{"1": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4796", "width": "3068", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0001.jp2"}, "2": {"fulltext": "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.\\nShelf .4J9\\nUNITED STATES OF AMERICA.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0002.jp2"}, "3": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4761", "width": "2922", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0003.jp2"}, "4": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0004.jp2"}, "5": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4785", "width": "2902", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0005.jp2"}, "6": {"fulltext": "N", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0006.jp2"}, "7": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS\\nOF\\nMODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nBY CHARLES ADOLPHE WURTZ.\\nFIFTH AMERICAN EDITION.\\nREVISED AND ENLARGED BY\\n\u00c2\u00a5M. H. GREENE, M.D.,\\nAND\\nHARRY F. KELLER, Ph.D. fSTRASB URCp.\\nAUU 27 1895\\nWITH A PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR AND NUMEROUfriQiySra Pf l\\nH^ZW\\nPHILADELPHIA:\\nJ. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.\\nLondon 10 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden.\\n1895.\\ni", "height": "4803", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0007.jp2"}, "8": {"fulltext": "4\\\\\u00c2\u00a3\\nb^\\nCopyright, 1879, by J. B. Lippincott Co.\\nCopyright, 1895, by J. B. Lippincott Company.\\nElectrotyped and Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, U.S.A.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0008.jp2"}, "9": {"fulltext": "8~\\nBIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.\\nCharles Adolphe Wtjrtz, the most illustrious French\\nchemist of the latter half of the nineteenth century, was\\nborn at Strasburg, November 26, 1817, and died at Paris,\\nMay 12, 1884.\\nEarly in life his tastes led him to scientific studies, and\\nhe became a student of medicine under the Faculty of Medi-\\ncine of Strasburg, in which he was appointed Director of\\nChemistry in 1839. After acquiring the degree of Doctor\\nof Medicine, he continued his chemical studies under the\\ndirection of that foremost of chemical teachers, Liebig, at\\nGiessen here he became intimately associated with such\\nmen as Strecker, Will, Fresenius, Hofmann, and Hermann\\nKopp, many of whom were destined later to make world-\\nwide reputations in the same field with himself.\\nIn 1844 he removed to Paris, entering the laboratory of\\nthe celebrated Dumas, to whom he became assistant the fol-\\nlowing year. Besides this position, he filled that of Director\\nof Chemistry in the Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures\\nfrom 1845 to 1850, and in 1847 was chosen Professor agrege\\nat the Paris Ecole de Medecine, in which he became Pro-\\nfessor of Chemistry in 1853, retaining this post until his\\ndeath. In 1866 he was chosen Dean of the Faculty, at that\\ntime troubled by political dissensions which his tact and\\njudgment were well adapted to calm. He took advantage\\nof his administrative position to strengthen and improve the\\nscientific lines of the curriculum, and when he resigned the\\ndeanship, in 1874, he had succeeded in establishing a Chair\\n5", "height": "4803", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0009.jp2"}, "10": {"fulltext": "6 BIOGRAPHICAL BKBTOH,\\nof Organic Chemistry in the Sorbonne and a laboratory of\\nBiological Chemistry in the Medical School.\\nIn 1858, Wurti founded the Societe Chimique de Paris,\\nto which he presented many of his papers. In 1867 he was\\nmade i member of the Academy of Sciences (Institute de\\nFrance), and was chosen president of the same in 1880.\\nHe was a brilliant and lucid teacher, an eloquent speaker,\\nand he possessed in a remarkable degree the faculty of in-\\nspiring his audiences with his own enthusiasm.\\nWurti fl chemical work was accomplished with very modest\\nexperimental means, and his aim was always rather to sim-\\nplify than to complicate. His main researches were under-\\ntaken with the object of developing the atomic theory, then\\njust beginning to be understood, and while these works\\ncovered an extensive field, they are, as A. W. Hofmann has\\nwell expressed it, linked together like the pearls of a neck-\\nlace. His results led him to support enthusiastically the\\ntheory of which he became the greatest if not the first\\nchampion in France.\\nThe best known of Wurtz s writings are his Atomic\\nTheory, published in the International Scientific Series, his\\nElementary Lessons, and his Dictionnaire de Chimie,\\npublished with the collaboration of a number of eminent\\nFrench chemists. He also wrote a Medical and Biological\\nChemistry in three volumes.\\nAmong the more important of his chemical researches\\nwere those n the constitution of the acids of phosphorus,\\nOH the cyanuric ethers, compound ammonias, ureas, amides,\\nand glycerol in the course of these he discovered the\\nglycols, oxide of ethylene, aldol and paraldol, and hydride\\nof Copper, Sfl well as the correct explanation of certain in-\\nof anomalous vapor density.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0010.jp2"}, "11": {"fulltext": "AUTHOE S PREFACE\\nTO THE\\nFIRST AMERICAN EDITION.\\nThis book is translated from the fourth French edition by\\nmy pupil and friend, M. Greene, whose perfect familiarity with\\nthe French language and thorough competence, at the same\\ntime, in chemistry I have had occasion to appreciate. The\\ntranslation is, then, a faithful, or even improved, representation\\nof the original work, in which he will certainly have detected\\nand corrected some faults.\\nThe French editions succeed each other rapidly, showing\\nthat this little book responds to an educational need.\\nIt has been the endeavor to keep it up with the current of\\nthe latest discoveries, and in it to condense a considerable\\nnumber of exact and well-selected facts, without banishing the\\ntheory which binds them together. Thus, the origin and foun-\\ndation of the atomic theory have been given, as far as possible,\\nin historical order. The notions concerning atomicity, so im-\\nportant for the appreciation of the structure of combinations\\nand for the interpretation of chemical reactions, are presented\\nin an elementary form.\\nThe reader will remark that the history of the metalloids\\nis relatively more developed than the remainder of the book.\\nIndeed, this is the fundamental part of chemistry, and a fa-\\nmiliar knowledge of it is indispensable to the fruitful study of\\nthe metals and of organic chemistry. It is also the most at-\\ntractive portion for beginners, for it is the most easily under-\\nstood.\\nImmediately on entering the immense domain of organic\\n7", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0011.jp2"}, "12": {"fulltext": "author s preface.\\nchemistry, we find tin* foots overwhelmingly numerous and\\ncomplicated. Among all these facts a severe and careful\\nchoice has been made, the historical importance and the theo-\\nretical and practical interest of the compounds described being\\nborne in mind. In this respect many additions have been\\nmade to the third French edition. Tims, the question of\\nisomerism, upon which the theory of atomicity lias thrown so\\nmuch light, has been treated in a more thorough manner.\\nThe chapter on the aromatic compounds has been considerably\\naugmented.\\nThe author hopes that these Elementary Lessons will be\\nwell received by the new public to whom they are presented,\\nami that they will contribute to render attractive and diffuse\\nthe knowledge of the science to which he has devoted his life.\\nADOLPHE WURTZ.\\nParis, November 20, 1S78.\\nThe progress of the science has made necessary many changes\\nin the fifth edition of this little book, which has so far retained\\nabout the form and scope given to it fifteen years ago. It has\\nbeen deemed advisable to complete the organic portion, and a\\nlanre number of additions and corrections have been made.\\nWhole chapters have been added to the history of the cyanogen\\ncompounds, the hydrocarbons, the acids, and the aromatic com-\\npounds. Among these will be particularly noticed the articles\\non isomerism, the azoic and diazoic compounds, and the pyridic\\ndbjeetfl which have acquired great importance during\\ni he last few years.\\nParis, 15th September! 18S3.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0012.jp2"}, "13": {"fulltext": "PEEFAOE.\\nSixteen years ago this translation of Wurtz s Legons\\n61ementaires de Chimie Moderne was first presented to the\\npublic by one of the present editors. The hearty favor with\\nwhich the book was received by American and English\\nchemists, and the fact that it has now undergone the fifth\\nrevision, are sufficient indications of its usefulness.\\nIn the preparation of the present edition, the aim has\\nbeen to preserve as nearly as possible the original plan and\\ncharacter of the work, but at the same time to make such\\nchanges as will entitle it to continue to rank as a truly\\nmodern text-book. In order that this might be accomplished\\nwith the least possible enlargement, some matters of minor\\nimportance in an elementary treatise have been omitted, and\\nthe new matter which has been introduced will, it is believed,\\nbe found to include the latest developments of the science.\\nA number of the original illustrations have been replaced\\nby more modern designs, but in not a few instances it has\\nbeen deemed desirable to retain cuts, which, while they do\\nnot represent the newest forms of apparatus, are yet of great\\nhistorical value in illustrating the development of chemical\\nexperimentation.\\nTo meet numerous requests, mention has been made of\\nmany matters that are of special interest to the student of\\nmedical chemistry.\\nCentral High School, Philadelphia,\\nJune 1, 1895.\\nW. H. G.\\nH. F. K.\\n9", "height": "4803", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0013.jp2"}, "14": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0014.jp2"}, "15": {"fulltext": "TABLE OF CONTENTS.\\nINTRODUCTION-\\nTION\\n-Distinction between Chemical and Phsyical Ac-\\nDefinition of Chemistry\\nAffinity Molecules Atoms\\nChemical Combination\\nDecomposition Double Decomposition\\nLaw of Definite Proportions Equivalents Multiple Propor-\\ntions\\nHypothesis of Atoms\\nGay-Lussac s Law Atomic Theory\\nAmpere s Law Avogadro s Law\\nLaw of Specific Heats\\nLaw of Isomorphism Nomenclature and Notation\\nTable of Elements and Atomic Weights\\nBinary Oxygen Compounds\\nOxygen Acids and Metallic Hydroxides\\nOxygen Salts\\nNomenclature of Non-Oxygenized Compounds\\nAlloys and Amalgams\\nHydrogen\\nOxygen\\nOzone\\nAir\\nArgon\\nWater\\nMineral Waters\\nSulphur\\nHydrogen Sulphide\\nHydrogen Persulphide\\nOxygen Acids of Sulphur\\nSulphur Sesquioxide Sulphur Dioxide\\nHyposulphurous Acid Sulphur Trioxide\\nSulphuric Acid\\n11\\nPAGE\\n17-19\\n20\\n21-23\\n24-27\\n27-30\\n31-36\\n36\\n37\\n40-42\\n44\\n47\\n49\\n50\\n52\\n53\\n56\\n57\\n58\\n64\\n69\\n73\\n77\\n80\\n92\\n98\\n102\\n105\\n106\\n107\\n110\\n111", "height": "4803", "width": "2936", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0015.jp2"}, "16": {"fulltext": "12\\nTABLE OF CONTENTS.\\nPAGE\\nsulphuric A i* i 1\\n118\\nTniosulphuric Acid\\n119\\nPeraulphuric Oxide\\n120\\nSelenium ami Tellurium\\n121\\nChlorine\\n122\\nHydrochloric Acid\\n126\\nHypoohlorous Oxide and Acid\\n132\\nChlorine Peroxide\\n134\\nChloric Acid Perchloric Acid\\n135\\nChloride of Sulphur\\n136\\nBromine\\n137\\nHydrobromic Acid\\n138\\n11 ypobromous Acid\\n139\\nBromie Acid Perbroinic Acid Iodine\\n140\\nHydriodic Acid\\n142\\nIodine Oxidefl and Oxygen Acids\\n144\\nPeriodic Acid\\n145\\nA\\\\ A I AGIBfl OF CHLORINE GROUP\\n145\\nFluorine\\n146\\nHydrofluoric Acid\\n147\\nNitrogen\\n148\\nAmmonia\\n149\\nNitrogen chloride\\n154\\nNitrogen Iodide Ammonium Amalgam\\n155\\nAmmonium Chloride\\n156\\nAmmonium Bydroeulphide and Sulphide\\n157\\nAmmonium Nitrate\\n158\\nAmmonium Carbonate\\n158\\nAmmonium Sulphate\\n159\\nHydroxylamine\\n159\\nHydrazine\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Hydraaoic Acid Oxygen Compounds of\\nNitrogen 160\\nNil rogen Monoxide\\n161\\nNitric Oxide\\n163\\ngen Trioxide\\n164\\nNitn txidc Nitryl Compound!\\n165,166\\nNitrogen Pentoxide -Nitric Acid\\n167\\nNitronydroehloric Acid\\n170\\nPhoephorui\\n171\\nPboephine\\n175\\nPhoephorui Trichloride Phosphorus Pentaehloride\\n178\\nPhoephorui Oxyohloride Compound of Phosphorui\\nwith Bromine,\\nIodine, tnd Fluorine\\n179,180\\nCompoundi of Phoephorui and Oxygen\\n180\\nHypophoephorui Acid\\n181\\n182\\nPhoephoric Oxide\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Phosphoric Acid\\n183\\nPrrophoephoric Acid\\n184\\nIietaphogphorie id\\n185\\nPhoephorui and Sulphur Arsenic\\n186\\nne\\n188\\nArsenic Chloride, Bromide, and Iodide Arsenioua 0:\\ntide .189\\nArsenic Acid\\n192\\nArsenic Sulphides\\n193, 194", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0016.jp2"}, "17": {"fulltext": "TABLE OF CONTENTS. 13\\nPAGE\\nAntimony 195\\nStibine 196\\nAntimonous Oxide Antimony Antimonate 198\\nAntimonic Oxide and Acids Antimony Sulphides 199, 200\\nAnalogies of Nitrogen Group 200\\nBoron 201\\nBoron Chloride 202\\nBoron Fluoride Boric Acid 203\\nSilicon 204\\nHydrogen Silicide 205\\nSilicon Chloride 206\\nSilicon Fluoride 207\\nSilica 208\\nCarbon 209-215\\nCarborundum Compounds of Carbon and Oxygen 216\\nCarbon Monoxide 217\\nCarbonyl Chloride Carbon Dioxide 219\\nCarbon Disulphide 225\\nCarbon Oxysulphide 226\\nCompounds of Carbon and Hydrogen 227\\nFlame 228-231\\nTheory of Atomicity 232\\nChemical Energy Thermo-Chemistry 240\\nGeneral Properties of Metals 243\\nNatural State and Extraction of Metals 247\\nAlloys 248\\nOxides and Metallic Hydrates 250-257\\nSulphides 257\\nChlorides 258\\nSalts 262\\nRichter s Laws 265\\nGeneral Properties of Salts 267\\nSupersaturation 271\\nElectrolysis .274\\nArrhenius s Theory Faraday s Law 276\\nBerthollet s Laws 277\\nNitrates 283\\nSulphates 285\\nCarbonates 287\\nClassification and Atomicity of Metals 289\\nMendelejeff s Periodic Law 294\\nPotassium 297\\nSodium 306\\nLithium Caesium and Rubidium Spectrum Analysis 315\\nSilver and its Compounds 317\\nCalcium 324\\nStrontium 330\\nBarium 331\\nGlucinum 333\\n2", "height": "4792", "width": "2933", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0017.jp2"}, "18": {"fulltext": "14 TABLK Off CONTENTS.\\nPAGE\\nMagnesium 334\\nZinc 337\\nCadmium 342\\n1 343\\nCopper 354\\nMercury 362\\nVanadium 370\\nNiobium and Tantalum 371\\nGoM 373\\nBismuth 377\\nAluminium 380\\nCerium, Lanthanum, and Didymiuin 385\\nC.allium 386\\nIndium 387\\nRare Earths 388\\nIron 389\\nCobalt 401\\nNickel 403\\nManganese 405\\nCranium 409\\nHelium Chromium 410\\nMolybdenum Tungsten 414\\nTin 416\\nTitanium 421\\nGermanium Zirconium 422\\nThorium 423\\nPlatinum 424\\nIfetall of the Platinum Group 427\\nOrganic Chemistry Constitution of Organic Compounds 429\\nFormation of Hydrocarbons 433\\nHomologous Bodies Chemical Species 435\\nElementary Analysis 436\\nDetermination of Molecular Weight 440\\nDetermination of Melting and Boiling Points 444\\nIsomerism 445\\nFunction- of Organic Chemistry 447\\nIfonatomio Radicals 448\\nPolyatomic Radieali 459\\nCyanogen Compounds 462\\nCompounds of Carbon Monoxide 473\\nIfonatomio Alcohol- and their Derivatives Methyl Compound- 489\\nKthyl Compound! 497\\nlaturated Bydrooarboni 517\\nPetroleum 519\\n[DOnatOmic Alcohols 520\\nCompound Ammoniai 530\\nHydrazines 532\\nPho phines 536\\nmpoundi 539\\nids 541\\nFormic Compounds 543\\nmpoundi 545\\nOther Aeids of the Series OH^O* 559", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0018.jp2"}, "19": {"fulltext": "TABLE OF CONTENTS. 15\\nPAGE\\nOleic Acid and its Homologues 566\\nDiatomic Hydrocarbons 568\\nHydrocarbons C n H 2 n- 2 575\\nGlycols and their Derivatives 577\\nGlycerol and its Ethers 586\\nNatural Fats 590\\nSoaps Polyatomic and Polybasic Acids 593\\nUric Acid and its Derivatives 624\\nAlcohols of High Atomicity 633\\nSugars and Starches 635\\nFermentation 646\\nGlucosides 657\\nAromatic Compounds and their Constitution 662\\nBenzene and its Derivatives 671\\nPhenol 677\\nAniline 683\\nDiazobenzene Compounds 686\\nRosaniline and its Derivatives 689\\nDioxybenzenes 692\\nToluene and its Derivatives 697\\nXylenes and their Derivatives 714\\nTrimethylbenzenes and Isomerides 716\\nTerpenes and Camphors 718\\nUnsaturated aromatic Compounds 729\\nIndigo and its Derivatives 732\\nNaphthalene 738\\nAnthracene and Phenanthrene 741\\nFurfurane, Thiophene, and Pyrrol 745\\nPyridine and its Derivatives 747\\nQuinoline 750\\nAlkaloids 752\\nSubstitutes for Natural Alkaloids 769\\nAlbuminoid Matters, Proteids 770\\nProducts of Animal Disassimilation 782", "height": "4803", "width": "2919", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0019.jp2"}, "20": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0020.jp2"}, "21": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nINTRODUCTION.\\nThe material objects surrounding us present striking and\\ninfinite differences. Sulphur is readily distinguished from\\ncharcoal, rock-crystal from flint, iron from copper, water from\\nspirit of wine, and wood from ivory. It is known to all that\\nthese bodies differ not only in form, density, and structure, but\\nalso in their proper substance. They differ, too, in the changes\\nthrough which they pass under the same conditions. When\\nsubjected to the action of heat they receive very differently the\\nimpression of that force. They become heated more or less\\nquickly, and transmit the heat with greater or less rapidity\\nthroughout their own substance. A short bar of iron cannot\\nbe grasped in the hand by one extremity if the other be heated\\nto redness under the same conditions a cylinder of charcoal\\nmay be handled with impunity. Communicate sufficient heat to\\nwater and it is converted into steam remove heat from it, and\\nif the cooling be sufficient, it is frozen into ice. Spirit of wine\\nis scarcely congealed by the most intense cold known. If a\\nmagnet be placed among iron filings they attach themselves in\\ntufts around the two poles on the contrary, copper filings are\\nindifferent to the magnetic attraction.\\nRock-crystal is transparent to light flint is opaque. These\\ntwo bodies are unalterable by fire. They may be heated to red-\\nness in a furnace, but after the temperature has abated they\\nwill be found with their original characters unchanged. It is\\nvery different with the coal which we burn in our grates. This\\nbody disappears during the combustion, and leaves only a quan-\\ntity of ashes. But it has not been destroyed, and its substance\\nis found in entirety in a certain gas produced by the combus-\\ntion. Like charcoal, sulphur is combustible, and is converted\\nby burning into a gas, the suffocating odor of which is well\\nknown.\\nNeither sulphur nor charcoal undergo any alteration when\\nb 2* 17", "height": "4803", "width": "2917", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0021.jp2"}, "22": {"fulltext": "18 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\naed to damp air it is not the Bame with iron. In a moist\\natmosphere this metal experiences a striking and lasting change.\\n[te surface becomes covered with rust and is no longer iron.\\nIn the forests, the leaves which fall and remain upon the\\nmoist soil are slowly consumed and disappear in the course of\\n-ns.