, Κ J. R. W. Finley, Mo. 

Jos. J. Fravelli, Pa. Robert Thomson, Κ Υ. 

R. Η. Bishop, Ohio. David Parsons, Ohio. 

B. C. Ward, Pa. Isaac Booth, Pa. 

O. H. Drummond, Ohio. J. A. Goodwin, ]ΝΓ. Y. 

Rev. J. McCanley, Va. 0. L• Leonard, Ky. 

Wm. M. Russell, Mass. E. C. Boyle, Ohio. 

D. Harris, N. J. Μ. H. Patten, Mo. 
J. P. W. Jenks, Mass. A. G Roe, Conn. 
A. M'ong, Pa. Lewis Bradley, Pa. 
Joel Whitney, Κ Υ. Charles A. Lord, Mo. 
Lewis Vail, Pa. Rev. A. A. Livermore, Κ Η. 
Ε. L. Hazeltine, D. D., S. C, Pliny Fisk, Ν. Υ. 

Ε. D. McMaster, Ohio. Lyman Harding, Ohio. 

L. Strong, 1ST. Y. Wm. Jones, Oregon. 
And others from all parts of the Union. 



From the Southern Repertory and College Review. 

" Bullions' Series of Grammars and Elementary Classics, through the 
kindness of the publishers, have been placed upon our table. Although 
we have been familiar with some of Bullions' books for years, we have 
not had until now the opportunity of examining the entire series of 
grammars. This examination we have made with much pleasure, which 
increased as we progressed. We think that these booka ought to be in- 
troduced into our primary schools, academies, and colleges forthwith, 
even to the exclusion of others, which were good ' in their day/ but 
which have got behind the times. Every teacher has experienced the 
inconvenience, and every student has felt the embarrassment, arising 
from a change of text-books from one author to another, on the same 
subject. True, principles may be ever the same; but each author has 
his own mode of expression and illustration — each has his plan. 

" In the series one uniform plan is pursued through the grammars 
of the English, Latin, and Greek languages. The young beginner who* 
masters the Practical Lessons in English Grammar, is not only prepared 
for the Analytical and Practical Grammar, and the still higher Exercises 
in Analysis and Parsing, but can take hold of the Latin and Greek 
Grammars, with a good knowledge beforehand of the plan to be pur- 
sued. We are for Bullions' books, as well as for some others, which we 
hope hereafter to notice, issued from the press of those excellent book- 
makers, Farmer, Brace <fc Co., late Pratt, Woodford & Co." 



Cooper's Virgil. 9 



I use Bullions' works — all of them — and consider them the best 
of the kind that have been issued in this or any other language. 
If they were universally used we would not have so many super- 
ficial scholars, and the study of the classics would be more likely 
to serve the end for which it was designed — the strengthening and 
adorning of the mind. J. B. Thompson, A. M., 

late Rector of the Somerville Classical Institute, N. J. 

Dr Bullions' English Grammars are introduced into the Public and 
many of the Private Schools, the Latin School, the English High School, 
the City Normal School, of the city of Boston ; Normal Schools 01 
Bridge-water and Westfield ; Marlborough Academy; cities of Salem 
Newburyport, &c , Mass. ; Portsmouth, and several academies in New 
Hampshire ; and re-adopted in Albany and Trey, New York. They are 
used in over seventy academies in New York, and in many of the most 
flourishing institutions in every State of rhe Union. 



Cooper's Virgil, with English Notes.— (2 00.) 

Having examined the Bev. J. G. Cooper's edition of the works 
of Virgil, I have no hesitation of giving my opinion, that the plan 
which he has pursued is excellent, and the execution highly credit- 
able to his talents and scholarship. Such a work will greatly 
facilitate the study of the poet, on the part of the youthful learner. 
It will give him a correct idea of the meaning of the author in the 
more difficult passages, and by its copious notes upon ancient his- 
tory and mythology, will enable him to relish beauties that are 
now rarely perceived in the early course of classical instruction. I 
have no doubt but that its appearance will be welcomed by the in- 
telligent and discerning, as a publication admirably adapted to en- 
list the feelings and stimulate the application of youth, in the 
elementary schools of our country. 

Geokge P. Chapman, D. D., 
formerly of Pennsylvania 



Similar opinions have been expressed by the following literary 
and scientific gentlemen : 

James Koss, LL. D., John T. Kirkland, D. D., 

James Renwick, LL. D., Henry Ware, D. L\, 

W. C. Wyatt, D. D., John S. J. Gardner, D. D., 

William Harris, D. D., Wm. Rafferty, D. D., 

John Bowden, D. D., Edward Sparks, M. L\, 

James Kemp, D. D., E. D. Barrv, D. D., 

Gideon Blackburn, D. D., Prof. J. S. Kingsley, Yale Col 
And many others. 
1* 



10 Prof. Peissnerh English- German Grammar. 

A Comparative English-German Grammar.— ($1 oo.) 
Based on the affinity of the two languages, by Peof. Elias Peissnee, 
late of the University of Munich, now of Union College, 
Schenectady. 

From the New York Churchman. 