\\nAll n{ these changes, these phenomena, take place daily be-\\nfore OUT eves, and are familiar to all of us. On comparison,\\nstriking differences are discovered between them some are but\\npassing, and do not affect the proper nature of the body. They\\nare the results of forces which act at sensible distances, and\\nwhich leave the body in its primitive state as soon as their\\naction has ceased. A piece of soft iron is attracted by the\\nmagnet before contact is established, and when under the mag-\\nnetic influence, is capable of attracting other soft iron in its\\nturn the action of the magnet has made the iron itself mag-\\nnetic hut it immediately loses this property when the magnet\\nis withdrawn and further, this momentary change in property\\nhas brought about no alteration in the intimate nature of the\\niron. It is found after the experiment in precisely the same\\ncondition as before.\\nIn the same manner, rock-crystal undergoes no change in its\\nspecific identity by the passage of a ray of light. Withdraw\\nfrom the vapor of water the heat which has been communi-\\ncated to it. and the liquid water is recovered with all its prop-\\nortion Restore to the ice the heat which was abstracted in its\\nformation, and water is regenerated as before. This is charac-\\nteristic of the changes produced by physical forces. Under\\nthe influence of such forces, bodies experience modifications\\nmore or less profound, more or less lasting, but which never\\naffect their Specific nature.\\nBut the iron which rusts undergoes a complete and lasting\\nchange in it- properties and in its substance. The rust is no\\nlonger iron, and mainly would it he BOUghl to isolate the metal\\nby mechanical means, or to discover its presence by the aid of\\nth most powerful microscopes. Hie metal has disappeared as\\nsuch it has undergone a complete transformation it has be-\\ncome another body. It has attracted one of the elements of\\nthe ;iir n. and has, moreover, fixed to itself tin; moisture\\nof the atmosphere. These latter bodies, which differ from iron\\nin substance, have intimately united with the metal itself, and\\nth\u00c2\u00ab- result of this union, of this combination as it is called, is", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0022.jp2"}, "23": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION.\\n19\\na new body, rust or hydrated oxide of iron. In this case the\\nalteration is profound, the change is lasting the specific nature\\nof the body is affected. This is characteristic of chemical\\naction.\\nIn the same manner, when the charcoal and the sulphur are\\nburned in the air, they attract oxygen and combine with it,\\nforming two new bodies that are called carbonic and sul-\\nphurous acids.\\nThese phenomena may be rendered more clear by simple and\\nwell-known experiments.\\nExperiment 1. A globe (Fig. 1) is filled with oxygen, a\\ngas which constitutes one of the elements of the atmosphere,\\nand which is eminently fitted to support combustion into it is\\nplunged a morsel of charcoal lighted at one end immediately\\nthe coal glows with a brilliant light, the combination takes place\\nactively, and the charcoal is rapidly consumed. But presently\\nthe light becomes paler, the combustion ceases, and the char-\\ncoal is extinguished. The oxygen is now nearly or quite con-\\nJR\\nh\\nFig. 1.\\nFig. 2.\\nsumed, and the globe is filled with another gas which is no\\nlonger oxygen, although it contains that oxygen. It contains\\nalso the matter of the charcoal which has disappeared, and\\nthese two bodies have combined to form a new body, which is\\ncarbonic acid. This latter will not support combustion, but, on\\nthe contrary, it extinguishes burning bodies. It is then a body\\nhaving entirely new properties, and is formed by a chemical\\naction.\\nExperiment 2. Into another jar filled with oxygen (Fig. 2)\\nis plunged a spoon containing ignited sulphur. The combus-", "height": "4800", "width": "2881", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0023.jp2"}, "24": {"fulltext": "20 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMI8TRY,\\ntion takes place with a beautiful blue flame, and in burning in\\nthe oxygen with bo much energy, the sulphur unites with the\\ngas and tonus with it a new l ody, which is called anhydrous\\nsulphurous acid. It is a suffocating gas, which extinguishes\\nflame. It reddens, and afterwards bleaches, a solution oi hlue\\nlitmus poured into the jar. These are special properties which\\ndo not belong to the oxygen at first contained in the jar. They\\ncharacterize a new body, the result of the combination of the\\nsulphur with the oxygen, and formed by chemical action.\\nCarbon, sulphur, and oxygen are simj)lc bodies or elements.\\nThey are bo called because from neither of them can more than\\none kind of matter be obtained. But when the charcoal in\\nburning unites with the oxygen, the earbonic acid which re-\\nsults from the union contains two kinds of matter, carbon and\\noxygen and these two elements are united in such an intimate\\nmanner that the body which contains both does not resemble\\neither carbon or oxygen: it is endowed with new properties\\nwhich do not in any manner recall those of the elements which\\nconstitute it. In fact, it is a new substance, a compound body\\nformed by the combination of the matter of the charcoal with\\nthe matter of the oxygen.\\nConsidering the preceding facts, we may give to chemistry\\nthe following definition: chemistry studies those intimate ac-\\ntion- of bodies upon each other which modify their natures\\nand cause a complete and lasting change in their properties.\\nIron may be reduced to a fine powder. This maybe mixed\\nwith sulphur itself reduced to powder, and if the mixture be\\nsufficiently intimate, it will present neither the lemon-yellow\\ncolor of sulphur nor the gray-black of finely-divided iron.\\nertheless, a homogeneous substance cannot be formed in\\nthi- manner. If the powder be examined under the microscope,\\nthe particles of iron may be recognized disseminated among\\nthose of the sulphur, but the two are not merged together.\\nBy the aid of a magnet tin; iron may be separated. On the\\nother hand, if the mass be thrown into water, the particles of\\niron will sink first t the bottom, while the lighter particles of\\nsulphur remain in suspension. Thus, niter having triturated\\ntie- sulphur and iron together, not only can each substance be\\nignized in the mass, but they can again separated by\\nmechanical means. Sere there has been do chemical action,\\nbut simply ;i mixtwre* [f, however, this mixture be heated,\\ntie- sulphur will first he seen to melt, and afterwards the", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0024.jp2"}, "25": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION. 21\\nwhole mass will blacken and enter into fusion if the tempera-\\nture be sufficiently elevated. After cooling, it is perfectly ho-\\nmogeneous, and neither iron nor sulphur can be recognized.\\nBoth have disappeared as such, and in their place is found a\\nsubstance having new properties it is the sulphide of iron.\\nThey have disappeared, but their substance is not lost and\\nit may be proved by experiment that the weight of the sul-\\nphide of iron produced is exactly equal to the sum of the\\nweights of the iron and the sulphur. The ponderable matter\\nof the iron is then added to the ponderable matter of the sul-\\nphur, and has formed with it a union so intimate that there\\nresults a new body, the smallest particles of which are per-\\nfectly similar to each other and to the entire mass. This ex\\nample and a thousand others that might be given prove that\\nwhen bodies combine there is neither loss nor creation of mat-\\nter. The result of the combination, that is, the compound\\nbody, contains the whole of the substance and nothing more\\nthan the substance of the combining bodies. This is an essen-\\ntial characteristic of chemical combination.\\nThe force which determines chemical combination is called\\naffinity. It is important that this force be distinguished from\\nanother which is often opposed to it, and which is cohesion.\\nIn order to reduce to powder a solid substance, such as\\npyrites or sulphide of iron, it is necessary to overcome the\\nresistance opposed by the particles of the mass to their separa-\\ntion. This resistance is due to a special force, which brings\\nand maintains in relation to each other the homogeneous par-\\nticles of the sulphide of iron, as indeed of all solid bodies.\\nThis is cohesion. The particles which are bound together by\\nthis force are not only those minute particles which are visible\\nto the naked eye or under the microscope, and of which the\\nmost impalpable powder of a solid body is composed. Such\\nparticles still present a magnitude that can be measured they\\nmust be considered as little masses, so to speak, indivisible by\\nthe mechanical means at our command, but formed in reality\\nof particles still smaller. These smallest particles of a solid\\nbody which are bound by cohesion are called molecules. They\\nare not in immediate contact with each other. In a perfectly\\ncompact and homogeneous mass, such as sulphide of iron, the\\nmolecules do not touch each other. Between them exist\\nspaces of considerable magnitude, compared to the real volume\\nof the molecule. This idea must not be confused with that of", "height": "4784", "width": "2872", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0025.jp2"}, "26": {"fulltext": "22 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nporosity, which is caused by those accidental spaces which form\\nvisible pores in solid bodies. The intermolecular spaces are\\nthose which separate the molecules of a homogeneous and com-\\npact solid body, and physicists have further been led to believe\\nthat even in solid bodies the molecules are not perfectly immo-\\nbile, but that they execute vibratory movements in the spaces\\nwhich separate them, at the same time maintaining their own\\nrelative positions.\\nIf a solid body be heated, a part of the heat is employed in\\nraising the temperature, another part serves to increase the\\ndistances which separate the molecules the body expands in\\nbecoming heated. But, as the distances between the molecules\\nincrease by the action of the heat and the effect of the expan-\\nsion, the molecular attraction necessarily becomes more feeble.\\nCohesion is thus somewhat diminished, and if the heat be\\nfurther increased, it may be so much diminished that the mole-\\ncules, which have thus far been maintained in definite rela-\\ntions, can move and glide freely over each other the solid\\nbody then enters into fusion it becomes a liquid. The liquid\\nstate is produced by a diminution of cohesion, and is charac-\\nterized by a greater mobility of the molecules.\\nBut if the liquid body be still further heated, at a certain\\npoint the additional heat may produce such a separation of the\\nmolecules that, already freed from all mutual attraction, they\\nbecome completely independent of each other. This is char-\\nacteristic of the gaseous state.\\nIt may be stated, then, that cohesion is considerable in solid\\nbodies, but slightly energetic in liquids, and null in gases, and\\nwe have just seen that heat, by causing the changes of state of\\na body, can overcome and even practically abolish this physical\\nforce.\\nChemical force or affinity is at the same time more intimate\\nand more powerful. It modifies the molecules themselves. It\\nbrings heterogeneous substances into intimate relations, and\\nthus produces new molecules. A consideration of the examples\\nalready cited may indicate more clearly the meaning of this\\nimportant proposition.\\nWe have brought together sulphur and iron, and by their\\nreciprocal action and the aid of heat there has been formed a\\nnew body, sulphide of iron. We know that the smallest mass\\nof sulphur we can obtain is composed of a collection of per-\\nfectly homogeneous molecules, aggregated by cohesion. In each", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0026.jp2"}, "27": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION. 23\\nof them but one kind of matter can be found. It is the same\\nwith iron the particles of this metal are perfectly homoge-\\nneous. Sulphur and iron are simple bodies or elements.\\nLet us now consider the sulphide of iron which results from\\ntheir combination. This body also is formed of a collection of\\nmolecules, bound together by cohesion and perfectly similar to\\neach other, but not homogeneous, for in each molecule we dis-\\ntinguish two kinds of matter. sulphur and iron.\\nIt cannot be admitted that these two substances are con-\\nfounded in the molecule, or that the effect of the combination\\nof sulphur with iron is an interpenetration of the two bodies\\nso intimate that they both disappear in what might be called a\\nhomogeneous mixture. On the contrary, it is supposed that\\nthe combination results from the juxtaposition of two infinitely\\nsmall masses, each of which possesses a real magnitude and a\\nconstant weight.\\nThese little masses that no force, chemical or physical, can\\ndivide further, constitute the atoms. In each molecule of sul-\\nphide of iron there exist two of these masses. one of sulphur\\nand one of iron and the atom of sulphur and the atom of\\niron are united, but not merged together, by chemical force.\\nAnd when sulphur combines with iron it is because the atoms\\nof the sulphur arrange themselves in juxtaposition with those\\nof the iron, and it is affinity which brings about the action.\\nWhen these atoms again separate, the sulphide of iron is said\\nto decompose. When it attracts the atoms of another body, it\\nis said to combine with that body.\\nIf sulphide of iron remain for some time exposed to moist\\nair. its surface becomes covered with an efflorescence formed of\\na saline matter. In this case it has attracted one of the ele-\\nments of the air, oxygen, with which it has combined to form\\ngreen vitriol or sulphate of iron.\\nAs we shall see later on, we have reason to believe that the\\nmolecules of oxygen gas are each formed of two atoms, but\\nthese atoms are of the same kind the molecules of sulphide\\nof iron, on the contrary, are each formed of two unlike atoms,\\none of sulphur and one of iron. These attract four atoms\\nof oxygen, which constitute two molecules of that gas, which\\ngroup themselves around the atom of sulphur and the atom\\nof iron, forming with them one single molecule, more complex\\nthan the original molecule of sulphide of iron, for it contains\\nin addition four atoms of oxygen.", "height": "4796", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0027.jp2"}, "28": {"fulltext": "24 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\n1 molecule\\n1 molecule\\n1 molecule\\nsulphide of iroi\\ni. oxygen.\\noxygen.\\ni\\nfixes\\n4- i\\nand there results\\n1 molecule\\nsulphate of iron.\\n0-#-0\\nIt is seen from what precedes that the words molecule and\\natom are far from being synonyms. The chemical molecule\\nconstitutes a whole of which the atoms form the parts, and\\nthese atoms are held together by affinity. In the preceding\\nfigure, this exchange of affinities between the atoms is indi-\\ncated by lines of union.\\nChemical molecules have been well compared to edifices:\\nthe atoms constitute the materials, and it is readily conceived\\nthat such molecular edifices differ from each other according\\nto the nature, number, and arrangement of the atoms, that is,\\nthe materials composing them.\\nAn edifice may be enlarged by the addition of new parts it\\nmay be reduced in size or it may be entirely demolished. In\\nthe same manner a chemical molecule may be increased by the\\nannexation of new atoms, or diminished by the separation of\\nsome of those which it already contains. In the first case\\nthere is combination, in the second, decomposition.\\nWe may still further consider these phenomena of combina-\\ntion and decomposition.\\nSince the combination of two bodies results from the recip-\\nrocal action of their atoms, and has for effect a change in the\\nnature of the molecules, it is evident that it can only take\\nplace when these atoms, and consequently the molecules, are\\nbrought into intimate relations or more precisely, when the\\nmolecules of one of the bodies enter within the sphere of\\naction of the molecules of the other body. And this sphere\\nof action is very limited, for the affinity or elective attraction\\nof the atoms is only exercised at infinitely small distances.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0028.jp2"}, "29": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION. 25\\nIn consequence affinity is often retarded by cohesion, which\\nmaintains the relations between the molecules of a solid body.\\nThese two forces are frequently in opposition, and that the\\nfirst may attain the supremacy it is necessary that the other\\nshall yield. To make manifest or to increase the affinity be-\\ntween two bodies, it is then necessary to diminish their cohe-\\nsion. On this condition the molecules can enter within the\\nspheres of their reciprocal attraction, and the atoms of one\\nbody can attract those of the other.\\nIt has been seen from one of the experiments already cited\\nthat in order to combine iron with sulphur it is necessary to\\nelevate the temperature. Now, the heat, by fusing the sul-\\nphur, diminishes its cohesion, and, giving its molecules freedom\\nof motion, puts them into more intimate contact with those of\\nthe iron. Chemical action then commences.\\nInstead of heating the sulphur and iron to bring about\\nchemical action, it would be sufficient to moisten the mixture\\nwith water. By the intervention of this liquid the particles\\nof sulphur and of iron are, as it were, cemented together and\\nthus brought into more intimate relations. For a stronger\\nreason can chemical action between two solids be facilitated by\\ndissolving them both in water and mixing the solutions. Dis-\\nsolved, they themselves assume the liquid state and lose, in\\ngreat part, their cohesion. The ancients understood the in-\\nfluence of the liquid state upon reactions, and stated it with\\nexaggeration Corpora non agunt nisi soluta.\\nAlthough the liquid state facilitates chemical reactions, it\\ndoes not follow that it always determines them. Frequently\\nliquids and even gases, after being mixed, must be heated\\nbefore they will react upon each other.\\nExperiment. In a glass tube (Fig. 3) two gases, oxygen\\nand hydrogen, are mixed in the proportion of one volume of\\nthe first to two of the second. Although the mixture is per-\\nfectly homogeneous and very intimate, and although the cohe-\\nsion of the gaseous molecules is null, no action takes place.\\nBut as soon as the mixture is heated by approaching a lighted\\ntaper to the mouth of the tube, combination takes place ener-\\ngetically. An explosion occurs and the two gases unite, form-\\ning water. In this case the heat has determined combination\\nby increasing the intensity of the movements which animate\\nthe molecules of each gas, and so bringing the molecules of the\\none within the sphere of attraction of those of the other.\\nb 3", "height": "4789", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0029.jp2"}, "30": {"fulltext": "26\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe electric spark produces the same effect, and it probably\\nacts by the heat which it communicates to the mixture.\\nFig. 3.\\nMore rarely combination is brought about by the influence\\nof light.