Of all the German Grammars we l^ave ever examined, this is 
the most modest and unpretending — and yet it contains a system 
and a principle which is the life of it, as clear, as practical, as effec- 
tive for learning Grammar as any thing we have ever seen put 
forth, with so much more pretence of originality and show of phi- 
losophy. In travelling from England to Germany, a man might 
commence his journey in England : he must first pass through 
those parts which lie most contiguous to the land to which he is 
going ; he should cross the separating line at the point or points 
where the two adjacent countries have most features in common, 
and his first explorations in the new land will he in those quarters 
which remind him most of the scenes and associations from which 
he is departing. This is the pervading principle of the Grammar 
before us, and, truism as it may appear, it contains the secret of 
the easy acquisition of a foreign language, especially one that has 
many affinities both in words and idioms to our own. 

The principle on which this book is grounded gives it a strong 
claim to every teacher through examination. It will be found, 
too, we think, that the author has not only presented a new idea 
of much interest in itself, but has admirably carried it out in the 
practical lessons and exercises of his work. 

From Professor J. Foster, of Schenectady. 
I have examined Prof. Peissner's German Grammar with some 
attention ; have marked with interest the rapid advancement of 
students here using it as a text-book, and have myself carefully 
tested it in the instruction of a daughter eleven years of age. The 
result is a conviction that it is most admirably adapted to secure 
easy, pleasant and real progress, and that from no other work 
which has come under my notice can so satisfactory a knowledge 
of the language be obtained in a given time. 

From the Albany Morning Express. 
This is one of the very best treatises of its kind now extant. 
Those who are acquainted with the science and practice of lan- 
guage will need but a simple statement of some of its points, in 
order to appreciate its superior merit. 

From the Schenectady Reflector. 
It seems to us to meet more successfully than any other Gram 
mar, the case of those who desire an accurate knowledge and prac- 
tice of the German language, through a method at once easy, rapid, 
and scientific. 



Prof. J. Β. Dodd's Series. II 

PROF. J. B. DODD'S MATHEMATICAL SERIES 

COMPRISES 

An Elementary and Practical Arithmetic, . $0 45 

High School Arithmetic, ..... 84 

Elements of Algebra, 84 

Higher Algebra, 1 50 

Key to Algebra, 84 

Elements of Geometry, 1 00 

AND KEYS TO THE ABOVE. 

These Arithmetics Lire believed to be unrivalled in the follow- 
ing particulars : 

1. The philosophical accurateness with which their topics are 
arranged so as to show the mutual dependence and relationship oi 
their subjects. 

2. The scientific correctness and practical convenience of their 
greatly improved nomenclature. 

3. The clear and concise manner in which principles are stated 
and explanations are given. • 

4. Brevity and completeness of rules. 

5. The distinctness with which the true connection between 
Arithmetic and its cognate branches is developed. 

6. The excellent and thorough intellectual discipline super 
induced. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 

From E. T. P. Allen, Superintendent of Kentucky Military 
Institute. 

" Upon a careful examination of a manuscript Treatise on 
Arithmetic by Prof. Dodd, I find it greatly superior to all others 
which have come under my notice, in system, completeness and 
nomenclature. The arrangement is natural, the system complete, 
and the nomenclature greatly improved. These improvements are 
not slight; they are fundamental — eminently worthy the attention 
of the Mathematical Teacher, and give a character of unity to the 
work, which at once distinguishes it from all others on this subject. 

" I believe it admirably adapted to the purposes of instruction ; 
in fact, by far the most convenient and usable booh for teacher and 
pupil I have yet met with; and will, with great pleasure, adopt it 
in the Institute, and recommend its adoption by all." 

From John BrocHesby, A. M., Prof, of Mathematics and Natural 
Philosophy, in Trinity College, Conn. 
" From a careful examination of the Arithmetic of Prof. Dodd, 
I have been led to entertain a favorable opinion of the work. It is 






12 Prof. J. Β. Dodd's Series. 

philosophical in its arrangement, and exact and clear in its r. ja 
and explanations. The examples are such as to bring the mini of 
the pupil into active exercise. I should select this hook to plaice 
in the hands of a child in preference to others upon the same sub- 
ject which have obtained a wide-spread circulation." 

From Jennette L. Douglass, Newburgh, Ν. Y. 

"I have examined with great care, and -much, interest, ' Dodo"*»* High 
School Arithmetic,' and am fully convinced that it is a book uf rare 
merit, and is not surpassed by any in use. Furthermore, alter λ year's 
careful study of * Dodd's High School Algebra,' and after haviag thor- 
oughly tested the application of its rules, and the precision, clearness and 
force of the same, hesitate not to say that it has no superior, if any equal, 
in the range of Algebraic Science." 

From the Associate Principal of Mount Palatine Academy. 

" I have examined Dodd's Arithmetic, and am fully persuaded 
that it is superior to any other with which I am acquainted. I 
could speak in detail were it necessary ; but all that is required 
to establish its reputation and introduction, is to have it known dy 
Teachers." 0. M. Weight, Inst. 



From the Faculty of Pock River 
" Upon an examination of Prof. Dodd's Arithmetic, we have 
come to the conclusion that its superior arrangement, the clearness 
of its rules and explanations, and its improved nomenclature, entitle 
it to the careful consideration of the Mathematical Teacher : that 
these improvements distinguish it from all others that have come 
under our notice. We therefore give it our cordial approbation, 
and shall introduce it immediately into our Seminary." 

D. J. Pinoknet, Principal. 

S. M. Fellows, Prof, of Mathematics. 

Silas Seaele, Prof. Of Languages. 