\\nIf a small bottle be filled with a mixture of equal volumes\\nof hydrogen and chlorine gases, and then thrown into the air\\nso that it may be struck by the direct rays of the sun, the\\ncombination of the two gases takes place instantly and with\\nexplosion.\\nSuch are some of the conditions which favor or determine\\nchemical combination. Let us now study the circumstances\\nwhich accompany these phenomena.\\nExperiment. If sulphur be strongly heated in a small glass\\nflask until it begins to boil, and some copper turnings be then\\nthrown into the flask, a brilliant incandescence takes place im-\\nmediately. It is produced by the combination of the two\\nbodies. Charcoal, sulphur, and phosphorus produce a brilliant\\nlight when they are burned in oxygen. Their combination\\nwith the gas takes place with evolution of luminous heat.\\nWhen any combustible body whatsoever is burned in the\\nair, the heat and light are developed by the combination of the\\nbody with oxygen, one of the elements of the air. In general,\\nall chemical combinations give rise to the production of heat,\\nmore or less intense in certain cases it is luminous, but more\\noften it is obscure sometimes it is scarcely perceptible.\\nWhile heat acts as the determining cause of a great number", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0030.jp2"}, "31": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION. 27\\nof combinations, and while it is the result of such combination,\\nit may play still another role in chemical reactions. In place\\nof favoring combination, it may act in the opposite manner,\\nseparating atoms which are united by chemical attraction.\\nMercury retains indefinitely its brilliant surface when ex-\\nposed to the air at ordinary temperatures, but at a temperature\\nnear its boiling-point it slowly attracts the oxygen of the air,\\nand becomes covered with an orange-red powder, which is oxide\\nof mercury. In this case heat has assisted the formation of a\\ncompound.\\nIf, however, this red powder be heated in a small retort to a\\ntemperature near redness, it is again resolved into mercury,\\nwhich appears in drops in the neck of the retort, and into\\noxygen which may be collected.\\nIn this case an intense heat breaks up the compound which\\nis formed at a temperature less elevated it occasions a decom-\\nposition.\\nHeat acts thus in a great number of cases. A body is said\\nto decompose when the elements composing it are separated\\nfrom each other.\\nThe electric spark may occasion such separation when it is\\npassed through compound gases. If a series of electric dis-\\ncharges be passed through ammonia gas, the latter is decom-\\nposed, that is, resolved into its two elements, nitrogen and\\nhydrogen.\\nIn like manner, the current of the voltaic pile decomposes\\na great number of chemical compounds, the elements of which\\nseparate and appear, each at its appropriate pole of the bat-\\ntery. The decomposing action exerted by the galvanic current\\nupon chemical compounds was discovered about the commence-\\nment of the present century by Nicholson and Carlisle. These\\nphysicists were the first to decompose water by the voltaic\\ncurrent.\\nLastly, light may decompose certain bodies, among which\\nare a great number of the compounds of silver. The art of\\nphotography is founded upon the decomposing action of light\\nupon certain of these combinations.\\nThere is a certain class of decompositions which it is impor-\\ntant to consider with attention. They are occasioned by the\\nintervention of more powerful affinities than those which main-\\ntain united the elements of a compound body.\\nIf copper be heated in the air, it attracts oxygen and is con-", "height": "4794", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0031.jp2"}, "32": {"fulltext": "28\\nELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nverted into a black powder, a compound of oxygen and copper,\\nwhich is called oxide of copper. The affinity which unites the\\ntwo bodies is considerable it cannot be overcome by the ac-\\ntion of heat alone at any ordinary temperature to which the\\noxide so formed may be exposed, the atoms of copper still re-\\nmain intimately associated with those of the oxygen. But if\\nthis oxide be mixed with powdered charcoal and then heated,\\na moment arrives when the affinity of the charcoal for the oxy-\\ngen is superior to that of the copper. The atoms of oxygen\\nthen abandon the copper and combine with the charcoal, thus\\nforming a new compound, carbonic acid, which is disengaged\\nin the form of gas. Here there is at the same time decompo-\\nsition and combination. The molecules of oxide of copper are\\ndecomposed those of carbonic acid are formed.\\nNothing is created in combinations nothing is lost in de-\\ncompositions. In the preceding experiment only copper re-\\nmains the charcoal and oxygen have disappeared, but their\\nsubstance is not lost. All of the matter of the charcoal is\\nFig. 4.\\nfound combined with all of the matter of the oxygen in the\\nproduct of their combination, the carbonic acid, in such a\\nmanner that the weight of the latter added to the weight of\\nthe copper remaining, exactly represents the weight of the\\noxide of copper and charcoal.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0032.jp2"}, "33": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION. 29\\nExperiment. Some oxide of mercury, of which we have\\nseen the decomposition by heat, may be placed in a tube\\nthrough which is passed a current of hydrochloric acid gas, a\\ngas composed of chlorine and hydrogen (Fig. 4). An ener-\\ngetic reaction takes place. The orange-red powder is converted\\ninto a white crystalline substance, and much heat is produced.\\nAt the same time a small quantity of liquid condenses in the\\nbulb. This is water, and th d white powder formed is mercuric\\nchloride, or corrosive sublimate, a compound of mercury and\\nchlorine. The hydrochloric acid has converted the mercuric\\noxide into mercuric chloride. The mercury, at first combined\\nwith oxygen, is now combined with chlorine. But what has\\nbecome of the oxygen It has combined with the hydrogen\\nof the hydrochloric acid, forming water. We have brought\\ninto presence of each other two compound bodies\\nMercuric oxide,\\nHydrochloric acid,\\nand from their reciprocal action two new compounds result\\nMercuric chloride,\\nWater or oxide of hydrogen.\\nThis reaction has then occasioned an interchange of elements.\\nThe mercury of the mercuric oxide has combined with the\\nchlorine of the hydrochloric acid, and the oxygen has left the\\nmercury and combined with the hydrogen, which was aban-\\ndoned by the chlorine. The reaction has been as easy as\\nenergetic, thanks to the intervention of two affinities, for the\\naffinity of chlorine for mercury has been aided by that of hy-\\ndrogen for oxygen. Two molecules are decomposed, and two\\nnew molecules are formed by an exchange which may be rep-\\nresented in the following manner\\nBEFORE THE REACTION.\\nMercury Oxygen Mercuric oxide.\\nHydrogen Chlorine Hydrochloric acid.\\nDURING THE REACTION.\\nAFTER THE REACTION.\\nMercury Chlorine Mercuric chloride.\\nHydrogen Oxygen Water.\\na*", "height": "4787", "width": "2933", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0033.jp2"}, "34": {"fulltext": "30 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nSuch reactions, characterized by an interchange of elements,\\nare called double decompositions. They are the more usual\\nreactions in chemistry.\\nThe examples cited have been demonstrated by experiments\\neasy to comprehend and to repeat, and are sufficient to give an\\nidea of chemical phenomena. We have seen how, on the con-\\ntact of two heterogeneous bodies, this elective attraction, which\\nis called affinity and which sets in motion the smallest particles\\nof bodies, comes into play to produce either combination or\\ndecomposition we have seen how this force modifies the\\nchemical molecules either by interposing other molecules, or\\nunder the influence of physical forces, such as heat and elec-\\ntricity. The study of all these phenomena constitutes chem-\\nistry, the science of molecular changes a science grand in\\npurpose and in magnitude, since it penetrates to the very\\nnature of the bodies surrounding us a science unlimited in\\nits applications, since through it we learn to know and control\\nthe powerful forces which are at work in the most intimate\\nstructure of matter.\\nIf we trace the acquired facts to the most obvious and most\\ncertain conclusion, we must admit the existence of a number\\nof bodies, each of which, when submitted to the various tests\\nconsisting in the application of physical and chemical forces,\\nfurnishes but one and the same substance, and it is impossible\\nto obtain anything else than this substance from the body. We\\nmaintain, then, until proved to the contrary, that each of these\\nbodies contains but a single kind of matter, to which the name\\nsimple body or element is applied. The chemical forces reside,\\nas has been seen, in the most remote particles, in the atoms of\\nthese bodies. In uniting together, the elements form compound\\nbodies, and it has already been stated that such combinations\\nresult from the juxtaposition of the atoms which attract each\\nother. The idea of atoms was originally an hypothesis, but in\\nits development it has been found to be supported by so many\\nimportant facts, and moreover to weave them together in the\\nmost natural manner, that it has attained the dignity of a\\ntheory. Chemists have universally adopted it, and it has ren-\\ndered immense service to the science. Let us proceed, now,\\nto a consideration of the facts upon which it is based.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0034.jp2"}, "35": {"fulltext": "LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS.\\n31\\nFig. 5.\\nLAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS.\\nThe proportions by weight according to which bodies combine are invari-\\nable for each combination These proportions are equivalemt among\\nthemselves Experiments demonstrating this fact.\\nExperiment. A test-glass (Fig. 5) contains a liquid which\\nis universally known as sulphuric acid. Although largely di-\\nluted with water, that is,\\nmixed with a large quan-\\ntity of that liquid, it still\\nmanifests its presence by\\nenergetic properties. It\\nhas a very sour and cor-\\nrosive taste, a quality of\\nan acid. If a few drops\\nof blue litmus solution be\\nadded to it the blue color\\ninstantly changes to bright\\nred. Another glass contains\\na solution of caustic potash\\nor potassium hydrate. This\\nsubstance possesses a strong, lye-like, alkaline taste, very easy\\nto distinguish from that of the acid. The color of the blue\\nlitmus is not affected by this liquid, but if a few drops of the\\nlitmus solution, previously reddened by an acid, be added, the\\nblue color is immediately restored. This caustic substance\\nhas properties which are different from those of acids, and\\nwhich are called basic or alkaline properties. Potassium\\nhydrate is an alkali or powerful base.\\nIf now the alkaline liquid, which has a blue color, be poured\\ndrop by drop into the reddened acid, and the mixture be\\nstirred with a glass rod, a moment arrives when the red color\\nof the acid liquid changes to blue. Exactly at this moment\\nwe have a solution which has no action upon litmus it will\\nnot redden the blue solution, neither will it restore the blue\\ncolor to the red. This may be demonstrated by dipping into\\nit first a red and then a blue litmus-paper. Furthermore, this\\nliquid possesses neither the acid taste of the oil of vitriol nor\\nthe alkaline taste of the caustic potash, but its taste is salty.\\nBy their mixture and reciprocal action the sulphuric acid\\nand the potash have lost the energetic properties which they", "height": "4783", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0035.jp2"}, "36": {"fulltext": "32 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nmanifested before mixing. They are exactly saturated they\\nare neutralized. That is, the liquid which now contains both,\\nor more properly the product of their reaction, is neither acid\\nnor alkaline; it is neutral, and its neutrality is manifested\\nboth by its indifference to vegetable colors and by its taste.\\nThere is no excess, neither of sulphuric acid nor of potash,\\nbut the two bodies have reacted exactly upon each other and\\nboth have disappeared, and from their reciprocal action two\\nnew bodies result, a salt called potassium sulphate, and\\nwater.\\nWhenever sulphuric acid is thus saturated by potash, there\\narrives a moment when the whole of the acid is precisely neu-\\ntralized by the alkali, and when the two bodies are converted,\\nwithout residue of either one or the other, into potassium sul-\\nphate and water and it is always easy to recognize the instant\\nat which this effect is produced by the action of the liquid upon\\nvegetable colors, such as solution of litmus, or syrup of violets.\\nThe latter is reddened by an acid, changed to green by an\\nalkali, and assumes its natural violet tint when the neutral\\npoint is reached. Now, it has been found that this last effect\\nis only produced when the acid and the alkali are mixed in\\ncertain proportions, which remain invariable, whatever may be\\nthe quantities which are mixed. In other words, it has been\\nfound that the quantities of sulphuric acid and potash which\\nreciprocally neutralize each other and form potassium sulphate,\\nmaintain a constant ratio to each other. It may be easily proved\\nthat when the state of neutrality has been once attained, it is\\nimmediately passed and disturbed by the least excess of either\\nacid or base that may be added to the liquid. This is made\\nevident by the immediate change in the color of the liquid to\\neither red or green.\\nThus, in order to form sulphate of potassium with a given\\nquantity of sulphuric acid, it is necessary to add an invariable\\nquantity of potash and if the quantity of sulphuric acid be\\nincreased by a third, or in any proportion whatever, it is neces-\\nsary to increase by a third, or in the same proportion, the quan-\\ntity of potash.\\nExperiments of this kind have been made with other acids\\nand other bases, and have introduced into the science the fun-\\ndamental notion that these bodies react upon each other in\\ndefinite proportions to form salts, and that consequently the\\ncomposition of the latter bodies is perfectly fixed. A given", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0036.jp2"}, "37": {"fulltext": "DEFINITE PROPORTIONS. 33\\nquantity of any acid whatever, invariably saturates a fixed\\nquantity of the same base. This, then, is the first point.\\nIt may be added that similar researches made towards the\\nclose of the last century have led to a not less important result,\\nnamely, the respective quantities of several acids which satu-\\nrate a given weight of one base are exactly proportional to the\\nquantities of the same acids which saturate a given weight of\\nanother base. The law which governs the composition of salts\\nwas discovered towards the close of the last century by a Ger-\\nman chemist, Richter. We cannot now expose it in detail\\nsuch development will be better placed and better understood\\nin that part of this work which treats of the forniatidh of salts.\\nFor the present it is sufficient to state that the law mentioned\\nis a consequence of the law of definite proportions, and that\\nthe latter law is universal. It applies not only to the reaction\\nof acids upon bases, but is true for all chemical combinations.\\nIt is generally known as Dalton s first law, and may be thus\\nexpressed the relative weights according to which bodies com-\\nbine are invariable for each combination.\\nThere is one feature of the laws which control the composi-\\ntion by weight of bodies that it is important to comprehend well.\\nIt may be best illustrated by experiment\\n100 gr. of mercury are put into the presence of chlorine\\ngas, a body possessing very powerful affinities. In this man-\\nner mercuric chloride or corrosive sublimate is formed, and it\\nis found that 35.5 gr. of chlorine are necessary to convert 100\\ngr. of mercury into this compound. These figures 100 and\\n35.5 express the invariable ratio in which these elements are\\ncombined in corrosive sublimate. Here we have the definite\\nproportions.\\nNow let the 135.5 gr. of corrosive sublimate be dissolved in\\nwater, and a plate of copper be placed in the solution this\\nmetal will displace the mercury, and combining with the 35.5\\ngr. of chlorine will form with it cupric chloride, which will\\nremain in solution, coloring the liquid green. The 100 gr. of\\nmercury are then precipitated, and it will be found that 31.75\\ngr. of copper have entered the solution and actually combined\\nwith 35.5 gr. of chlorine.\\nInto this solution of cupric chloride a plate of zinc is now\\nplunged all of the copper is precipitated in its turn, and 33\\ngr. of zinc enter into combination with the 35.5 gr. of chlorine,\\nforming zinc chloride.", "height": "4778", "width": "2920", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0037.jp2"}, "38": {"fulltext": "34 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe 35.5 gr. of chlorine ha ye now been combined success-\\nively with\\n100 gr. of mercury,\\n31.75 gr. of copper,\\n33 gr. of zinc.\\nThese numbers, which express the respective quantities of\\nmercury, copper, and zinc which combine with the same quan-\\ntity of chlorine, may be called the equivalents of these metals.\\nIn fact, these quantities are equivalent to each other in relation\\nto the same quantity of chlorine, the experiment having shown\\nus that in order to displace 100 gr. of mercury combined with\\n35.5 gr. of chlorine it is necessary to employ 31.75 gr. of\\ncopper or 33 gr. of zinc.\\nTo continue, 100 gr. of mercury are combined with oxygen,\\nand it is found that this quantity of the metal requires 8 gr. of\\noxygen to form the red powder called mercuric oxide.\\nBut how much oxygen is necessary to form cupric oxide\\nwith 31.75 gr. of copper? Remarkable as it seems, exactly\\n8 gr. are required, and 8 gr. are also requisite to form oxide\\nof zinc with 33 gr. of zinc.\\n100 gr. of mercury,\\n31.75 gr. of copper,\\n33 gr. of zinc,\\nwhich are equivalent compared to 35.5 gr. of chlorine, are then\\nalso equivalent in relation to 8 gr. of oxygen.\\nChlorine itself may be oxidized, and there exists a gaseous\\ncompound of chlorine and oxygen which contains precisely 8\\ngr. of oxygen for 35.5 gr. of chlorine.\\nThus, there are required\\n35.5 gr of chlorine to form chlorides with. [l^f^X^l^l\\n8 gr. of oxygen to oxidize 33 gr. of zinc,\\nand also\\n8 gr. of oxygen to oxidize 35.5 gr. of chlorine.\\nIn general, if\\nA, B, C, combine with D,\\nA, B, C, combine also with E,\\nand further, D combines with E,\\nthe letters A, B, C, D, E, representing the weights of the dif-\\nferent elements which enter into combination, or the propor-\\ntions according to which the bodies combine among themselves.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0038.jp2"}, "39": {"fulltext": "MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS. 35\\nThey are expressed by numbers that have been called combin-\\ning weights or equivalents these represent the ratio of weights\\nor the relative weights. They are indeed relative to a unit\\nwhich has served as a term of comparison, and which is the\\nequivalent of hydrogen. That is, the quantity of hydrogen\\nwhich combines with 35.5 of chlorine being 1, the equivalent\\nquantities of oxygen, zinc, copper, and mercury will be repre-\\nsented by the numbers 8 33 31.75 100.