" Dodd's High School Arithmetic is better adapted to supply the 
wants of High Schools and Academies than any other Arithmetic 
which I have ever met. His rules are plain, concise, definitely 
stated, and fully illustrated with examples." 

G. M. Baekee, 
Baldwin Institute, Ohio. 

"I have Dodd's Higher Arithmetic, and unhesitatingly pro- 
nounce it the best work for advanced classes I have ever seen." 

M. S. LlTTLEFIELD, 

Grand Rapids, Mich. 



Prof. J. Β. Dodd's Series. 13 

Similar testimonials have been received from the following 
gentlemen whose names are attached, in favor of one or both these 
Arithmetics : 

H. A. Wilson, Jonesville. L. Dickerman, N. H. 

R. S. Thurmer, lad. J. G. Hoyt, do. 

A. P. Chute, Mass. M. L. Brown, Ν. Y. 

Rev. J. A. McCanley, Va. W. E. Pierce, Ohio. 

W. Spindler, Ohio. Ν. T. Allen, Mass. 

J. W. P. Jenks, Mass. H". McDougall, Κ Υ. 
Rev. W. L. Harris, Wesleyan ♦ A. Wood, Maine. 

University, Ohio. J. R. Art, Indiana. 

A. K. Slade, Mass. A. Morse, Nantucket. 

W. P. Clark, Mich. G. C. Merrifield, Ind. 

James Campbell, Ohio. T. A. Benton, Ohio. 

W. W. Howard, Ky. Isaiah Dole, Maine. 

W. B. Slaughter, Pa. J. Estabrook, Mich. 

W. A. Bacon, Mich. J. Towler, Ν. Υ 

Rev. George Loonais, Delaware. M. F. Cowdery, Sandusky, Ohio. 
Ο B. Crump, Ν. Y. 

Prof. Dodd's Algebras have received the most flattering enco- 
miums from teachers who have used them in the school-room. 
They are, probably, the most clear and comprehensive works on 
Algebra in print. 



TESTIMONIALS. 

"We have introduced Dodd's Algebra into the Genesee Wes- 
leyan Seminary, as a permanent text-book. 

Prof. W. H. De Put. 
Dodd's Algebra possesses excellencies pertaining to no other 
work. R. H. Mooee, 111. 

I am much pleased with Dodd's Algebra, and will introduce it. 

Rev. J. A. MoOanley, Va. 
I use Professor Dodd's Algebra, and shall continue it as our 
regular text-book. Osoae Haeeis, N". J. 

From Peof. A. L. Hamilton, Brest, of Andrew College. 

I have examined with some care Prof. Dodd's Elements of Geo- 
metry, and, so far as I am capable of judging, I conceive it to be 
in many respects decidedly the best work of the kind extant. For 
simplicity, exactness, and completeness, it can have no superior. 
Like his Arithmetic and Algebra, in many important particulars, 
his Geometry stands pre-eminent, and alone. 



14 Enos^s Intellectual and Practical Arithmetic. 

Schell's Introductory Lessons in Arithmetic,— ($1 oo.) 
Designed as an introduction to the study of any mental or written 
Arithmetic. It contains a large amount of mental questions, toge- 
ther with a large number of questions to be performed on the 
slate ; thus combining mental and written exercises for young be- 
ginners. This is a very attractive little book, superior to any of 
its class. It leads the pupil on by the easiest steps possible, and 
yet insures constant progress. 



KECOMMENDATIONS. 

I have carefully examined the manuscript of " Schell's Intro- 
ductory Lessons in Arithmetic," and am convinced that it is alto- 
gether superior to any text-book of the kind with which I am ac- 
quainted. It is peculiarly adapted to the wants of beginners, the 
language being simple, the definitions clear, the examples easy, and 
the transition from one subject to another gradual and natural. 
I cannot too much commend the system which the author has 
adopted throughout, of fully illustrating every principle as he ad- 
vances, by numerous mental and written exercises, rendering 
thereby one rule perfectly familiar before he passes to the next. 

It is unnecessary to do more than to ask the attention of teachers 
to this work ; they cannot examine it impartially without being 
convinced of its superior merits. It will, no doubt, become one 
of the most popular of school-books. 

Geo. Payne Quaokenbos, 
Rector of Henry st. Grammar School, Ν. T. 

I wish to introduce Schell's little Arithmetic. It is just the 
thing for beginners. Send six dozen. J. Maekham, Ohio. 

I am highly pleased with Schell's little book, and shall use it. 

G. 0. Meebifield, Ind. 

Schell's little book for children is a deau-ideal of my own, and 
of course it suits. D. F. Dewolf, Ohio. 

The School Committee have adopted Schell's Arithmetic for 
our public schools. Send us three hundred. 

Ό. G. Heffeon, Supt. Schools, Utica. 



An Intellectual and Practical Arithmetic— ($o 25) ; 

Or, First Lessons in Arithmetical Analysis. By J. L. Enos, 

Graduate of the N. Y. Slate Normal Schools. 

The same clearness and conciseness characterize this admirable 
Dook that belong to the works of Prof. Dodd. The natural ar- 
rangements of the text, and the logical mode of solving the ques 



Whitlockts Geometry and Surveying. 15 

tions, is a peculiar and important feature belonging to this book 
alone. 