\\nThese are the facts of experiment. Let 33 gr. of zinc be\\ntreated with hydrochloric acid, the latter is immediately de-\\ncomposed its chlorine combines with the zinc, forming chlo-\\nride of zinc, and its hydrogen is disengaged. In this experi-\\nment the hydrogen of the hydrochloric acid is simply displaced\\nby the zinc. Now, 33 gr. of this metal will displace exactly\\n1 gr. of hydrogen.\\nIt is seen that the numbers which have been given do not\\nexpress absolute quantities, but merely the relative weights ac-\\ncording to which the bodies combine or replace each other in\\ncompounds, these relative weights being compared to that of\\nhydrogen, which is taken as unity.\\nSuch is the signification of the numbers.\\nf which represent\\n100 31.75 33 35.5 8 1 J equivalent quan-\\nn c c r c tities of these\\nf f f f f u a I elements,\\nmercury, copper, zinc, chlorine, oxygen, hydrogen.\\nThis being admitted, in order to determine the equivalent\\nof an element it is sufficient to find the quantity of that ele-\\nment which combines either with 1 of hydrogen or with a\\nquantity of another element which is equivalent to 1 of hydro-\\ngen, for instance, 8 of oxygen.\\nThe notion of equivalent proportions can be understood from\\nthe preceding considerations it appears as a consequence of\\nthe law of definite proportions it comprehends certain facts\\nrelative to the laws of the composition of bodies, but it by no\\nmeans represents the full scope of these laws. The following\\ndevelopments add important features.\\nMULTIPLE PROPORTIONS.\\nTwo bodies may combine in several proportions. Thus,\\nwith oxygen, carbon forms two compounds, both of which are\\ngaseous. The less rich in oxygen is carbon monoxide the\\nricher is carbon dioxide, or carbonic acid gas. Dalton was the", "height": "4787", "width": "2926", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0039.jp2"}, "40": {"fulltext": "36 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nfirst to perceive that for the same quantity of carbon, carbonic\\nacid contains exactly twice as much oxygen as carbon monoxide.\\nHe made analogous observations concerning the composition\\nof two compounds of carbon and hydrogen, the monocarbide\\nof hydrogen or marsh gas, and the dicarbide of hydrogen or\\nolefiant gas. From these observations he deduced the law of\\nmultiple proportions, which may be thus stated when two\\nbodies, simple or compound, unite in several proportions to\\nform several compounds, the weight of one of these bodies\\nbeing considered as constant, the weights of the other vary\\naccording to a simple ratio.\\nThus, taking up one of the examples given above, carbon\\nunites with oxygen in two proportions\\nCarbon monoxide contains 16 parts of oxygen to 12 parts\\nof carbon.\\nCarbon dioxide contains 32 parts of oxygen to 12 parts of\\ncarbon. The numbers 16 and 32 are in the ratio of 1 2.\\nNitrogen forms five compounds with oxygen if such quan-\\ntities of these compounds be taken as contain the same weight\\nof nitrogen, the weights of the oxygen will be proportional\\nto the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.\\nNitrogen monoxide contains for 28 parts of nitrogen 16 parts of oxygen.\\nNitrogen dioxide 28 32\\nNitrogen trioxide 28 48\\nNitrogen tetroxide 28 64\\nNitrogen pentoxide 28 80\\nThese numbers, 16, 32, 48, 64, 80, are multiples of the first\\nby the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.\\nFive compounds of manganese and oxygen are known, and\\nsimilar relations exist between the quantities of oxygen con-\\ntained in these compounds.\\nThe first contains 55 parts of manganese to 16 of oxygen.\\nThe second 55 24\\nThe third 55 32\\nThe fourth 55 48\\nThe fifth 55 56\\nThe numbers 16, 24, 32, 48, 56 are in the simple propor-\\ntion 1 1.5 2 3 3.5.\\nSuch is the law of multiple proportions discovered by\\nDalton.\\nHYPOTHESIS OF ATOMS.\\nThe brilliant researches of Dalton did not terminate with\\nthe acquisition of facts he sought to account for them by a", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0040.jp2"}, "41": {"fulltext": "GAY-LUSSAC S LAWS. ATOMIC THEORY. 37\\ntheoretical conception. Taking up the old idea of Leucippus\\nand the word of Epicurus, he supposed all ponderable matter\\nto be composed of indivisible particles which he called atoms.\\nHe gave a precise meaning to the vague and ancient notion by\\nconsidering on one hand that the atoms of each kind of matter,\\nof each element, possess an invariable weight, and on the other\\nthat combination between different kinds of matter results from\\nthe juxtaposition of their atoms. Such is the atomic hypothe-\\nsis, the substance of which we have already indicated in treat-\\ning of chemical phenomena in a general manner. It permits\\na simple and rational interpretation of the laws of the compo-\\nsition of bodies, and establishes between these laws a firm bond\\nof theory.\\nIndeed, if the combination of bodies results from the juxta-\\nposition of their atoms, the latter being considered as indivisi-\\nble and possessing a constant weight for each element, it is\\nevident that combination can only take place in definite pro-\\nportions, for these proportions represent the invariable relations\\nbetween the weights of the atoms which are in juxtaposition.\\nIf, on the other hand, one body may combine with another in\\nseveral proportions, such combination can only take place by\\nthe juxtaposition of 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., atoms of one body with\\none or more atoms of the other. It evidently results that the\\nweight of the latter body being constant, the weights of the\\nother in these various combinations must be multiples of each\\nother.\\nAn hypothesis which gives such a simple and precise ex-\\nplanation of the facts relative to definite and multiple propor-\\ntions is surely worthy of attention. It acquires still further\\nimport and becomes elevated to the rank of a theory when to\\nthese facts are added others entirely different from the first,\\nbut not less important.\\nGAY-LUSSAC S LAWS.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 ATOMIC THEORY.\\nGases combine in simple volumetric proportions Relations which exist\\nbetween the volumes of gases and their atomic and molecular weights\\nEqual volumes of gases or vapors contain the same number of molecules\\nThe molecular weights are equal to double the densities compared to\\nhydrogen.\\nAmong these new facts it is convenient to first notice those\\nwhich were discovered by Gay-Lussac, from 1805 to 1808.\\nThey relate to the volumes of gases which combine together.\\n4", "height": "4789", "width": "2923", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0041.jp2"}, "42": {"fulltext": "38\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nExperiment.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 A straight graduated glass tube about one metre\\nlong, closed at one end and having two platinum wires soldered\\nthrough the glass near the closed end, is filled with mercury and\\ninverted over a tall glass mercury cistern (Fig. 6), in the bottom\\nof which is a thick caoutchouc pad. This tube, which is called a\\neudiometer, is surrounded by a wider glass tube fitting firmly on a\\ncork passed over the eudiometer. The cork is also perforated for the\\npassage of a bent glass tube through which steam from a boiler can\\nbe delivered into the space between the eudiometer-tube and the\\nmantle. The mouth of the eudiometer being about one centimetre\\nFig. 6.\\nbelow the level of the mercury, which completely fills the cistern,\\na mixture of two volumes of hydrogen with one volume of oxygen\\nis now introduced until the level of the mercury in the tube indi-\\ncates the latter to contain exactly 30 cubic centimetres. The wires\\nof the eudiometer are now connected with the poles of an induction-\\ncoil, and steam is passed from the boiler until it no longer condenses\\nin the space between the tubes that is, when the temperature is\\n100\u00c2\u00b0. The gases have been expanded by the heat, and the eudiometer\\nmust be lowered into the cistern until the level of the mercury in\\nthe tube again marks 30 cubic centimetres, when the clamps of the", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0042.jp2"}, "43": {"fulltext": "GAY-LUSSAC s LAWS. ATOMIC THEORY. 39\\nstand are so adjusted that the upper one is fixed at this mercury\\nlevel. The tube is now lowered into the mercury until its lower\\nend rests upon the caoutchouc pad a spark from the coil is passed\\nin the eudiometer, and this causes the oxygen and hydrogen to com-\\nbine instantly, as is seen by a bright flash. Now, on raising the\\ntube until the mercury in it stands as before, at the level of the\\nupper clamp, it is found that the eudiometer contains only 20 cubic\\ncentimetres of gas instead of 30. The 20 cubic centimetres consist\\nof steam formed by the union of 20 cubic centimetres of hydrogen\\nwith 10 cubic centimetres of oxygen. As the apparatus cools, the\\nsteam will condense to water, and as the latter occupies a very small\\nvolume compared with that of the steam, the mercury will rise and\\nfill the tube.\\nFrom the facts thus established we draw the conclusion that 2\\nvolumes of hydrogen exactly combine with 1 volume of oxygen to\\nform 2 volumes of vapor of water.\\nThere is thus determined a simple ratio not only between the vol-\\numes of hydrogen and oxygen which combine, but further, between\\nthe volume of vapor of water formed and the sum of the volumes\\nof the composing gases. 3 volumes of the latter are reduced to\\nexactly 2 by the combination.\\nAnalogous facts have been discovered for other gases, as shown\\nby the following examples\\n2 volumes of nitrogen -f 1 volume of oxygen 2 volumes of nitrogen monoxide.\\n2 volumes of chlorine -f 1 volume of oxygen 2 volumes of chlorine monoxide.\\nIn other cases the combination of two gases determines a still\\ngreater contraction, and the initial volume is reduced one-half. Thus\\n1 volume of nitrogen 3 volumes of hydrogen 2 volumes of ammonia gas.\\nFinally, when two gases combine in equal volumes, their combi-\\nnation usually takes place without contraction in other words, the\\nvolume of the gas produced is equal to the sum of the volumes of\\nthe component gases.\\nFrom these collected facts we may draw the following general\\nconclusions\\n1. There is a simple relation between the volumes of gases\\nwhich combine.\\n2. There is a simple relation between the sum of the volumes\\nof the combining gases and the volume of the gas resulting\\nfrom the combination.\\nThese laws were first signalized by Gay-Lussac, whose name\\nis attached to them. Their importance is immense they have\\nadded a notable development to the atomic theory.\\nIf the definite proportions by weight in which bodies com-\\nbine represent, according to Dalton, the relative weights of\\ntheir atoms, it is natural to conclude that the definite and\\nsimple proportions by volume in which gases combine, accord-", "height": "4792", "width": "2918", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0043.jp2"}, "44": {"fulltext": "40\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ning to Gray-Lussac, represent the volumes occupied by the\\natoms. Under the same volume gases would then contain\\nthe same number of atoms. This was first proposed by Am-\\npere, who based his conclusion on the important consideration\\nthat gases dilate and contract nearly equally when submitted\\nto the same variations of temperature and pressure. Within\\ncertain limits the proposition is true it applies to a large num-\\nber of simple gases. But if equal volumes of these gases,\\nmeasured, let it be well understood, under the same conditions\\nof temperature and pressure, contain the same number of atoms,\\nit is evident that the weights of these equal volumes should\\nrepresent the weights of the atoms. In other words, the\\natomic weights of the simple gases should be proportional to\\ntheir densities.\\nThe densities of gases and vapors represent the weights of\\nthese gases or vapors compared to the weight of an equal\\nvolume of air. To determine the density, a certain volume of\\nthe given gas is weighed, and this weight is divided by that of\\nan equal volume of air, under the same conditions of tempera-\\nture and pressure. The air is then the unit to which are com-\\npared the densities of gaseous bodies. On comparing these\\ndensities to that of hydrogen, 1 which we take as unity, we find\\nthat the same numbers express almost exactly the densities and\\nthe atomic weights, the unit to which the densities are com-\\npared, that is, hydrogen, being the same as that to which are\\ncompared the atomic weights. The figures in the following\\ntable demonstrate this to be the case\\nElements.\\nDensities of\\nGases or Vapors,\\nAir being Unity.\\nDensities,\\nHydrogen being\\nUnity.\\nAtomic\\nWeights.\\nHydrogen\\nOxygen\\nNitrogen\\nSulphur (density at 1000\u00c2\u00b0)\\nChlorine\\nBromine\\nIodine\\n0.0693\\n1.1056\\n0.9714\\n2.22\\n2.44\\n5.393\\n8.716\\n1\\n15.9\\n14\\n32\\n35.2\\n77.8\\n125.8\\n1\\n16\\n14\\n32\\n35.5\\n80\\n127\\n1 To do this it is sufficient to multiply the densities of the gases compared\\nto air by\\nJ 0.0693\\ndrogen as unity\\n14.44, which is the density of the air compared to hy-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0044.jp2"}, "45": {"fulltext": "GAY-LUSSAC S LAWS. ATOMIC THEORY. 41\\nIt is seen from this table that if the densities of gases be\\ncompared to hydrogen as unity, just as the weights of their\\natoms are compared to hydrogen as unity, the same figures, or\\nvery nearly the same figures, express both the densities and\\nthe atomic weights. We may add that, for all the elements\\ntaken in the gaseous state, there has been determined between\\nthe densities referred to hydrogen and the atomic weights, if\\nnot equality, at least a simple ratio. These remarkable rela-\\ntions were pointed out by Gay-Lussac.\\nEqual volumes of the simple gases above enumerated con-\\ntain the same number of atoms. Two volumes of hydrogen,\\nthen, contain twice as many atoms as one volume of oxygen\\nand when these gases combine in the ratio of 2 volumes of the\\nfirst to 1 of the second, we must admit that each atom of oxy-\\ngen combines with 2 atoms of hydrogen. We say, then, that\\nwater is composed of 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxy-\\ngen. These three atoms so united constitute the smallest\\nquantity of water that can exist in the free state. This is\\ncalled a molecule of water.\\nBut what volume does this molecule occupy The experi-\\nment has shown us. We have seen that 2 volumes of hydro-\\ngen, in combining with 1 volume of oxygen, yield 2 volumes\\nof vapor of water. One molecule of water in the gaseous state,\\nthen, occupies 2 volumes, if 1 atom of hydrogen occupy 1\\nvolume, and if 1 atom of oxygen occupy 1 volume. It is\\nseen that the volumes represent the atoms, and the relative\\nweights of equal volumes, that is, the densities, represent the\\nweights of the atoms.\\nLet us now consider another compound gas, ammonia,\\ncomposed of hydrogen and nitrogen. A very simple experi-\\nment will show in what proportion the atoms of these elements\\nare combined in this gas, and the volume occupied by the\\ncompound compared with the volumes of its component gases.\\nExperiment. 100 volumes of ammonia gas are introduced\\ninto a tube inverted upon the mercury-trough (Fig. 7). and\\nthe walls of which are pierced at the upper end by two plati-\\nnum wires, between the ends of which a small space is left,\\nTo these wires are attached the extremities of the two con-\\nducting wires of a Ruhmkorff coil, and the current is passed\\nso that a series of electric sparks traverses the ammonia between\\nthe extremities of the wires in the tube. The gas is imme-\\ndiately decomposed, and the level of the mercury in the tube\\n4*", "height": "4785", "width": "2921", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0045.jp2"}, "46": {"fulltext": "42\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nis depressed. When the experiment has terminated it is found\\nthat the volume of the gas has been doubled. Instead of 100\\nvolumes, there are now 200, the gas being measured under the\\nsame conditions of temperature and pressure as before. It is\\nfound, by an analytical process that will be indicated further\\non, that these 200 volumes of gas resulting from the decompo-\\nFig. 7.\\nsition of 100 volumes of ammonia are composed of 150 vol-\\numes of hydrogen and 50 volumes of nitrogen. These 150\\nvolumes of hydrogen and 50 volumes of nitrogen are condensed\\nby their union into 100 volumes of ammonia. In other words,\\n3 volumes of hydrogen and 1 volume of nitrogen are combined\\ntogether in 2 volumes of ammonia. And as the volumes rep-\\nresent atoms, it follows that in ammonia gas 3 atoms of hydro-\\ngen are combined with 1 atom of nitrogen. But the quantity of\\nammonia containing 1 atom of nitrogen and 3 atoms of hydro-\\ngen is the smallest quantity of ammonia that can exist. It is\\na molecule of ammonia, and this molecule occupies 2 volumes,\\nif 1 atom of nitrogen or 1 atom of hydrogen occupy 1 volume.\\nHere, then, is another compound gas, ammonia, of which\\nthe molecule occupies 2 volumes, like that of water. It is the\\nsame with all the gases. All of the atoms which are combined\\nto constitute the molecule of a gas or vapor are so condensed\\nthat the molecule occupies the same volume as the molecule of\\nhydrogen, of vapor of water, or of ammonia.\\nWe may state, then, with the Italian chemist, Avogadro,\\nthat equal volumes of gases contain the same number of mole-\\ncules, and that each of these molecules occupies 2 volumes, if\\n1 atom of hydrogen occupy 1 volume. It follows that the\\nweight of 2 volumes of any gas, whether elementary or com-\\npound, represents the weight of its molecule, the weight of", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0046.jp2"}, "47": {"fulltext": "GAY-LUSSAC S LAWS. ATOMIC THEORY. 43\\none volume of hydrogen being 1. But the weight of 2 vol-\\numes of a gas or vapor is twice its density compared to hy\\ndrogen, for the density is the weight of 1 volume compared\\nwith the weight of 1 volume of hydrogen. To find the weight\\nof the molecule (the weight of 2 volumes) of a gas or vapor,\\nit is then only necessary to multiply its density compared to\\nhydrogen (the weight of 1 volume) by 2.\\nThe densities of gases and vapors are generally referred to\\nair as unity. To bring them to the hydrogen standard, they\\nare multiplied by the number expressing the relation of the\\ndensity of hydrogen to that of air, which is -g- 93 14.44.\\nThe product thus obtained expresses the density compared to\\nhydrogen, that is, the weight of 1 volume. To find the weight\\nof 2 volumes, or the molecular weight, it is then only necessary\\nto multiply the densities compared to air by twice the ratio of\\nthe density of the air compared to hydrogen, that is, by the\\nconstant factor,\\n1 2\\n2 X 0693 0^0693 28 88\\nIt is seen that if the atomic weights of certain gases can be\\ndeduced from a comparison of their densities, this same physi-\\ncal notion may also serve for the determination of the molecu-\\nlar weights of compound gases.\\nThe numbers which represent double the densities of gases\\nor vapors compared to hydrogen, express also the molecular\\nweights of these gases or vapors, that is, the sum of the\\nweights of all the atoms in the molecule, the weight of one\\natom of hydrogen being 1.