KECOMMEKDATIONS. 

I have examined with care and interest, Enos's Mental Arith- 
metic, and shall introduce it at once into the Academy. 

Prof. Ο. M. Weight. 
We have examined an intellectual Arithmetic, by J. L. Enos, 
and like it much. "We shall immediately use it in our school. 

Prof. D. I. Pixoknet, 
S. M. Fellows, 
S. Searle, 

Rock River Seminary. 

Having used Enos's Mental Arithmetic in my school, I believe 
it to be superior to all other works of the kind. 

W. Bailey, ΪΓ. Y. 



Whitlock's Geometry and Surveying•,— ($1 50.) 

Is a work for advanced students possessing the highest claims upon 
the attention of Mathematical Teachers. In comparison with other 
works of the kind, it presents the following advantages : 

1. A better connected, and more progressive methed of geo- 
metrizing, calculated to enable the student to go alone. 

2. A fuller, more varied and available practice, by the intro- 
duction of more than four hundred exercises, arithmetical, demon- 
strative and algebraical, so chosen as to be serviceable rather than 
amusing, and so arranged as greatly to aid in the acquisition of the 
theory. 

3. The bringing together of such a body of geometrical know- 
ledge, theoretical and practical, as every individual on entering into 
active life demands. 

4. A system of surveying wMch saves two thirds the labor re- 
quired by the ordinary process. 

This work is well spoken of universally, and is already in use in 
some of the best institutions of this country. It is recommended 
by Prof. Pierce, of Cambridge ; Prof. Smith, of Middletown ; Prof. 
Dodd, of Lexington, and many other eminent mathematicians. 

From E. M. Moese, Esq : — I consider that I have obtained more 
mathematical knowledge from Whitlock's Geometry, than from all 
other text-books combined. Unlike too many treatises of a similar 
nature, it is eminently calculated to make mathematicians. 



16 



Dr. Comstoc&s Series. 



Prof. Palmer's Bookkeeping,— ($o 61.) 

KEY AND BLANKS. 

This excellent book is superior to the books generally used 
because 

1. It contains a large number of business blanks to be filled by 
the learner, such as deeds, mortgages, agreements, assignment, 
&c. &c. 

2. Explanations from page to page, from Article to Article, and 
to settle principles of law in relation to deeds, mortgages, &c, &c. 

3. The exercises are to be written out, after ~being calculated. 
In other works the pupil is expected to copy, merely. 



BECOMMENDATIONS. 
Joseph H. Palmee, Esq. ; 

Sm, — It has afforded me pleasure to read your excellent 
Treatise on Bookkeeping. The 'Perspicuity of its style is admirable, 
and with v its peculiar arrangement, with references and laconic defi- 
nitions, makes it at once invaluable to the young accountant, as a 
primary and practical work on the most approved method of keeping 
accounts. Hieam Dixon, 

Accountant at Adams & Co., 16, 18, 19, Wall st. 

Similar testimonials have been received from the teachers of the 
Free Academy, and others, N. Y. 



Horace "Webster, LL. D. 

J. J. Owen, D. D. 

G. B. Docharty, LL. D. 

J. T. Bentdice, A. M. 

J. Graef Barton, A. M. 

D. Cartledge. 

A. H. Wheeler. 

¥m. Palmer. 

D. K. Bull. 

S. Kendall. 

Joseph Keen, Super'nt Com. 

Schools, Ν. Y. City. 
J. J. Doane, Principal Ward 

School No. 20, Ν. Υ. 
Thos. Faulke, Principal Ward 

No. 30, Κ Υ. 



Ν. W. Starr, Principal Ward 

School No. 29, IS". Y. 
J. E. Whitehead, Principal 

Ward School No. 23, Ν. Y. 
J. J. Anderson, Principal Ward 

School No. 16, Ν. Y. 
L. Hazeltine, Principal Ward 

School No. 14, Ν. Y. 
S. Reynold, Principal Wil- 

liamsburgh Grammar School, 

Ν. Y. 
A. Marceihis, Principal Wil- 

liamsburgh Academy. 
H. D. Woodworth, Principal 

Ward School No. 2, Ν. Y. 



Dr. Comstock's Series of Books on the Sciences, viz. : 

Introduction to Natural Philosophy. For Children. . $0 42 

System of Natural Philosophy, Newly revised and enlarged, 

including late discoveries, 1 00 



Dr. Comstoctts Series. 17 

Elements of Chemistry. Adapted to the present state of the 

Science, , 1 00 

The Young Botanist. New edition, . . . . 50 

Elements of Botany. Including Vegetable Physiology, and a 

Description of Common Plants. With Cuts, . . . 1 20 
Outlines of Physiology, both Comparative and Human. To 
which is added OUTLINES OF ANATOMY, excellent for 
the general scholar and ladies' schools, . . . . SO 
New Elements of Geology, Highly Illustrated, . . 1 25 

Elements of Mineralogy. Illustrated with numerous Cuts, 75 
Natural History of Birds. Showing their Comparative Size. 

A new and valuable feature, 50 

Natural History of Beasts. Ditto. . . . 50 

Natural History of Birds and Beasts. Ditto. Cloth, . 1 Ου 
Questions and Illustrations to the Philosophy, . . . 30 
All the above works are fully illustrated by elegant cuts. 
The Philosophy has been republished in Scotland, and trans- 
lated for the use of schools in Prussia. The many valuable addi- 
tions to the work by its transatlantic Editors, Prof. Lees, of 
Edinburgh, and Prof. Hoblyn, of Oxford, have been embraced by 
the author in his last revision. The Chemistry has been entirely 
revised, and contains all the late discoveries, together with methods 
of analyzing minerals and metals. Portions of the series are in 
course of publication in London. Such testimony, in addition to 
the general good testimony of teachers in this country, is sufficient 
to warrant us in saying that no works on similar subjects can equal 
them, or have ever been so extensively used. It is a remarkable 
fact, that when interested persons have attacked these works, and 
succeeded in getting in their own, a little time has dissipated the 
mist, and they have found their way back again. A new edition 
of the Botany, with an enlarged Flora, is just ready. 
' The Phylosophy has just been thoroughly revised, andfor the sixth time 
newly stereotyped. There is no book of its size in the world (we believe^ 
that has ever had a circulation equal to it. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

John Griscom, LL. D., N. Y. A. C. Wright, D. C. 

W. H. Seward. A. McDougald, Ν. Y. 

W. T. Bonte, Canada. Gr. C. Merrifield, Ind. 

K. M. Brown, N. Y. Rev. J. P. Cowles, Mass. 

A, Wood, N. J. M. E. Dunham, Ν. Y. 
M. P. Covert, N. J. J. M. Stone, Ν. H. 

B. Hallowell, Ya. W. R. White, Ya. 
A. L. Smith, Ya. A. F. Ross, Ν. Y. 

A. H. Drummond, Ohio. T. Yalentine, Albany. 

The sale of 800,000 copies of the Philosophy would seem io 
render notices superfluous. 



18 Prof. Hooker's Physiology. 

Human Physiology and Hygeine .— ($l 25.) First look in do— ($0 66) 
Designed for Colleges and the Higher Classes in Schools, and for 
General Reading . BtWorthingtoin t Hookek, M. D., Professor 
of the Theory and Practice of Medicine in Yale College. 
Illustrated with nearly 200 Engravings. 
This is an original work and not a compilation. It presents the 
subject in a new light, and at the same time embraces all that is 
valuable for its purpose, that could be drawn from the most emi- 
nent sources. The highest encomiums are received from all quar- 
ters ; a few are subjoined. 



We can truly say that we believe this volume is of great value, 
and we hope that the rare merits of the diligent author will be 
both appreciated and patronized. 

Boston Medical and Surgical Journal. 

Dr. Hooker writes with perspicuity, explains difficult points 
with simplicity, and adapts the subject well to school instruction 
and general reading. American Journal of Science and Arts. 

Here is the remedy for a want which is so evidently a want, 
and that now we have it supplied, it seems an absurdity to have 
lived on wanting it. The present work is a popular treatise, at- 
tractive enough to be read, and with compass enough to allow the 
author's fertility of illustrative anecdote to come into play. There 
is no need of commending the work to the attention of a com- 
munity where Dr. Hooker is so well knows, as he is among us. 

Norwich Courier. 

I am ready to pronounce it unqualifiedly the most admirable 
book or work on the human system that has fallen under my 
notice, and they have not been few. If any one desires a complete 
and thorough elucidation of the great science discussed, they can 
nowhere be better satisfied than in the perusal of Dr. Hooker's 
most excellent work. B. F. Tewkbbuky, Lenoxville, Pa. 



" I have thoroughly examined Hooker's Physiology. The hints con- 
tained in the Preface are of more value to a practical teacher than many 
entire works upon the same subject. In my opinion the book needs only 
to be known to be appreciated, it will speak for itself. 

E. F. Stronu, Principal Public High School, West Meriden, Ct. 



Elements of Meteorology.— ($0 75.) 

Designed for Schools and Academies. By John Brooe^lsby, A.M., 

Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Trinity 

College, Hartford. 

The subject of Meteorology is of the deepest interest to all. Its 

phenomena every where surround us, and ought to be as familiarly 



Prof. Brocklesby s Series. 19 

known by the scholar as his arithmetic or philosophy. This work 
treats on " Winds in General, Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Water Spouts, 
Rain, Fogs, Clouds, Dew, Snow, Hail, Thunder-storms, Rainbow, 
Haloes, Meteorites, Northern Lights, &c. 

TESTIMONIALS. 

From Denison Olmsted, LL. Ώ., President of Yale College. 

" I have perused your work on Meteorology, which you were 
so kind as to send me, and am much pleased with the manner in 
which you have treated these subjects ; the selection of topics being 
in my view judicious, and the style luminous, and well adapted to 
readers of every age, whether learned or unlearned. 

u I should rejoice to see such a school-book introduced into all 
our schools and academies. No natural science is more instructive, 
more attractive, and more practically useful, than Meteorology, 
treated as you have treated it, where the philosophical expla- 
nations of the various phenomena of the atmosphere are founded 
upon an extensive induction of facts. This science is more par- 
ticularly interesting to the young, because it explains so many 
things, that are daily occurring around them, and it thus inspires a 
taste for philosophical reasoning. I think the work cannot 
fail to be well received as a valuable addition to our list of text- 
books. 