\\nConsidering the examples already given, we may deduce the\\nmolecular weights of water and of ammonia from the densities\\nof steam and ammonia gas.\\nThe density of vapor of water, determined by Gray -Lussac\\nis 0.6235. To find the molecular weight of water, it is suffi-\\ncient to multiply this figure by 28.88. The product, 18, ex-\\npresses the weight of a molecule of water, which is indeed\\ncomposed of\\n2 atoms of hydrogen =2\\n1 atom of oxygen =16\\n1 molecule of water =18\\nSir Humphry Davy found for the density of ammonia the", "height": "4788", "width": "2924", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0047.jp2"}, "48": {"fulltext": "44 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nnumber 0.5901. This being multiplied by 28.88, the product,\\n17.04, should represent the weight of one molecule of am-\\nmonia. Ammonia contains\\n3 atoms of hydrogen 3\\n1 atom of nitrogen 14\\n1 molecule of ammonia 17\\nThe discovery of the laws which govern the combination of\\ngases by volume has seconded in the most efficacious manner\\nthe progress of the atomic theory.\\nIn the first place, it has established a marked distinction be-\\ntween the old idea of equivalents and the modern one of atoms.\\nThe equivalents represented merely the ponderable proportions\\naccording to which bodies combine the atomic weights repre-\\nsent the relative weights of the volumes of gases which com-\\nbine. The equivalent of hydrogen unity expressed merely\\nthat hydrogen was the unit to which were referred the weights\\nof other bodies with which it entered into combination. The\\natomic weight of hydrogen is the weight of one volume of\\nhydrogen, taken as unity, and to this unit are referred the\\natomic weights of other bodies.\\nIn the second place, the discovery of Gay-Lussac has shown\\nhow the atomic weights of simple bodies and the molecular\\nweights of compound bodies can be deduced from the densi-\\nties of gases and vapors.\\nHowever, this resource would be insufficient in very many\\ncases. It only applies to gaseous bodies, or such as can be con-\\nverted into vapor without decomposition. Now, there are many\\nsubstances with which this is impossible, and serious difficul-\\nties would be encountered in the determination of the atomic\\nweights of certain elements were it not for another physical\\nlaw, discovered by two French physicists, Dulong and Petit.\\nIt denotes the relations which exist between the specific heats\\nand the atomic weights.\\nLAW OF SPECIFIC HEATS.\\nIt is known that in order to raise the temperatures of differ-\\nent bodies through the same number of thermometric degrees\\nvery different amounts of heat are required. Thus, one kilo-\\ngramme of water requires 30 times more heat than one kilo-\\ngramme of mercury to raise its temperature one degree, and\\nif the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0048.jp2"}, "49": {"fulltext": "LAW OF SPECIFIC HEATS.\\n45\\none kilogramme of water one degree be represented by 1, the\\nquantity required to raise the same weight of mercury one\\ndegree will be represented by 0.0333 ^V n s fraction ex-\\npresses the specific heat of mercury between and 100\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe specific heat of a solid or liquid body is then the amount\\nof heat required to raise the temperature of a certain weight of\\nthe body one degree, the amount required to raise the tempera-\\nture of an equal weight of water one degree being taken as\\nunity.\\nIn 1820, Dulong and Petit discovered the remarkable fact\\nthat if the figures which express the atomic weights of the\\nelements, liquid or solid, be multiplied by those which express\\ntheir specific heats, the product obtained is sensibly constant\\nin other words, the specific heats of the elements are inversely\\nas their atomic weights. It follows that if such quantities of\\nthe elements be taken as represent their atomic weights, the\\namount of heat required to raise the temperature of each one\\ndegree will be sensibly the same. The law discovered by Du-\\nlong and Petit may then be expressed, the atoms of the solid\\nelements possess sensibly the same specific heats.\\nThis law permits the deduction of the atomic weights from\\nthe specific heats. Indeed, it is evident that if the product of\\nthe specific heats by the atomic weights be a constant, that\\nmay be called the atomic heat, dividing this product by the\\nspecific heat should give the atomic weight. The product\\nwhich represents the atomic heat is approximately 6.4, as may\\nbe seen from the following table\\nNames of the Solid Elements.\\nSpecific\\nHeats.\\nAtomic\\nWeights.\\nProducts of the j\\nSpecific Heats i\\nby the Atomic\\nWeights.\\nAtomic Heats.\\nSulphur, between and 100\u00c2\u00b0\\nSelenium\\n0.2026\\n0.0762\\n32\\n79.5\\n129\\n80\\n127\\n31\\n75\\n12\\n11\\n28\\n39.1\\n6.483\\n6.058\\n6.115\\n6.744\\n6.873\\n5.850\\n6.105\\n5.52\\n5.5\\n5.66\\n6.500\\nTellurium\\n0.0474\\nBromine, between 78 and 20\u00c2\u00b0\\nIodine, between and 100\u00c2\u00b0\\nPhosphorus, between -f 1 and 30\u00c2\u00b0\\nArsenic\\n0.0843\\n0.0541\\n0.1887\\n0.0814\\nCarbon, diamond, at 600\u00c2\u00b0\\nBoron, crystallized, at 600\u00c2\u00b0\\nSilicon, at 1000\u00c2\u00b0\\nPotassium\\n0.46\\n0.5\\n0.202\\n0.1695", "height": "4789", "width": "2919", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0049.jp2"}, "50": {"fulltext": "46\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nTABLE.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Continued.\\nNames of the Solid Elements.\\nSodium, between 34 and 7\u00c2\u00b0\\nLithium\\nThallium\\nMagnesium\\nAluminium\\nManganese\\nIron\\nZinc\\nCadmium\\nCobalt\\nNickel\\nTungsten\\nMolybdenum\\nLead\\nBismuth\\nCopper\\nAntimony\\nTin\\nMercury, between 77.5 and 44\u00c2\u00b0\\nSilver\\nGold\\nPlatinum\\nPalladium\\nOsmium\\nRhodium\\nIridium\\nSpecific\\nHeats.\\n0.2934\\n0.9408\\n0.03355\\n0.2499\\n0.2143\\n0.1217\\n0.0110\\n0.09555\\n0.05669\\n0.1068\\n0.1089\\n0.0334\\n0.0722\\n0.0314\\n0.0308\\n0.09515\\n0.05077\\n0.05623\\n0.03247\\n0.05701\\n0.0324\\n0.03293\\n0.0593\\n0.03063\\n0.05803\\n0.03259\\nAtomic\\nWeights.\\n23\\n7\\n204\\n24\\n27\\n55\\n56\\n65.2\\n112\\n59\\n59\\n184\\n96\\n207\\n210\\n63.5\\n120\\n118\\n200\\n108\\n197\\n197.5\\n106.5\\n199.2\\n104.4\\n198\\nProducts of the\\nSpecific Heats\\nby the Atomic\\nWeights.\\nAtomic Heats.\\n6.748\\n6.586\\n6.844\\n5.998\\n5.786\\n6.693\\n6.116\\n6.230\\n6.349\\n6.301\\n6.424\\n6.146\\n6.931\\n6.499\\n6.468\\n6.042\\n6.092\\n6.635\\n6.494\\n6.157\\n6.383\\n6.503\\n6.315\\n6.101\\n6.058\\n6.452\\nCarbon, silicon, and boron have long been regarded as ex-\\nceptions to Dulong and Petit s law. Their specific heats had\\nbeen determined at comparatively low temperatures, and the\\nproducts of the numbers obtained by the atomic weights fell\\nmuch below 6.4. These exceptions have disappeared the ex-\\nperiments of Weber have shown that the specific heats of\\ncarbon, silicon, and boron increase with the temperature, and\\nthat for the first two elements they attain limits, where they\\nremain sensibly constant. The figures given in the preceding\\ntable for these three elements are those of Weber, and it is\\nseen that on multiplying them by the respective atomic weights\\nof carbon, silicon, and boron, values are obtained which ap-\\nproximate 6.4.\\nIt will otherwise be remarked that there are sensible differ-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0050.jp2"}, "51": {"fulltext": "ISOMORPHISM. CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE, ETC. 47\\nences between the numbers expressing the atomic heats of the\\nvarious solid elements, showing that Dulong and Petit s law,\\nalthough true in its generality and striking in its enunciation,\\nis not free from certain perturbations which give to it the\\ncharacter of an approximate law. It is the same with other\\nphysical laws, Mariotte s law, for example.\\nISOMORPHISM.\\nWhile considering the atomic theory and the determination\\nof the relative weights of the ultimate particles of bodies, we\\ncannot pass in silence a discovery which has had a great influ-\\nence upon the development of that theory. It is due to E.\\nMitscherlich, who, in 1819, made known the law of isomor-\\nphism. This law may be thus stated there is such a relation\\nbetween the atomic constitutions of compound bodies belonging\\nto the same group and their crystalline form, that the same\\nnumber of atoms combined in the same manner produce the\\nsame crystalline form, the latter being independent of the\\nchemical nature of the atoms, and determined solely by\\ntheir number and arrangement. While this proposition is\\nnot strictly true, it has rendered important aid in the study of\\natomic structure of bodies. We will reconsider it when treating\\nof the general characteristics of salts, but we may remark here\\nthat it has been of great value in the determination of certain\\natomic weights. Indeed, in some cases considerations of a\\nchemical nature cannot decide between two numbers for the\\natomic weight of a given element. The choice is then deter-\\nmined by the following considerations such a value must be\\nattributed to the atomic weight that the isomorphous com-\\npounds formed by the element, and by another to which it is\\nanalogous, may be represented by similar atomic formula.\\nThe methods employed for the determination of the molec-\\nular weights of such bodies as cannot be vaporized without de-\\ncomposition will be described under Organic Chemistry (page\\n442).\\nCHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE AND NOTATION.\\nGeneral Considerations. About seventy-two substances\\nare known which have not been resolved into simpler forms of\\nmatter, and are consequently considered as simple bodies or\\nelements. By combining together, they form an innumerable\\nmultitude of compound bodies containing two or more elements.", "height": "4792", "width": "2914", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0051.jp2"}, "52": {"fulltext": "48 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIn order to distinguish these bodies from each other it is neces-\\nsary to give a name to each, for each constitutes a distinct sub-\\nstance.\\nThe names of the simple bodies have been chosen at will,\\nand in some cases recall some peculiar property of the sub-\\nstances designated. It was formerly the same with compound\\nbodies there was no definite rule for their nomenclature.\\nFrom this there resulted a great complication of words which\\nembarrassed the exposition of ideas, and often for the same sub-\\nstance there were a number of synonyms, of which the least\\ninconvenience was to uselessly fatigue the memory. Hence\\nchemists have felt the necessity of a regular nomenclature,\\napplicable to compound bodies, and capable of indicating their\\ncomposition. Such is the principle of the chemical nomen-\\nclature suggested by Guyton de Morveau, and developed by\\nLavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy. This nomenclature, with\\nsome modifications, introduced by the progress of the science,\\nis still adopted.\\nIndependently of this language, the rules of which will\\npresently be detailed, chemists have adopted a written nota-\\ntion which expresses in concise form the atomic constitution\\nof compounds. The name of each element is represented by\\na symbol, which also expresses one atom of the substance.\\nThis symbol is the initial letter of the name of the element,\\nor the initial letter with another when the names of two ele-\\nments begin with the same letter. Thus, H represents one\\natom of hydrogen weighing 1 represents one atom of\\noxygen weighing 16. By combining these symbols together,\\nit is easy to represent in a precise manner the atomic compo-\\nsition of compound bodies. From such combinations result\\nchemical formulas, the use of which was introduced into the\\nscience by Berzelius.\\nIn the following table will be seen the names of the ele-\\nments now known, together with their atomic weights, and the\\nsymbols by which the atoms of the elements are represented in\\nthe notation.\\nThe greater number of the elements possess certain physi-\\ncal properties which characterize them as metals. They are\\nopaque, and possess a peculiar lustre, which does not disappear\\nunder the burnisher. They are good conductors of heat and\\nelectricity.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0052.jp2"}, "53": {"fulltext": "CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE AND NOTATION.\\n49\\nNames of the Ele-\\nments.\\nAluminium\\nAntimony (stibium)\\nArgon\\nArsenic\\nBarium\\nBismuth\\nBoron\\nBromine\\nCadmium\\nCaesium\\nCalcium\\nCarbon\\nCerium\\nChlorine\\nChromium\\nCobalt\\nCopper\\nErbium\\nFluorine\\nGallium\\nGermanium\\nGlucinum (beryllium)\\nGold (aurum)\\nHolmium\\nHydrogen\\nIndium\\nIodine\\nIridium\\nIron (ferrum)\\nLanthanum\\nLead (plumbum)\\nLithium\\nMagnesium\\nManganese\\nMercury (hydrargy-\\nrum)\\nMolybdenum\\nCD\\nO\\nAtomic\\nWeights.\\nAl\\n27.04\\nSb\\n120\\nA\\nAs\\n40(?)\\n74.9\\nBa\\n136.48\\nBi\\n207.5\\nBo\\n10.9\\nBr\\n79.76\\nCd\\n111.7\\nCs\\n132.7\\nCa\\n39.91\\nC\\n11.97 J\\nCe\\n139.9\\nCI\\n35.37\\nCr\\n52\\nCo\\n59.37\\nCu\\n63.44\\nEr\\n166\\nFl\\n19.06\\nGa\\n69.9\\nGe\\n72.3\\nGl\\n9.08\\nAu\\n196.6\\nHo\\nH\\n162(?)\\n1\\nIn\\n113.4\\nI\\n126.54\\nIr\\n192.5\\nFe\\n55.88\\nLa\\n138.5\\nPb\\n206.39\\nLi\\n7.01\\nMg\\nMn\\n23.94\\n54.8\\nHg\\n199.8\\nMo\\n95.9\\nNames or the Ele-\\nments.\\nNeodymium\\nNickel\\nNiobium (colunibium)\\nNitrogen\\nOsmium\\nOxygen\\nPalladium\\nPhosphorus\\nPlatinum\\nPotassium (kaliuin)\\nPraseodymium\\nRhodium\\nRubidium\\nRuthenium\\nSamarium\\nScandium\\nSelenium\\nSilicon\\nSilver (argentum)\\nSodium (natrium)\\nStrontium\\nSulphur\\nTantalum\\nTellurium\\nThallium\\nThorium\\nTin (stannum)\\nTitanium\\nThulium\\nTungsten (wolfra-\\nmium)\\nUranium\\nVanadium\\nYtterbium\\nYttrium\\nZinc\\nZirconium\\nX\\nX\\nO\\nE\\nif\\nCO\\nNd\\n139.1\\nNi\\n58.71\\nNb\\n93.7\\nN\\n14.01\\nOs\\n191\\n15.96\\nPd\\n106.91\\nP\\n30.96\\nPt\\n194.34\\nK\\n39.03\\nPr\\n142.6\\nRh\\n102.7\\nRb\\n85.2\\nRu\\n101.4\\nSa\\n149\\nSc\\n43.97\\nSe\\n78.87\\nSi\\n28\\nAg\\n107.66\\nNa\\n23\\nSr\\n87.3\\ns\\n31.98\\nTa\\n182\\nTe\\n127.7\\nTl\\n203.7\\nTh\\n231.96\\nSn\\n118.8\\nTi\\n48\\nTu\\n170.4(?)\\nW\\n183.6\\nUr\\n239.8\\nV\\n51.1\\nY\\n172.6\\nYt\\n89.6\\nZn\\n65.1\\nZr\\n90.4\\nOther elements, fewer in number, do not possess these prop-\\nerties. They have been called the non-metallic bodies, some-\\ntimes the metalloids. They include the following\\nHYDROGEN.\\nOXYGEN.\\nNITROGEN.\\nBORON.\\nSILICON\\nSULPHUR.\\nPHOSPHORUS.\\nCARBON\\nCHLORINE.\\nSELENIUM.\\nARSENIC.\\nBROMINE.\\nTELLURIUM.\\nANTIMONY.\\nIODINE.\\n(bismcth\\nFLUORINE.\\nFLUORINE.\\nFrom a theoretic stand-point this distinction presents\\nc d ft\\nbut", "height": "4795", "width": "2910", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0053.jp2"}, "54": {"fulltext": "50\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nlittle value, for it is impossible to draw an exact line sepa-\\nrating the metals from the non-metallic bodies.\\nNomenclature of Compound Bodies. The principle of\\nchemical nomenclature is to indicate the composition of com-\\npound bodies by their names. Among such compounds the\\nmost numerous and the most important are those containing\\noxygen. They are binary or ternary that is, the oxygen in\\nthem is combined with one or two other elements.\\nBinary Oxygen Compounds. We will first consider the\\nmore simple oxidized bodies, those which result from the com-\\nbination of oxygen with but one other element, metallic or\\nnon-metallic. These compounds are called oxides, and differ\\nas the element associated with the oxygen is metallic or non-\\nmetallic. In combining with non-metallic elements, oxygen\\ngenerally forms compounds which are the anhydrides of acids,\\nthat is, compounds capable of uniting with water to form\\nacids with the metals it forms metallic oxides.\\nExperiments. 1. A small piece of phosphorus is placed in\\na capsule floating on the surface of mercury. It is ignited\\nand the capsule covered with a bell-jar (Fig. 8). The phos-\\nphorus burns, giving off a thick smoke, which condenses in\\nFig. 8.\\nwhite flakes on the sides of the bell-jar. This substance re-\\nsults from the combination of the phosphorus with the oxygen\\nof the air it is phosphorus pentoxide, or phosphoric anhydride.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0054.jp2"}, "55": {"fulltext": "CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE AND NOTATION. 51\\n2. If lead be heated in the air and maintained for some\\ntime in a state of fusion, its brilliant surface becomes tarnished\\nand covered with grayish particles, which are finally converted\\ninto a yellow powder. This body is formed by the combina-\\ntion of the lead with oxygen it is plumbic oxide, or oxide of\\nlead.\\nBut, as we have seen, such combination can take place in\\ndifferent proportions. An atom of a body may unite with\\n1, 2, 3, or more atoms of oxygen, and the names of the com-\\npounds so formed should indicate the degree of oxidation.\\nSulphur forms two compounds with oxygen one contains 2\\natoms of oxygen to 1 atom of sulphur the other, 3 atoms of\\noxygen to 1 of sulphur. They are designated by the names\\nsulphurous oxide, or anhydride, and sulphuric oxide, or anhy-\\ndride.\\nThe written notation represents them by the symbols\\nSO 2\\nSO 3\\nwhich express their atomic compositions. The number of\\natoms of any element is indicated by a small figure placed after\\nand a little above or below the symbol of that element.\\nThe degree of oxidation is then expressed by the termina-\\ntion in ous or ic of the name of the other element, which\\nindicates the kind of oxide, ic denoting the superior oxide.\\nMercury forms two compounds with oxygen. The first\\ncontains 2 atoms of mercury for 1 of oxygen the second, 1\\natom of mercury to 1 of oxygen. They are designated by the\\nnames and symbols as follows\\nMercurous oxide Hg 2\\nMercuric oxide HgO\\nThe names monoxide, sesquioxide, dioxide, etc., as will be\\nseen further on, are also employed. 1\\nA monoxide is a combination of 1 atom of metal with 1 atom of oxygen.\\nA sesquioxide 2 atoms 3 atoms\\nA dioxide 1 atom 2\\nIt is easy then to understand the signification of the follow-\\ning names and symbols\\n1 The prefixes proto, hi or dent, and ter have been, and are yet, frequently\\nemployed instead of mono, di, and tri.", "height": "4790", "width": "2919", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0055.jp2"}, "56": {"fulltext": "52 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nManganese monoxide MnO\\nManganese sesquioxide Mn 2 3\\nManganese dioxide MnO 2\\nThe oxide most rich in oxygen is sometimes called the per-\\noxide.\\nOxygen Acids and Metallic Hydrates. The oxygen com-\\npounds that we have just considered may unite with the ele-\\nments of water to form more complex compounds, which are\\nternary, that is, they contain three elements. To the two ele-\\nments of the oxide is then added a third, independently of the\\noxygen of the water, that is, its hydrogen.\\nThe oxygen acids usually result from the union of water\\nwith the non-metallic oxides.