From J. L. Comstock, 3f. D., Author of Natural Philosophy, 
Chemistry, Botany, Geology, Mineralogy, and Physiology. 
" Professor Brocklesby, of Trinity College, has submitted to my 
perusal a ' Treatise on Meteorology,' written by himself, and with 
the arrangement and science of which I am much pleased. The 
Professor wishes to have his treatise published as a school-book, 
and, considering the interest which the several subjects it em- 
braces excites in the minds of all, both old and young, rich and 
poor, I see not why such a book, when once introduced, should not 
have a large circulation. I see no reason why Meteorology, in 
many respects, has not as many claims as a school-book as Chem- 
istry or Natural Philosophy. Indeed, I should like to see Pro» 
fessor B.'s book introduced into schools as a companion of my 
Philosophy." 

Recommended also by 

Benj. Sillihan•, LL. D. 
Rev. Τ. H. Gallaudet, 
Rev. Hoeace Hookee, 
Rev. Chas. A. Goodeich. 
This work has proved highly satisfactory in the school-room ; 
and is now the established text-book in a very large number of our 
best high schools and academies, where the natural sciences are 
taught 



20 Prof. Brocklesby's Series. 

YIEWS OF THE MICROSCOPIC WORLD.— ($1 12.) 

Designed for General Reading, and as a Hand-boolc for Glasses in 

Natural Sciences. By Prof. Bbooexesby. 

By the aid of a powerful microscope, the author has given us 
highly instructive accounts of Infusorial Animalcules, Fossil la 
fusoria, Minute Aquatic Animals, Structure of Wood and Herls^ 
Crystallization, parts of Insects, &c, &c. 

To those who are necessarily deprived of the aid of a micro- 
scope, and even to those who have it, this is a most valuable work. 
It is clearly and pleasantly written. The sections on the Animal- 
cules, Infusoria, and Crystallizations, are very beautifully illustrated 
with large and expensive plates. The decriptions of the different 
kinds of these wonderful little animals, many of which multiply by 
millions in a few hours, are really very instructive. There is no 
better school library book in the world. It should be read by 
every man, woman, and child. 



PROF. BROCKLESBY'S ASTRONOMY.— ($1 25.) 
This work is printed in the first style of the art, being amply 
illustrated ; and the approval bestowed upon it by the most com- 
petent judges is such as to entitle it to the careful examination of 
teachers. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

I have examined it with great care, compared it with other authors 
within my reach, for the purpose of selecting a suitable manual for my 
classes pursuing the ordinary college course of mathematics. The ar- 
rangement of topics seem to be natural and scientific, and the develop- 
ment of the subject progressive. It is comprehensive and sufficient in 
scope and matter, and yet avoids the sad and frequent fault of being bare- 
ly topical and superficial, from attempting to teach too much. A special 
merit of the book is the truthfulness of its illustrations, in which are 
represented the phenomena of the heavens as they are, not as they seem, 
As a teacher I thank you for such a text book as many have been seek- 
ing in vain. 

T. W. T. Cuktis, Principal High School, Hartford, Ct. 

Miss Jennette L. Douglass, of Newburgh, Ν. Y., who is so exten- 
sively known by the friends of education, says of Brocklesby's Astron- 
omy : " It must find its way into our best schools, as the ideas it contains 
are so clear and comprehensive, and its plate and print so plain and ele- 
gant, it contains all that is necessary for a young learner." 

Elementary works are too often mere compilations made from mate- 
rials furnished by others. This is in no sense the case in Brocklesby's 
Astronomy. The reader will at once perceive that the author not only 
thoroughly understands his subject, but possesses the happy faculty of 
simplyfying it, and adapting it to the ordinary intelligence of the reader 



J. Olney's Geographical Series. 21 

His descriptions, aided by well drawn diagrams, make every point plain, 
and we may safely say, we have not met with any other manual which 
so happily unfolds the elements of one of the most charming sciences 
to which human study can be directed. 

The Philadelphia Presbyterian. 

Those who know the author will readily understand that this work is 
one of no small value. He stands among the comparatively few scientific 
men who possess strong practical characteristics, and that degree of in- 
sight and industry that enables them to comprehend and execute a text- 
book, adapted to the wants of any class of mind. The book is thoroughly 
and attractively illustrated, clear and comprehensive in the text, and di- 
rect and thorough in its system of questions. 

Springfield (Mass.) Republican. 

I think Brocklesby's Astronomy the best of any with which I am ac- 
quainted. U. S. Abbott, Teacher High School, Brattleboro, Vt. 

To Professor Brocklesby, of Trinity College, Hartford, who has already 
written well upon Meteorology and Views of the Microscopic World, we 
are indebted for the Elements of Astronomy. This volume is beautifully 
and intelligibly illustrated. It brings Astronomical knowledge down to 
the present date. It is full without being diffuse, and terse without ob- 
scurity. Every scientific term is explained. The rules for determining 
the distances and magnitudes of the heavenly bodies are wholly ampli- 
fied. In all respects we can recommend the work as a very complete and 
practical elementary treatise. Ν. Y. Daily Times 



J. Olney's Geographical Series, 

Comprises the following WorTcs : 

Primary Geography. With Colored Maps. ... $0 25 

Quarto Geography. With several ISTew Maps. . . . 0*75 

Geography and Atlas. Do. do. ... 1 12 

Outline Maps. And Key 6 00 

It is believed these works excel all others, for the following 
reasons : 