\\nExperiment. Sulphur trioxide or sulphuric anhydride\\noccurs in white silky tufts. It is very volatile, and if a bottle\\ncontaining it be opened, its vapor comes in contact with the\\nmoist air and forms thick white fumes. If a small quantity of\\nthis substance be thrown into water, it immediately disappears\\nand combines with that liquid. So great is the energy of the\\nreaction that the heat disengaged gives rise to the production\\nof steam, which, being suddenly formed and condensed in the\\nmidst of the cooler liquid mass, causes a peculiar noise, a sort of\\nhissing. When the sulphuric oxide is dissolved in the water,\\nthe solution presents a very acid reaction. It contains sulphuric\\nacid, the compound long known under the name of oil of vitriol.\\nThis reaction may be represented in the abbreviated lan-\\nguage of the notation, which expresses the atomic composition\\nof bodies with so much precision. The formula of sulphuric\\nanhydride or sulphur trioxide is\\nSO 3\\nthat of water is\\nH 2\\nThen if sulphuric acid result from the addition of all of the\\nelements of water to those of sulphuric trioxide, it should contain\\nSO 3 H 2 H 2 SO*\\nThis is a chemical equation, and it is seen that the two\\nterms of the first member express the atomic composition of\\nthe reacting bodies, while the single term of the second mem-\\nber gives the atomic composition of the product of the reac-\\ntion. Such an equation accounts for all of the atoms, and", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0056.jp2"}, "57": {"fulltext": "CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE AND NOTATION. 53\\nthe sum of all of the atoms written in the first member must\\nexactly balance the sum of all those written in the second.\\nThere is a compound known as nitric anhydride, or nitrogen\\npentoxide. It results from the combination of nitrogen with\\noxygen, and its atomic composition is represented by the\\nformula N 2 5 In combining with water it forms nitric acid.\\nN2 5 H 2 _ 2(HN0 3\\nNitric anhydride. Water. Nitric acid.\\n(1 molecule.) (2 molecules.)\\nThese examples, which could be indefinitely multiplied, give\\nan idea of the constitution of the ternary oxygen acids. The\\nrules which have been already given for the nomenclature of\\nthe oxides apply also to the nomenclature of the acids. We\\nhave phosphorous acid and phosphoric acid. ii(yj9o-phosphor-\\nous acid is an acid of phosphorus containing still less oxygen\\nthan phosphorous acid. (Hypo, literally, under.)\\nThe metallic hydrates or hydroxides result from the reaction\\nof water with metallic oxides. It is known that when quick-\\nlime is sprinkled with water it becomes heated, increases in\\nvolume, cracks into pieces, and is finally converted into a white,\\nimpalpable powder, which constitutes slaked lime, a com-\\npound of the lime with water. Lime is the oxide of a metal\\ncalled calcium. In combining with water it forms a ternary\\ncompound of calcium, hydrogen, and oxygen this is hydrate\\nof calcium, or, as it is commonly called, hydrate of lime.\\nCaO H 2 CaH 2 2\\nCalcium oxide. Water. Calcium hydrate.\\n(Lime.)\\nThe metal potassium, the radical of potash, forms with oxy-\\ngen a compound which contains two atoms of potassium com-\\nbined with one atom of oxygen. The composition of this body\\nis then represented by the formula K 2 0.\\nIt combines with water with great energy, and forms with it\\npotassium hydrate or caustic potassa.\\nK 2 H 2 2KOH\\nPotassium oxide. Water. Potassium hydrate.\\n(2 molecules.)\\nOxygen Salts. The oxygen salts result from the action of\\nthe oxygen acids upon the oxides or upon the metallic hydrates.\\nExperiment. The formation of a salt may be illustrated by\\na modification of one of the experiments already described.\\nA quantity of dilute nitric acid is slightly reddened by a so-\\n5*", "height": "4782", "width": "2902", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0057.jp2"}, "58": {"fulltext": "54 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nlution of blue litmus or syrup of violets. 1 Some dilute solution\\nof caustic potassa is also treated with the same coloring matter\\nthe syrup of violets will assume a green color, or blue litmus\\nwill remain unchanged.\\nThe latter liquid, which is alkaline, is now added drop by\\ndrop to the acid, until the red color disappears, giving place to\\nthe violet color of the syrup of violets or the blue of the litmus.\\nThe liquid is now neutral. It contains neither free nitric acid\\nnor free potassa. Both have disappeared as such they are\\nreciprocally neutralized, the first having lost its acid taste, the\\nsecond its extreme caustic properties. They have produced a\\nbody having a saline, cooling taste, and exerting no action upon\\nvegetable colors. It is a neutral salt which has been formed.\\nIt is called potassium nitrate, and is the nitre or saltpetre of\\nthe ancient chemists. It is not, however, the sole product of\\nthe reaction. Water is formed at the same time, and if we\\nwould comprehend the entire phenomenon, the reaction will be\\nexpressed by the following equation\\nHNO 3 KOH KNO 3 H 2\\nNitric acid. Potassium hydrate. Potassium nitrate. Water.\\nIt is seen that the salt, potassium nitrate, is a ternary com-\\npound, similar in constitution to nitric acid itself. On com-\\nparing the two formulae,\\nHNO 3 nitric acid,\\nKNO 3 potassium nitrate,\\nit is seen that they only differ by the K in the second occupy-\\ning the place held by the H in the first. It may then be said\\nthat potassium nitrate represents in a manner nitric acid in\\nwhich the hydrogen has been replaced by an equivalent quan-\\ntity of potassium. This definition applies to the entire class\\nof compounds under consideration. A salt represents an acid\\nof which the hydrogen has been wholly or partially replaced\\nby an equivalent quantity of metal.\\nThe acids constitute the salts of hydrogen they are neu-\\ntralized when this hydrogen is replaced by a metal. The acid\\nor hydrogen salt differs from the metallic salt. From a theoretic\\npoint of view, an acid is a compound of the same order as a\\nsalt, and if these bodies are separated by such great differences\\n1 An infusion of common purple cabbage may be substituted for syrup\\nof violets.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0058.jp2"}, "59": {"fulltext": "CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE AND NOTATION. 55\\nof properties, this is due to the nature of the base. What\\na difference, indeed, between hydrogen gas and the metals\\nWe have studied the formation of a salt by the action of an acid.\\nnitric acid, upon a metallic hydrate, potassium hydrate. The\\nanhydrous oxides may also form salts by reacting with the acids.\\nExperiment. Yellow oxide of lead, when digested with\\ndilute sulphuric acid, is converted into a white, insoluble pow-\\nder, which is lead sulphate. This is a salt, but it is not the only\\nproduct of the reaction, for water is formed at the same time.\\nIPSO PbO PbSO H 2\\nSulphuric acid. Lead oxide. Lead sulphate. Water.\\nLastly, among other modes of formation of salts, there is one\\nwhich is worthy of interest, and of which an idea may be ob-\\ntained from the following example.\\nSulphur trioxide, or sulphuric anhydride, combines energetic-\\nally with barium oxide or baryta, and from the union of all of\\nthe elements of both compounds there results a salt, barium\\nsulphate.\\nSO 3 BaO BaO.SO 3 or BaSO\\nSulphur trioxide. Barium oxide. Barium sulphate.\\nBut, whether this salt be formed under these conditions, or\\nby the action of sulphuric acid, its composition only differs\\nfrom that of the latter acid by the substitution of Ba for H 2\\nH 2 S0 4 sulphuric acid, hydrogen sulphate,\\nBaSO 4 barium sulphate.\\nThe reactions which we have just studied, and which indicate\\nthe principal methods of the formation of salts, are sufficient to\\nmake clear the definition before oiven. that salts are derived from\\nacids by the substitution of a metal for hydrogen. The nomen-\\nclature defines and preserves these relations. To distinguish the\\ndifferent salts of the same acid, the name of the metal is placed\\nfirst, and this is followed by the name of the acid, which is but\\nslightly changed, ic is changed to ate. and ous to tie.\\nThus Sulphuric acid gives sulphates.\\nNitric acid nitrates.\\nPerchloric acid perchlorates.\\nSulphurous acid sulphites.\\nHyposulphurous acid hyposulphites.\\nThese generic names follow the names of the metals which\\nenter into the composition of the salts, and which specify them,\\nas it were. Thus, we have", "height": "4795", "width": "2907", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0059.jp2"}, "60": {"fulltext": "56 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nPotassium sulphate, copper sulphate, lead sulphate, etc.\\nSodium sulphite\\nPotassium nitrate, barium nitrate, silver nitrate, etc.\\nBut we know that a single metal may form several com-\\npounds with oxygen. In reacting upon the same acid these\\ndifferent oxides give rise to the formation of different salts.\\nThus, two different sulphates of mercury are obtained, as\\nsulphuric acid is caused to react with mercurous oxide, or with\\nmercuric oxide.\\nH 2 S0 4 Hg 2 Hg 2 S0 4 H 2\\nSulphuric acid. Mercurous oxide. Mercurous sulphate. Water.\\nH 2 S0 4 -f HgO HgSO H 2\\nMercuric oxide. Mercuric sulphate.\\nIt is easy to distinguish these two salts from each other by\\nusing the adjectives mercurous and mere uric before the sub-\\nstantive sulphate. Thus, we have chromows and chromic sul-\\nphates ferrous and feme sulphates.\\nThe preceding considerations will give an idea, sufficient for\\nthe time being, of the constitution and the nomenclature of\\nsalts. Their further exposition will be completed farther on.\\nNomenclature of Non-Oxygenized Compounds. The non-\\nmetallic elements other than oxygen can combine among them-\\nselves or with the metals. Such compounds are designated by\\nthe name of one of the elements followed by the abbreviated\\nname of the other terminating in ide. Thus, the compounds\\nof the metals with chlorine, bromine, iodine, sulphur, arsenic,\\nand carbon are called chlorides, bromides, iodides, sulphas,\\narsemefes, carbicfes. We thus have sodium chloride, potassium\\nbromide, lead iodide, zinc arsenide, iron carbide. The termi-\\nnation uret was formerly used in place of ide.\\nBut a non-metallic body, such as chlorine or sulphur, can,\\nlike oxygen, form several compounds with the same metal. In\\nthese compounds 1 atom of metal may be united with 1 or 2\\natoms of sulphur, or with 1, 3, or 5 atoms of chlorine, or again\\nwith 2 or 4 atoms of chlorine. Such atomic composition is\\nexpressed by the following names and symbols\\nIron mojiosulphide FeS\\nIron sulphide FeS 2\\nPhosphorus trichloride PCI 3\\nPhosphorus j^eHtachloride PCI 5\\nTin ^chloride SnCl 2\\nTin tetrachloride SnCl 4\\nAntimony trichloride SbCl 3\\nAntimony penta chloride SbCl 5", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0060.jp2"}, "61": {"fulltext": "CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE AND NOTATION. 57\\nThe names thus express precisely the number of atoms of\\nthe second element in combination with 1 atom of the first.\\nThe compounds of chlorine, bromine, iodine, and several\\nother elements with hydrogen are acids they readily exchange\\ntheir hydrogen for a metal, so forming compounds that are\\nanalogous to the oxygen salts, and which constitute the haloid\\nsalts of Berzelius.\\nExperiment. The compound of chlorine with hydrogen is\\nhydrochloric acid it is a gas, and dissolves in water, forming\\na fuming, strongly-acid liquid. When it is carefully poured\\ninto a concentrated solution of caustic potassa there appears a\\nwhite precipitate, formed of little crystals and presenting the\\nappearance of a salt. This is potassium chloride. It is formed\\naccording to the following reaction, and its formation is at-\\ntended by the production of heat\\nHC1 KOH KC1 H 2 O r\\nHydrochloric Potassium Potassium Water.\\nacid. hydrate. chloride.\\nThe hydrogen compounds of bromine, iodine, fluorine, sul-\\nphur, etc., possess analogous properties. They are called\\nHydrobromic acid HBr\\nHydriodic acid HI\\nHydrofluoric acid HF1\\nSulphydric acid or sulphuretted hydrogen H 2 S\\nThe chlorides may combine among themselves. It is the\\nsame with the bromides, iodides, sulphides, etc. If a solution\\nof potassium chloride be poured into a concentrated solution\\nof platinic chloride, a yellow precipitate, constituting a com-\\npound of the two chlorides, is formed. It is the double chlo-\\nride of platinum and potassium, or potassium platino-chloride.\\nThere exist, likewise, double sulphides formed by the union\\nof two simple sulphides. Such compounds constitute what are\\ncalled sulpho-salts.\\nAlloys and Amalgams. Alloys are compounds or mix-\\ntures of the metals with each other. Amalgams are the alloys\\nof mercury, that is, the compounds of this liquid metal with\\nother metals.", "height": "4781", "width": "2892", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0061.jp2"}, "62": {"fulltext": "58\\nELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nHYDROGEN.\\nDensity compared to air 0.0693\\nAtomic weight (1 volume taken as unity) H 1.\\nThis body was discovered in 1766 by Cavendish. It is one\\nof the elements of water, hence its name, given by Lavoisier.\\nExperiments. 1. Into a piece of lead pipe about 4 milli-\\nmetres bore, 25 milli-\\nmetres lou r, and ham-\\nmered shut at one end\\nsmall pieces of sodium\\nare pressed until the\\ntube is full. The little\\ntube is then inserted\\nunder the mouth of\\na jar filled with water\\nand inverted in a ves-\\nsel of the same liquid\\n(Fig. 9). Bubbles of\\ngas at once begin to\\nrise, and by the use\\nof several little tubes\\ncharged with sodium\\nthe jar can be soon\\nfilled with the gas\\n(Newth). This is hy-\\ndrogen, produced by\\nthe decomposition of\\nFig. 9.\\nthe water\\nthe reaction is expressed in the following equation\\n2H 2 Na 3 2NaOH H 2\\nWater. Sodium. Sodium hydrate. Hydrogen.\\nIf the jar be now inverted and a lighted taper brought to\\nthe orifice, the gas will burn with a pale flame. A piece of\\nred litmus-paper will be at once colored blue by the sodium\\nhydrate or caustic soda dissolved in the water in the vessel.\\n2. Hydrochloric acid is poured upon small pieces of zinc in\\na glass cylinder (Fig. 10). Eapid effervescence takes place,\\nand if a lighted taper be brought to the mouth of the jar, the\\nhydrogen evolved takes fire. This hydrogen is produced by\\nthe decomposition of the hydrochloric acid by the zinc, which\\nis converted into chloride.\\n2HC1 Zn ZnCl 2 H 2\\nHydrochloric acid. Zinc. Zinc chloride. Hydrogen.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0062.jp2"}, "63": {"fulltext": "HYDROGEN.\\n59\\nPreparation. A reaction analogous to the preceding is\\nturned to advantage for the preparation of large quantities of\\nhydrogen. Dilute sulphuric acid is decomposed by zinc.\\nA two-necked bottle is about half filled with water, and\\ngranulated zinc, or sheet-zinc\\ncut into small pieces, is intro-\\nduced; sulphuric acid is then\\nadded in small quantities by\\nthe aid of a funnel-tube which\\ndips under the surface of the\\nwater (Fig 11). The reaction\\nat once commences, and hydro-\\ngen is disengaged. When the\\nair at first contained in the\\nbottle has been entirely ex-\\npelled, the gas may be collected\\nin jars or bottles filled with\\nwater and inverted on the\\npneumatic trough.\\nIn this reaction the zrnc\\ndisappears and dissolves in\\nthe liquid with evolution of\\nheat, and it often happens, if\\nthe liquid be sufficiently con-\\ncentrated, that colorless crys-\\ntals of zinc sulphate are formed\\non cooling. This salt and\\nhydrogen are the sole prod-\\nucts of the reaction of pure\\nzinc upon sulphuric acid largely diluted with water.\\nIPSO -f Zn ZnSO 4 H 2\\nSulphuric acid. Zinc. Zinc sulphate. Hydrogen.\\nHydrogen is manufactured on a large scale by passing steam\\nover highly heated coal.\\n2H 2 C C0 2 2H 2\\nWater. Carbon dioxide.\\nThe carbon dioxide formed at the same time is removed by\\npassing the mixed gases over slaked lime, which is thus con-\\nverted into carbonate of calcium.\\nCa(OH) 2 CO 2 CaCO 8 H 2\\nCalcium hydroxide Calcium carbonate,\\n(slaked lime).\\nFig. 10.", "height": "4794", "width": "2903", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0063.jp2"}, "64": {"fulltext": "60\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nPhysical Properties. Hydrogen is a colorless gas, and\\nwhen pure has neither taste nor odor. It is the lightest of all\\nknown bodies, its density compared to air being 0.0693; that\\nis, if one volume of\\nair weigh 1, one vol-\\nume of hydrogen,\\nmeasured under the\\nsame conditions of\\ntemperature and\\npressure, weighs only\\n0.0693. Hydrogen\\nis then 14.44 times\\nlighter than air. The\\nof one litre\\nrogen\\nat 0\\nFig. 11.\\nweight\\nof hydi\\nand under the nor-\\nmal pressure is\\n0.0895 gramme. In-\\nstead of comparing\\nthe densities of gases and vapors to that of air, it is pref-\\nerable to compare them to that of hydrogen taken as unity\\n(page 40).\\nHydrogen passes with great facility through vegetable and\\nanimal membranes, and through porous substances that are im-\\npervious to water. It cannot be kept in a glass vessel that\\npresents the least crack, for it would pass through much more\\nreadily than air. This property is expressed by saying that hy-\\ndrogen is very diffusible. According to Magnus, it is the only\\ngas gifted with an appreciable conductivity for heat in this\\nrespect it is related to the metals its physical and chemical\\nproperties led Faraday to pronounce it a metal.\\nHydrogen is very slightly soluble in water, its coefficient of\\nsolubility being .0215 at 0\u00c2\u00b0 and .0174 at 25\u00c2\u00b0 (Timofejew).\\nAlthough subjected to enormously great pressures at a tem-\\nperature as low as 220\u00c2\u00b0, and still farther cooled by suddenly\\nreleasing the pressure, it does not appear probable that pure\\nhydrogen has been liquefied. In order that any gas may be\\nliquefied, it is necessary that its molecules shall manifest a\\ncertain degree of cohesion, or, in other words, that the ampli-\\ntude of molecular movement shall be limited. This amplitude\\ndepends upon the temperature, and it results that for every\\ngas there is a temperature above which liquefaction cannot", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0064.jp2"}, "65": {"fulltext": "HYDROGEN. 61\\ntake place, however great the pressure may be. This tempera-\\nture is called the critical temperature. Calculations from\\ntheory indicate that the critical temperature for hydrogen is\\n240\u00c2\u00b0, at which point the gas would be liquefied by a press-\\nure of 13 atmospheres. Chemists have not yet been able to\\nbring about these conditions.\\nAmong the physical properties of hydrogen may be men-\\ntioned the remarkable faculty it possesses of passing through\\nplates of iron or platinum at high temperatures (H. Sainte-\\nClaire Deville and Troost). It is well known that it rapidly\\npasses through thin sheets of caoutchouc. According to\\nGraham, this property is related to that possessed by certain\\nsolid bodies, and particularly metals, such as iron, platinum,\\nand palladium, of absorbing hydrogen gas. This chemist\\ndesignated the phenomenon by the name, occlusion of hydro-\\ngen by the metals. Palladium especially is distinguished by\\nthe energy with which it absorbs hydrogen. It can condense\\nin its pores nine hundred times its own volume of the gas. A\\npalladium wire may be charged with hydrogen by arranging it in\\na voltameter so that it constitutes the negative pole of a small\\nbattery, the positive pole being a stout platinum wire. When\\nthe current passes, the hydrogen set at liberty at the negative\\npole (see page 81) is condensed in the palladium. This metal\\nundergoes at the same time a remarkable change. Its volume\\naugments and its density diminishes, but its metallic lustre\\nremains, as do also, to a certain degree, its tenacity and con-\\nductibility for electricity besides this it becomes magnetic.\\nThere is thus formed a sort of alloy of palladium and hydro-\\ngen, containing about 20 volumes of palladium to 1 volume of\\nhydrogen reduced to the solid state. The density of this solid\\nhydrogen compared to that of water, according to the determi-\\nnations of Troost and Hautefeuille, is 0.62 it is a little greater\\nthan that of lithium. Graham insisted upon the metallic char-\\nacter of hydrogen thus alloyed with palladium, and proposed\\nfor it the name liydrogenium.\\nChemical Properties. Hydrogen is a combustible gas, and\\nthe product of its combustion is water.\\nExperiments. 1. A lighted taper may be thrust into a rather\\nwide tube filled with hydrogen (Fig. 14). The gas takes fire\\non contact with the flame, but the taper is extinguished in the\\natmosphere of hydrogen. It may be relighted by withdrawing\\nit through the burning gas. The experiment shows at the", "height": "4779", "width": "2895", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0065.jp2"}, "66": {"fulltext": "62\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nsame time that hydrogen is inflammable and that it is incapa-\\nble of supporting combustion itself.\\n2. A gas-bottle, A (Fig. 12), is arranged for the preparation\\nof hydrogen, and water, zinc, and sulphuric acid are intro-\\nFig. 12.\\nduced. The hydrogen evolved is made to traverse the tube\\nCB, which is filled with fragments of chloride of calcium after\\nhaving been dried by this substance, which is very avid of\\nwater, the gas escapes by the tube\\na, the end of which is drawn out\\nto a point. The jet of gas is\\nlighted, and burns with a pale\\nflame. A bell-jar, D, is now\\nheld over the burning jet, and\\nthe sides of the glass soon be-\\ncome covered with dew, the\\ndrops of which unite and run\\ndown to the edge of the jar. This\\nis water, and it is formed by the\\ncombustion of the hydrogen that\\nis, by its combination with the\\noxygen of the air.\\n3. A jet of hydrogen may be\\nlighted by holding in it a tuft of\\nasbestos which has been dipped\\nin platinum black, that is, finely-divided platinum. The con-\\ndensation of the hydrogen in the pores of the finely-divided\\nmetal is so rapid that the platinum becomes heated to redness,\\nand then ignites the gas.\\nFig. 13.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0066.jp2"}, "67": {"fulltext": "HYDROGEN.\\n63\\n4. A tube filled with hydrogen may be held in the vertical\\nposition, bottom upwards, without the gas escaping rapidly by\\nthe inferior opening. If the tube be inclined, the hydrogen\\noverflows and escapes upwards through the air. It may then\\nbe received in a second tube held vertically above the first,\\nwhich is inclined more and more (Fig. 13). The passage of\\nthe gas into the upper tube can be demonstrated by approach-\\ning to the latter a lighted taper, when the hydrogen will burn\\nwith a faint explosion.\\nBefore igniting or collecting hydrogen escaping from a gen-\\nerator, it should always be ascertained that the whole of the air\\nhas been expelled, otherwise dangerous explosions may result.\\n5. The explosions may take place with the production of a\\nharmonious sound, if they are made to succeed each other\\nFig. 14.\\nrapidly and at regular intervals. These conditions are realized\\nby burning a small jet of hydrogen in a somewhat large tube\\n(Fig. 15). The flame is drawn away from the jet by the draft\\nin the tube, but immediately recedes as the ascending hydro-", "height": "4783", "width": "2883", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0067.jp2"}, "68": {"fulltext": "64\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ngen gas mixes with the air, at the same time producing a faint\\nexplosion, and the rapid succession of these explosions produces\\na musical tone.\\nThe hydrogen condensed in palladium appears to have chem-\\nical properties more active than those of gaseous hydrogen\\n(Graham). It combines in the dark and at ordinary tempera-\\ntures with iodine and chlorine the direct union of ordinary\\nhydrogen with iodine is impossible, and with chlorine it takes\\nplace at the common temperature only under the influence of\\nlight. Hydrogen will not support respiration, but it is not\\npoisonous.\\nOXYGEN.\\nDensity compared to air 1.1056\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 16.\\nAtomic weight =16.\\nOxygen was discovered, in 1774, by Priestley, who obtained\\nit by heating red precipi-\\ntate or mercuric oxide.\\nExperiment. A small\\nquantity of mercuric oxide\\nis heated in a hard glass\\ntest-tube (a, Fig. 16).\\nPresently the tube becomes\\nlined with a mirror of me-\\ntallic mercury which soon\\nseparates into little drops,\\nand if a wooden splint\\nbearing a spark at the end\\nbe thrust into the mouth\\nof the tube, it instantly\\nbursts into flame, and burns\\nwith great brilliancy. This\\neffect is due to a gas which\\nis being disengaged, and\\nwhich, to use the expres-\\nsion of Lavoisier, is emi-\\nnently fitted to support\\ncombustion.\\nFig. 16.\\nIt is the gas to which that great chemist gave the name\\noxygen. It is produced by a very simple reaction. The mer-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0068.jp2"}, "69": {"fulltext": "OXYGEN,\\n65\\ncurie oxide has been decomposed by heat into mercury and\\noxygen.\\n2HgO 2Hg O 2\\nMercuric oxide. Mercury. Oxygen.\\nIn the same manner a little potassium chlorate is heated in\\na test-tube. The salt first melts, then an effervescence takes\\nplace, and this is due to disengagement of oxygen, as is easily\\nproved by applying the spark test.\\nPreparation. Large quantities of oxygen may be pre-\\npared by a process based upon this reaction. When potassium\\nchlorate is heat-\\ned, it is\\nverted\\npotassium\\nride, and\\nup all of its\\noxygen. To\\nfacilitate this\\ndecomposition a\\nsmall quantity\\nof manganese\\ndioxide is mixed\\nwith the chlo-\\nrate. The part\\ntaken by the\\ndi-\\ncon-\\ninto\\nchlo-\\ngives\\nFig. 17.\\nmanganese\\noxide in the reaction is not thoroughly understood it is probable\\nthat it is converted into an unstable higher oxide, continually\\nformed and decomposed during the reaction. If the tempera-\\nture be sufficiently elevated, the decomposition of the chlorate\\nis complete, and takes place according to the following equation\\n2KC10 3 2KC1 30 2\\nPotassium chlorate. Potassium chloride. Oxygen.\\nThe operation may be conducted in a glass retort, which\\nshould be about one-third filled with the mixture of chlorate\\nand dioxide to the beak of the retort is adapted a delivery-\\ntube, which dips under the surface of the water or mercury in\\nthe trough (Fig. 17). The retort is then heated by an alco-\\nhol or gas lamp, and the chlorate melts and disengages its oxy-\\ngen with effervescence. Towards the close of the operation,\\nthe heat is increased in order to decompose into potassium\\nchloride and oxygen any potassium perchlorate that may have\\ne 6*", "height": "4773", "width": "2871", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0069.jp2"}, "70": {"fulltext": "66\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nbeen formed by the union of a portion of the evolved oxygen\\nwith some of the chlorate.\\nTo make larger quantities of oxygen for filling the gas-\\nJl j ^k holders of laboratories,\\n|l| etc., a mixture of potas-\\nJ !L 1 sium chlorate and man-\\nganese\\nheated in\\ndioxide is\\na sheet-iron\\nAt a bright red\\nmanganese\\nor copper retort (Fig.\\n18).\\nheat-\\ndioxide\\nup a third of its\\noxygen and is con-\\nverted into the red ox-\\nFig. 18. ide of manganese.\\n3Mn0 2 Mn 3 4 O 2\\nManganese dioxide. Red oxide of manganese. Oxygen.\\nPowdered potassium dichroniate may be heated with twice its\\nweight of concentrated sulphuric acid. Oxygen is disengaged.\\nK 2 Cr 2 7 4H 2 S0 4 K 2 SO.Cr 2 (S0 4 3 4H 2 O 3\\nPotassium dichromate. Potassium and chromium sulphate.\\nOn the large scale oxygen is manufactured by a process\\ndevised by Brin. Air is forced into a specially prepared porous\\nbarium oxide, BaO, at a temperature below redness, and barium\\ndioxide, Ba0 2 is formed. The stream of air is cut off and the\\nbarium oxide is heated to redness, the pressure in the apparatus\\nbeing lowered by air-pumps. The oxygen absorbed is now\\ndisengaged, and the barium dioxide is converted into monoxide\\nready to absorb more oxygen. 1\\nPhysical Properties. Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, taste-\\nless gas it is a little heavier than the air. If one volume of\\nhydrogen weighs 1, the same volume of oxygen, measured\\nunder the same conditions of temperature and pressure, weighs\\n16. This is expressed by saying that the density of oxygen\\ncompared to that of hydrogen is 16. A litre of oxygen weighs\\n1.437 gr. at 0\u00c2\u00b0 and under the normal pressure.\\nBy subjecting oxygen to a pressure of 300 atmospheres and\\na temperature of 29\u00c2\u00b0, and suddenly relieving the pressure,\\n1 Oxygen is now sold compressed in strong steel bottles, from which it\\nmay be conveniently drawn as required for experiment.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0070.jp2"}, "71": {"fulltext": "OXYGEN.\\n67\\nCailletet obtained it in the form of a cloud. Raoul Pictet\\nliquefied it by a pressure of 300 atmospheres and a temperature\\nof 140\u00c2\u00b0. He attributes to liquid oxygen a density near that\\nof water, about 0.9787.\\nOxygen is but slightly soluble in water. A litre of water\\ndissolves 0.041 litre, or 41 cubic centimetres, at 0\u00c2\u00b0 0.032 litre\\nat 10\u00c2\u00b0 0.028 litre at 20\u00c2\u00b0. The fractions 0.041, 0.032, 0.028,\\nrepresent the coefficients of solubility of oxygen in water at\\nthe temperatures of 0\u00c2\u00b0, 10\u00c2\u00b0, and 20\u00c2\u00b0.\\nChemical Properties. Oxygen combines directly with most\\nof the other elements, and the union often takes place with\\nsuch energy that there results a great evolution of luminous\\nheat it gives rise to the phenomenon of combustion.\\nExperiments. A cone of charcoal of which the point is red-\\nhot is plunged into a globe filled with oxygen (Fig. 19), and\\nimmediately combustion takes place with great brilliancy. The\\noxygen combines with the carbon, forming a colorless gas, which\\nis carbonic acid gas.\\nIn like manner, sulphur and phosphorus burn in oxygen, the\\nfirst producing a colorless, irritating gas known as sulphurous\\nFig. 19.\\nFig. 20.\\nacid gas, the second emitting thick fumes, which condense in\\nwhite flakes of phosphoric oxide.\\nA watch-spring may be drawn out into a spiral, and a small\\npiece of tinder attached to one end after igniting the tinder,\\nthe spiral is rapidly plunged into a bell-jar filled with oxygen,\\nand resting upon a plate containing a layer of water (Fig. 20).\\nThe tinder burns energetically, and heats the end of the spiral\\nto redness then the combustion of the iron itself commences,\\nand goes on with extraordinary brilliancy, and a production of", "height": "4789", "width": "2891", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0071.jp2"}, "72": {"fulltext": "68 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nheat so intense that the oxide of iron formed melts and falls\\nin incandescent drops, which fuse themselves into the sur-\\nface of the plate, even after having traversed the layer of\\nwater.\\nIn the same manner, the combustion of the metal magnesium\\nmay be effected in oxygen it takes place with dazzling splen-\\ndor, and gives rise to the production of a white powder, which\\nis magnesia, or magnesium oxide.\\nThe preceding experiments are examples of rapid combus-\\ntion. We have seen that solid substances, such as charcoal,\\niron, and magnesium, become incandescent in combining with\\noxygen it is the phenomenon of fire. We have also seen that\\nvapors, like those of sulphur and phosphorus, become lumi-\\nnous in their combination with oxygen this is the phenome-\\nnon of flame.\\nBut fire and flame are not necessary concomitants of the\\nunion of bodies with oxygen. It is true that such union is\\nalways accompanied by the production of heat but often this\\nheat is not luminous sometimes it is imperceptible to our\\nsenses.\\nThus iron, the combination of which with oxygen at a red\\nheat gives rise to such a brilliant combustion, may unite with\\nthis gas at ordinary temperatures under the influence of\\nmoisture. There is thus formed ferric hydrate, which consti-\\ntutes rust.\\nThis oxidation of the iron, which takes place slowly, pro-\\nduces a feeble disengagement of heat, which is, however, imme-\\ndiately dissipated. Such phenomena of oxidation are designated\\nby the name slow combustion.\\nThe term combustion would then be synonymous with oxi-\\ndation did we not know, on the other hand, that all chemical\\ncombination gives rise to the production of heat. If copper\\nbe thrown into boiling sulphur, a vivid incandescence is pro-\\nduced, due to the union of the two bodies. Likewise antimony\\nand arsenic, when projected in fine powder into an atmosphere\\nof chlorine, unite with the latter body, producing a brilliant\\ncombustion. It is seen that in these cases the production of\\nluminous heat indicates an energetic combination, but not an\\noxidation.\\nOxygen is one of the elements of the air it is the cause\\nand the agent of all combustion, of all oxidation which takes\\nplace in our atmosphere and the oxygen fixes itself upon", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0072.jp2"}, "73": {"fulltext": "OXYGEN. 69\\nburning bodies in such a manner that the product of the com-\\nbustion contains all of the matter of the combustible body and\\nall of the matter of the oxygen. This is one of the fundamental\\ntruths of chemistry, and for its discovery not less than a cen-\\ntury and a half of work was required. The glory of the dis-\\ncovery belongs to Lavoisier.\\nHis researches on combustion revealed to him the true\\nnature of the phenomena of respiration. The respiration of\\nanimals is a slow combustion it is the source of animal heat.\\nIt gives rise to the formation of carbonic acid gas and water,\\nproducts of the complete oxidation through which must pass\\nthose organic matters in the economy which no longer serve the\\npurposes of life, and all of which contain carbon and hydrogen.\\nThe production of carbonic acid gas by the act of respira-\\ntion is easy to prove. It is only necessary to blow, by the aid\\nof a tube, the air contained in the lungs through clear lime-\\nwater, which soon becomes milky from the formation of insolu-\\nble carbonate of lime.\\nAn annular jet of hydrogen through which a jet of oxygen\\nis forced constitutes what is known as the oxyhydrogen blow-\\npipe, and is one of the most intense sources of heat known.\\nPlatinum melts before it like wax. and iron and other combus-\\ntible metals burn brilliantly when introduced into its flame.\\nThe flame of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe gives but little light.\\nbut when it is projected upon a piece of lime, the latter becomes\\nheated to dazzling incandescence, constituting the Drummond\\nor calcium light.\\nOZONE, OR OXYGEN PEROXIDE.\\nThe repeated discharges of a good electric machine develop\\na peculiar odor. This is due to the production of a body which\\nwas discovered by Schbnbein in 1840. and which he named\\nozone (from o! I smell).\\nExperiment. Some potassium permanganate is mixed with\\nbarium dioxide in a mortar, the mixture transferred to a flask,\\nand moistened with sulphuric acid. The characteristic odor of\\nozone immediately becomes perceptible, and a moistened paper,\\nimpregnated with potassium iodide and starch and held in the\\nneck of the flask, immediately assumes a blue color. 1 This effect\\nis caused by the ozone evolved.\\n1 Such a paper is called ozonoscopic. It is colored blue by the combina-", "height": "4779", "width": "2880", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0073.jp2"}, "74": {"fulltext": "70\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThis remarkable body is also formed under the following\\ncircumstances.\\n1. By the passage of electric sparks through oxygen. It is\\nsufficient to pass a series of electric sparks through oxygen\\ncontained in a tube above a solu-\\ntion of iodide of potassium and\\nstarch, in order to produce the\\nblue color caused by the ozone\\n(Fig. 21).\\nIt has been noticed that the\\nlargest quantity of ozone is pro-\\nduced when the passage of the\\nelectricity through oxygen is ef-\\nfected, not by sparks, but by non-\\nluminous or obscure discharges\\n(Andrews and Tait, von Babo).\\nDry and pure oxygen can be con-\\nverted into ozone in this manner.\\nBut this conversion only takes\\nplace partially, the ozone formed\\nremaining mixed with a large\\nexcess of oxygen. A contraction\\ntakes place at the moment the\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2p IG oxygen is transformed into ozone.\\nThese experiments prove that\\nozone is condensed oxygen.\\nAn elegant and efficient apparatus for the ozonation of oxy-\\ngen by electricity was devised by Berthelot and is shown in\\nFig. 22. c is a long, thin glass tube closed at the bottom,\\nnear which a bent tube, b, is soldered in, while a similar tube\\nis joined to it near the top. d is a narrower and longer tube,\\nclosed at one end, which passes nearly to the bottom of c, into\\nthe mouth of which it is adapted by a bulb and ground joint.\\nd is filled with dilute sulphuric acid, and the whole apparatus\\nis placed in a jar of the same, as shown in the figure. By\\ntion of the starch with the iodine set at liberty by the ozone. According\\nto Houzeau, it is preferable to use a delicate, wine-colored litmus-paper,\\none-half of which is impregnated with potassium iodide. Ozone will change\\nthe color of this half to blue, for, in decomposing the potassium iodide, it\\nforms potassium hydrate, and this restores the blue color to the litmus.\\nUnder these conditions, the other half of the paper undergoes no change\\nin color, while it would be colored red by acid vapors, or blue by ammonia.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0074.jp2"}, "75": {"fulltext": "OZONE.\\nplatinum wires the columns of sulphuric acid are made the\\npoles of an induction coil, and oxygen is passed by one of the\\nside tubes through the annular space in the apparatus. Under\\nthe influence of the obscure discharges the gas is rapidly\\nozonized.\\nThe proportion of ozone formed is in-\\ncreased when the oxygen is cooled. At\\n23\u00c2\u00b0, a mixture of oxygen and ozone,\\ncontaining 17.6 per cent, of the latter,\\nmay be obtained, under normal atmospheric\\npressures. (Hautefeuille and Chappuis.)\\n2. By the electrolysis of water. When\\nacidulated water is decomposed by the bat-\\ntery current, the oxygen which is disen-\\ngaged at the positive pole contains small\\nquantities of ozone, and the proportion of\\nthe latter may be increased by adding a\\nquantity of sulphuric or chromic acid to\\nthe water.\\n3. During slow oxidation. Some sticks\\nof cleanly-scraped phosphorus are intro-\\nduced into a bottle containing enough\\nwater to just about half immerse them,\\nand the whole is agitated from time to\\ntime. In a short time the air in the bottle\\nwill be charged with a small quantity of\\nozone.