1. The clearness and correctness of definitions. 

2. The gradual arrangement of subjects. 

3. Unity of design marks the series. 

4. The use of initial letters only. 

5. The fact that children delight in them. 

6. Their cheapness. 

The attention of teachers, whose range of subjects includes 
geography, is respectfully and particularly called to Mr. Olney's 
Geographical Works. These works, more especially the School 
Geography and Atlas, have been in use for several years, and so far 
as the publishers have been able to ascertain, it is the general testi- 



22 J- Olney's Geographical Series. 

mony of teachers that the "Practical System of Modern Geo- 
graphy V is the best work for practical use that has ever appeared. 
But recent works have been put forth, claiming to be made upon 
superior principles, and modestly intimating that all previous stand- 
ard works are so inferior in construction as to render them de- 
servedly obsolete. Indeed it is claimed that there has been no ad- 
vance in geographical text-books for many years, until suddenly a 
new Daniel has come to judgment. In looking carefully over the 
recent inprovements so boastfully claimed, we are unable to dis- 
cover any which have not been substantially drawn from Olney's 
Geographies. 

Mr. Olney commenced the plan of simplifying the first lesson 
and teaching a child by what is familiar to the exclusion of astron- 
omy. He commenced the plan of having only those things repre- 
sented on the maps which the pupil was required to learn. He 
originated the system of classification, and of showing the govern- 
ment, religion, &c, by symbols. He first adopted the system of 
carrying the pupil over the earth by means of the Atlas. His 
works first contained cuts in which the dress, architecture, animals, 
internal improvements, &c, of each country are grouped, so as to 
be seen at one view. His works first contained the world as 
known to the ancients, as an aid to Ancient History, and a synopsis 
of Physical Geography with maps. In short, we have seen no 
valuable feature in any geography which has not originally ap- 
peared in these works ; and we think it not too much to claim 
that in many respects most other works are copies of these. We 
think that a fair and candid examination will show that Olney's 
Atlas is the largest, most systematic, and complete of any yet pub- 
lished, and that the Quarto and Modern School Geographies con- 
tain more matter, and that better arranged, than any similar works. 
The attention of teachers is again called to these works, and they 
are desired to test the claims here asserted. 

TESTIMONIALS. 
From President Humpheeys, D. D., Amherst College. 
Mr. J. Olney. — Dear .Sir, I have examined both your improved 
School Atlas and Modern System of Geography with more than 
ordinary satisfaction. Your arrangement of topics appears to me 
better adapted to the comprehension of the child, and to follow 
more closely the order of nature, than any other elementary sys- 
tem of the kind with which I am acquainted. Instead of having 
to encounter the diagrams, problems, and definitions of Astromony 
as soon as he opens his Geography, the young learner is first pre- 
sented with the elements of the science in their simplest and most 
attractive forms. His curiosity is of course awakened. That 
which would otherwise be regarded as an irksome task, is eonteni- 



/. Olneyh Geographical Series. 



plated with pleasure. The opening mind exults in the exercise of 
its faculties, and in the ease with which it every day gathers new 
intellectual treasures. The constant use which you oblige the 
child to make of his Atlas, I consider of a great advantage, and 
the substitution of initials for the names of countries, mountains, 
rivers, &c., a valuable improvement. There is, moreover, a con- 
densation of matter throughout, combined with a clearness and 
simplicity which cannot fail, I think, of being highly appreciated 
by all enlightened and judicious teachers. Your method of desig- 
nating the length of the principal rivers is extremely simple and 
convenient. 

From Rev. Anson W. Cummings, D. D., President of " Holson Conference 
College,'''' and Ex-President of " McKendree College." 
Olney's Geography and Atlas, Revised Edition, are so beautifully 
printed, so clear and gradual in arrangement of the subjects, so correct in 
facts, so comprehensive in topics, and so cheap, that they are entitled to 
a place in every American School house and Academy. 



I have long thought Olney's Geography and Atlas a first-rate 
school-book, and the publishers of it have certainly given to it an 
attractive appearance to the teacher and pupil. I have used it, I 
think, nearly ten years of my teaching, and always found the suc- 
cessive editions reliable for accuracy, and well up to the times. 

M. F. Cowdeey, 
Supt. Schools, Sandusky. 
Similar memorials have been received from the following gen 
tlemen : 



Salem Town, LL. D. 
Pres. Lord, Ν. H. 
Pres. Bates, Vt. 
Robert Vaux, Penn. 
M. L. Brown, Ν. T. 
M. S. Hawley, Mich. 
J. S. Dickson, Mich. 
N. Brittan, Ν. Y. 
J. N. Smith, Iowa. 
T. S. Bradley, Ohio. 
A, D. Wright, " 
N. S. Scott, Ν. Y. 
tsaae Clufton, 111. 



And 



F. A. Brigham, 111. 
E, P. Barrows, Κ Υ. 
P. Hardy, Ν. H. 
R. S. Howard, Mass. 
E. Kingsbury, " 
E. Hall, Vt. 
Α. Κ Slade, R. I. 
J. Alwood, Ν. Y. 
J. Estabrook, Mich. 
A. D. Sturtevant, 111. 
A. G. Wilder, 
R. C. Corey, Ark. 
C. B. Crumb, Ν. Υ 
over 500 others. 



24 The Students* Series. 



The Students' Primer, 


(( U 


Spelling-book, 


ct ct 


First Reader, 


it u 


Second " 


u u 


Third « 


U It 


Fourth « 


Κ CC 


Fifth « 


(( (C 


Speaker, 



The Students' Series. 

By J. S. Denmait, A. M. 

7' 

13 
. 13 

25 
. 40 

75 
. 94 

31 

This series of books excels all others in the following particu- 
lars : 

1. In the manner of teaching the alphabet and first principles 
of Reading, as shown in the Primer, Speller, and First Reader. 

2. In the beautiful classification and arrangement of the Speller, 
by which pupils are easily taught to spell and pronounce words 
correctly. By the aid of suffixes and prefixes, they learn to form 
derivative words, and may obtain at the same time a correct 
knowledge of their signification. 

3. The child is taught to read by beginning with words of one 
and two letters, and advancing gradually to longer words. 

4. The Primer is so arranged that each word is used in spelling 
before used in the Reading Lessons. 

5. The First Reader contains lessons of one syllable, composed 
of natural objects, such as birds, flowers, shrubs, &c, that greatly 
interest children. 

6. The same class of lessons in all the readers. 

7. The lessons are peculiarly interesting and instructive. 

8. The relation of one book to the other is very regular and 
systematic. 

9. The judicious use of plates to embellish the books and illus- 
trate the text. 

10. A judicious use of Questions, not so profuse as to embar- 
rass the pupil, nor so few as to prevent the teacher from asking 
them. 

11. The Print is very distinct and clear, from the large type in 
the Primer gradually diminishing to the common, ordinary type in 
general use. 

12. The variety of style, and the variety of subjects. 



The Students' 1 Series. 25 

13. The adoption of Webster's Royal Quarto Dictionary as a 
standard in spelling. 

14. In the sound moral tone pervading the whole series. No 
extracts from novels — no low and vulgar language has been al- 
lowed to blacken their pages. 

The Author was lor a time the Editor of " The Student," and 
in that first produced the system on which these Readers is founded. 
It received such high encomiums that the Author thought best to 
reproduce it in book form for schools. Hence the series of Stu- 
dents' Readers. Prof. Page, late Principal of the New York State 
Normal School, said of this system, " It is the ~best I ever saw for 
teaching the first principles of Reading." Such testimony is of the 
highest value, and none need be afraid to use the books on such a 
recommendation. 

"We present a very few names of the great number which have 
been received. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 

The Students' Series is, in my opinion, the best in use. I believe 
a class of young students will learn twice as much, with the same 
labor, as they would from any other system. The books of this 
Series excel in the purity and attraction of their style. I have in- 
troduced them. 0. B. Cbttmb, Ν". Y. 

I am so well pleased with them, and find them so well adapted 
to the wants of children, that I am determined to have them. 

Η. H. Sentee, III. 

The Students' Series I think to be far superior to any extant. 

S. O. Simonds, III. 

Your Students' Speller has been adopted by the School Board 
of this city. J. R. Webb, Indianapolis. 

I like your Students' books well, and shall introduce them. 

Rev. M. S. Hawley, Mich. 

I shall introduce the Students' Speller. Send me several dozen. 

O. A. Aeohee, Albany. 

I think more of the Students' Reading Books than any others 
with which I am acquainted. Iba Satles. 

I will do all I can to introduce the Students' Series of Books, 
believing them to be the best for schools of any before the public. 

J. L. Enos, Wis. 



26 Kirkhain's Elocution. 

I am highly pleased with the Students' Series, and shall use my 
exertions to introduce it as fast as possible. 

J. Meeeifield, ) r , 

Concurred in by Geo. 0. Meeeifield, $ 

We use the Students' Books, and shall use no others. . 

E, Lane, iV. Τ. 
I use the Speller. It is just the book. 

W. M. James, Ga. 

I am using the Students' Readers, and like them so well that I 
urged their introduction at Monroeville, where they are now used. 

D. F. Dewolf, NOrwalk. 

I have used the Students' Speller, and am . greatly pleased with 
it. The Readers are excellent. N. B. Babkeb. 

"We are using the Students' Series, and like it better than any 
other. . A. Poetee, JV. Y. 

We use, and admire the Students' Series. 

J. PoOLEB, Ν. T. 

I have examined the Students' Readers, and shall introduce 
them. P. J. Faeeington. { 

We like the Students' Books much. The Board has adopted 
them. Ε. B. Coon, Covington, Ky. 

I have adopted the Students' Speller. 

Osoae Haeeis, N". J. 

We have adopted the Students' Series because we like it better 
than any other. A. L^ Bingham, Mich. 

Your Students' Books are introduced here, and are well liked. 
Prof. H. Wheelee, Greencastle, Ind. 

We have adopted the Students' Speller. 

Dr. J. Nicholas, Kirtland. 

The Board of Education has adopted the Students' Speller. 
Send us five hundred. E. A. Saeldon, Syracuse. 



Kirkham's Elocution. 



This is one of the best Elocutions ever printed. It contains a 
varied and interesting selection of very useful matter, carefully ar- 
ranged. It is a standard work, and now used in some of the best 
schools in the country; among which are the Normal School, 
Philadelphia ; Lower Canada College ; Toronto Academy, &c. 



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