\\nAccording to Schonbein, who observed\\nthese facts, ozone is produced during all slow combustions.\\nThus, when oil of turpentine is exposed to the air under the\\ninfluence of sunlight, it is slowly oxidized, and in becoming:\\nresinified, it becomes at the same time charged with a small\\nquantity of ozone.\\nProperties of Ozone. Ozone possesses an intense and pecu-\\nliar odor. Hautefeuille and Chappuis have liquefied it by al-\\nlowing the strongly compressed gas to expand suddenly the\\nliquid is sky-blue, and the compressed gas has the same color,\\nthe tint being deeper as the temperature is lowered or the press-\\nure increased. At a temperature of 290\u00c2\u00b0 it is reconverted\\ninto ordinary oxygen, the volume of which is greater than that\\noccupied by the ozone. It is then certainly condensed oxygen.\\nIt has energetic oxidizing properties it even oxidizes bodies\\nFig. 22.", "height": "4788", "width": "2888", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0075.jp2"}, "76": {"fulltext": "72 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nwhich possess only feeble affinities for oxygen. In the presence\\nof alkalies it combines with nitrogen, converting it into nitric\\nacid, which combines with the alkali.\\nIt oxidizes silver at ordinary temperatures, converting it into\\nthe dioxide Ag 2 2 It instantly decomposes potassium iodide,\\nsetting free the iodine. It is insoluble in water, but is entirely\\nsoluble in oil of turpentine and oil of cinnamon, both of which\\nit slowly oxidizes. It oxidizes and destroys the greater number\\nof organic substances. In most of these oxidations only a third\\npart of the oxygen contained in ozone is active the other two-\\nthirds become free as ordinary oxygen, the volume of which is\\nexactly equal to that originally occupied by the ozone.\\nHence it is concluded that 3 volumes of oxygen are con-\\ndensed into 2 volumes by their conversion into ozone, and if\\nordinary oxygen be the oxide of oxygen 00, ozone will be oxy-\\ngen peroxide OO 2 (Odling).\\n0=0 2 vol. oxygen. 2 vol. ozone.\\n0\u00e2\u0080\u00940\\nThis conclusion of Odling s concerning the nature of ozone,\\nhas been verified by the determination of the density of this\\nbody. Soret has established that when ozone diluted with oxy-\\ngen is absorbed by oil of turpentine or oil of cinnamon, there\\nis a diminution of volume sensibly double the increase of\\nvolume noticed on subjecting the same gas to the action of\\nheat. He naturally concludes that the density of ozone is one\\nand a half times that of oxygen, or 1.658. These figures have\\nbeen confirmed by direct experiments upon the rapidity of\\ndiffusion of ozone. It has been shown by the researches of\\nGraham that when diffusion between two gases takes place\\nthrough an opening, without the interposition of a diaphragm,\\nthe rapidity of diffusion is inversely as the square roots of the\\ndensities of the gases. Soret has demonstrated that the\\nrapidity of diffusion of ozone is notably greater than that of\\nchlorine, and very near but somewhat less than that of car-\\nbonic acid. It follows that its density is less than that of\\nchlorine, and a little greater than that of carbonic acid, which\\nis 1.525 this confirms the density 1.658.\\nAn important property of ozone is its reaction with hydrogen\\ndioxide, yielding ordinary oxygen and water.\\nOO 2 H 2 2 2(00) H 2\\nOzone. Hydrogen dioxide. Ordinary oxygen. Water.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0076.jp2"}, "77": {"fulltext": "THE ATMOSPHERE.\\n73\\nATMOSPHERIC AIR.\\nThe air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. It also con-\\ntains a little less than one per cent, by volume of a gas recently\\ndiscovered by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay, and named\\nby them argon, 1 traces of carbonic acid gas, and a variable\\nproportion of vapor of water.\\nIts composition was established by Lavoisier by an experi-\\nment that has become celebrated. Having heated mercury in\\na limited quantity of air to a temperature near its boiling-point\\nfor several days, he observed the formation of a red powder, a\\ncombination of the mercury with oxygen. On the termination\\nof the experiment, he found that the volume of the air had\\ndiminished about one-sixth. He carefully collected the oxide\\nformed, introduced it into a small retort,\\nand heated it to redness. He thus ob-\\ntained a gas eminently qualified to sup-\\nport combustion and respiration, and the\\nvolume of which was sensibly equal to\\nthat of the gas that had disappeared. This\\ngas he named oxygen. He mixed it with\\nthe irrespirable residue from the first ex-\\nperiment, which would not support com-\\nbustion, and so reconstituted atmospheric\\nair. The composition of the latter was\\nthus established by analysis and synthesis.\\nThis experiment was infinitely more in-\\nstructive than that undertaken by Scheele\\nat about the same time. The great Swedish\\nchemist only absorbed the oxygen of the\\nair by the alkaline sulphides. The nitrogen\\nremained as residue, but the oxygen com-\\nbined with the sulphide could not be again\\nseparated.\\nHowever, neither one nor the other of\\nthese methods could give the exact propor-\\ntion according to which the oxygen and nitrogen are mixed in\\nthe atmosphere. This has been deduced from the following\\nexperiments.\\nFig. 23.\\n1 In the analysis of air by the methods to be presently described, the\\nargon remains mixed with the nitrogen.\\nD 7", "height": "4782", "width": "2866", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0077.jp2"}, "78": {"fulltext": "74\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nExperiments. 1. A straight glass tube closed at one end\\n(Fig. 23) is graduated as exactly as possible into five parts\\nof equal capacity by caoutchouc bands placed around the tube.\\nA dry piece of phosphorus, about half a cubic centimetre in\\nvolume, is dropped into the tube, the latter is tightly corked,\\nand the phosphorus inflamed by plunging the end of the tube\\ninto hot water. By rapidly inverting the tube and tapping\\nthe corked end on the table the ignited phosphorus is caused\\nto fall the whole length of the tube, and\\nin burning consumes all the oxygen of the\\ncontained air. The tube is allowed to cool,\\nand the cork is withdrawn under colored\\nwater in a beaker. The water rises to the\\nfirst band, showing that\\nthe oxygen gas removed\\nconstituted about one-\\nfifth of the air in the\\ntube. The gas remain-\\nin the tube is prin-\\ncipally nitrogen.\\n2. 100 volumes of\\nair are measured into a\\ngraduated tube on the\\nmercury-trough. A con-\\ncentrated solution of\\npotassium hydrate is\\nintroduced, and then\\nsome pyrogallic acid, a\\nwhite, crystalline sub-\\nstance employed in pho-\\ntography. The ex-\\ntremity of the\\ntube is now\\nclosed by the\\nthumb and the\\ncontents rapidly\\nFig. 24. agitated. The\\nalkaline solution\\nis immediately blackened by the oxidation of the pyrogallic\\nacid. All the oxygen is absorbed, and when the tube\\nis\\nopened, under the surface of the mercury, the 100 volumes\\nof air are found reduced to about 79 volumes, and the experi-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0078.jp2"}, "79": {"fulltext": "THE ATMOSPHERE. 75\\nment shows that the air contains about 21 per cent, by volume\\nof oxygen.\\n3. 50 cubic centimetres of air are measured off in a Hempel\\ngas burette (6, Fig. 24) and transferred to the explosion pipette,\\nr, by raising reservoir-tube D. In the same manner 50 cubic\\ncentimetres of pure hydrogen are introduced. The stop-cock\\nS and the clip d are now closed, and by means of the plati-\\nnum electrodes P, which are fused through the walls of the\\npipette, a spark from an induction coil is sent through the gase-\\nous mixture. A flash is observed and all the oxygen contained\\nin the air combines with hydrogen to form water. The residual\\ngas is returned to the burette and measured it is found to\\nhave undergone a considerable contraction in volume, and one-\\nthird of this contraction represents the volume of oxygen con-\\ntained in the sample of air taken, for two cubic centimetres of\\nhydrogen disappear for each cubic centimetre of oxygen.\\nIt is found that of the 100 cubic centimetres of gas in-\\ntroduced into the apparatus, 31.395 cubic centimetres have\\ndisappeared, showing that the 50 cubic centimetres of air intro-\\nduced into the apparatus contained 10.465 cubic centimetres\\nof oxygen. The remaining 39.535 cubic centimetres consist\\nof nitrogen mixed with a little less than one per cent, of argon,\\nand a trace of carbonic acid.\\nHence 100 volumes of air contain practically 20.93 volumes\\nof oxygen and 79.07 volumes of nitrogen.\\nSuch is the composition of the air by volume. As nitrogen\\nis lighter than oxygen, these volumetric relations do not express\\nthe composition of the air by weight. This was determined\\nvery exactly by Dumas and Boussingault in the following\\nmanner.\\nA globe, A (Fig. 25), having a capacity of 15 or 20 litres,\\nand fitted with a brass cap and stop-cock, R by which it may\\nbe connected with an air-pump, is joined to a hard glass tube,\\nBB having a stop-cock at each end, B and R and filled with\\nmetallic copper. The air is exhausted from the globe and tube,\\nand the weight of each is then accurately determined.\\nThe tube BB is placed in a combustion-furnace, and by its\\nextremity B is connected with the tubes K, I, H, Gr, F, E, D,\\nC. The tube with bulbs C contains a solution of caustic po-\\ntassa the tubes D and E are filled with pumice-stone impreg-\\nnated with caustic potassa, and the tubes F and Gr with frag-\\nments of solid caustic potassa the bulbs H contain sulphuric", "height": "4801", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0079.jp2"}, "80": {"fulltext": "76\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nacid, and the last tubes, I and K, are filled with fragments of\\npumice-stone saturated with sulphuric acid. The potassa serves\\nto remove from the air\\nthe small quantity of\\ncarbonic acid gas which\\nit contains, and the sul-\\nphuric acid absorbs the\\nmoisture.\\nThe tube filled with\\ncopper is now heated to\\nredness, its stop-cocks\\nbeing open, and the\\nstop-cock of the globe is\\ngradually opened. Air\\nimmediately enters, but\\nit is first obliged to tra-\\nverse the series of tubes,\\nwhere it is deprived\\nof its carbonic acid\\ngas and vapor of water,\\nand also the tube filled\\nwith incandescent cop-\\nper, which absorbs the\\noxygen. It is then pure\\nnitrogen which enters\\nthe globe. The experi-\\nment has terminated\\nwhen the tension of the\\ngas in the globe is equal\\nto the exterior pressure,\\nthat is, when no more\\nair enters. The stop-\\ncock R is now closed.\\nThe tube and globe are\\nallowed to cool, and are\\nweighed separately.\\nThe increase in weight\\nof the globe gives the\\nweight of the nitrogen\\nwhich has entered.\\nThe increase in weight of the tube, which was first weighed\\nexhausted of air, gives the weight of the oxygen which has", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0080.jp2"}, "81": {"fulltext": "THE ATMOSPHERE. 77\\ncombined with the copper, plus the weight of the nitrogen\\nremaining in the tube at the close of the experiment. The\\nweight of this nitrogen is determined by exhausting the tube\\nand weighing a third time. The difference between the second\\nand third weighings indicates the weight of the nitrogen re-\\nmaining in the tube at the end of the experiment, and this\\nweight added to that of the nitrogen contained in the globe\\nconstitutes the total weight of nitrogen in the air analyzed.\\nThe weight of the oxygen is given by the difference between\\nthe third and first weighings of the tube.\\nBy this method Dumas and Boussingault found that 100\\nparts of air contain by weight\\nOxygen 23.13\\nNitrogen 76.87\\nThese two gases are simply mixed in the air they do not\\nexist there in a state of combination and the proportions of\\nthe mixture are universally the same with very slight varia-\\ntions. At the summits of the highest mountains, at the centres\\nof the continents, and over the vast expanse of the seas, the\\nair has been shown to be nearly equally rich in oxygen. From\\na comparison of a great number of analyses, Regnault has es-\\ntablished that as a rule the percentage of oxygen only varies\\nfrom 20.9 to 21.0 air which has been collected on the open\\nsea and close to the surface of the water, has been found to\\ncontain a somewhat smaller amount (20.6), a circumstance\\nwhich may be attributed to the dissolving action of the water.\\nNitrogen and oxygen are by far the most abundant con-\\nstituents of the atmosphere among the substances which are\\ncontained in small proportion must be mentioned particularly\\nthe new element argon, carbonic acid gas, and vapor of water.\\nArgon, A 40 When the nitrogen obtained from air is\\nabsorbed by heated magnesium there remains a small unabsorb-\\nable residue, which, when fully purified from all known ele-\\nments, appears to be the most inert substance known hence\\nthe name an-ergon. This new element was discovered by\\nRayleigh and Ramsay in 1894, and constitutes about 0.7 per\\ncent, of air. It is colorless, has a density of about 20 com-\\npared to hydrogen, and has about the same solubility in water\\nas oxygen. Its critical temperature is 121\u00c2\u00b0, and the critical\\npressure 50.6 atmospheres. The experiments thus far made\\nshow that it is incapable of combining or reacting with other\\n7*", "height": "4800", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0081.jp2"}, "82": {"fulltext": "78\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nsubstances, and chemical activity is not excited in it even by\\nthe electric spark.\\nCarbonic Acid Gas and Vapor of Water. If lime-water\\nbe poured into a flat dish and exposed to the air, in a few\\nhours its surface will be found covered with a white pellicle\\nformed of little crystals of calcium carbonate.\\nThis experiment demonstrates the presence of carbonic acid\\ngas in the atmosphere. The watery vapor may be condensed\\nby exposing to the air a glass vessel containing a mixture of ice\\nand salt. The sides of the vessel soon become covered with a\\nlayer of frost, resulting from the solidification of the water which\\nhas been condensed from the air by the cool surface of the glass.\\nThe exact quantities of carbonic acid gas and vapor of water\\ncontained in the air may be determined by drawing the latter\\nthrough tubes containing sulphuric acid and caustic potassa.\\nThe aspiration is obtained by means of a bottle or a tin vessel,\\nV (Fig. 26), filled with water. On opening the stop-cock r.\\nFig. 26.\\nthe water runs out, and air is drawn in through the tubes F\\nand E, filled with fragments of pumice-stone wetted with sul-\\nphuric acid, then through D and C, containing pumice-stone", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0082.jp2"}, "83": {"fulltext": "THE ATMOSPHERE. 79\\nimpregnated with caustic potassa, and finally B, which is like\\nthe first two. These tubes increase in weight from the absorp-\\ntion of vapor of w r ater in the first two, and carbonic acid in\\nthe others. The difference in weight of the tubes F and E\\nbefore and after the experiment gives the proportion of con-\\ndensed water the difference of D, C, and B gives the propor-\\ntion of carbonic acid gas. The volume of air is equal to that\\nof the water which has run out of the aspirator.\\nAccording to the experiments of Theodore de Saussure, the\\nquantity of carbonic acid gas contained in the air varies from\\n4 to 6 ten-thousandths. It is increased in inhabited places.\\nIt is greater at night than during the day, a circumstance that\\nmust be attributed to the influence of vegetation. It is dimin-\\nished after a rain, and is found in its minimum proportion\\nabove the surface of large lakes.\\nThe sources of this carbonic acid gas are various. In cer-\\ntain regions fissures in the earth diseno;a\u00c2\u00b0;e lame volumes vol-\\ncanoes emit immense quantities certain spring waters are\\nsupersaturated, and disengage it in abundance when the} reach\\nthe surface of the earth. But the greater portion is produced\\nby the phenomena of combustion which take place on the\\nearth s surface and among these phenomena must be included\\nrespiration, which is a slow combustion.\\nExperiment. If by the aid of a glass tube air from the\\nlungs be blown through lime-water, the latter becomes clouded,\\nby the formation of calcium carbonate. The carbonic acid gas\\nthus fixed by the lime comes from the respiration, which is an\\nabundant source of that gas.\\nDoes carbonic acid gas accumulate indefinitely in the atmos-\\nphere No. Rejected and excreted by animals, it serves for the\\nrespiration of plants. The green parts of vegetables possess the\\npower of decomposing this gas under the influence of the sun s\\nlight. The carbon is fixed, and serves for the nutrition of the\\nplant the oxygen is rejected, if not wholly, at least in great part.\\nThis truth is one of the most important achievements of the\\nscience of the last century. It is due to the successive labors\\nof Priestley, Bonnet, Ingenhouz, Sennebier, and de Saussure.\\nIndependently of the substances already mentioned, air contains\\nother matters mixed with or suspended in it in very small quanti-\\nties. Among these must be mentioned\\n1. Traces of ammonia, or rather of ammonium compounds. These\\nsubstances are dissolved by rain-water, and play an important part\\nin vegetable physiology.", "height": "4783", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0083.jp2"}, "84": {"fulltext": "80 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\n2. A trace of hydrogen carbide (Boussingault).\\n3. A small quantity of nitric acid in the form of ammonium\\nnitrate. It is supposed that nitric acid is formed in the air by the\\ndirect union of the nitrogen and oxygen under the influence of\\natmospheric electricity. Schonbein asserts that the air contains\\ntraces of ammonium nitrite\\n(NH*)N0 2\\n4. A body which possesses the property of imparting a blue color\\nto papers saturated with starch and potassium iodide. It is held,\\nand not without reason, that this substance is ozone. The phe-\\nnomenon would also be caused by the presence of traces of nitrous\\nvapors or chlorine in the air but Andrews has shown that air con-\\ntains a principle which decomposes potassium iodide, and loses this\\nproperty when it is brought to a high temperature. This fact can\\nbe explained if the air contains ozone, which is destroyed by heat\\nit cannot be explained if it contain chlorine or nitrous vapors.\\nBesides, at most, the air contains only very slight traces of ozone;\\nvery often, and usually at the earth s surface in densely inhabited\\nlocalities, none is present. The relative proportion of ozone present\\nis approximately estimated by the greater or less intensity of the\\nblue color produced upon ozonoscopic paper (page 69).\\n5. Solid particles suspended in the air and carried to a distance\\nby the winds. In perfectly calm air these corpuscles are deposited,\\nforming a dust of which the composition is very variable. It con-\\ntains various microscopic vegetable and animal germs (Pasteur).\\nWATER.\\nVapor density compared to air 0.623\\nVapor density compared to hydrogen l 9.\\nMolecular weight H 2 18. 2\\nWater is the product of the combination of hydrogen and\\noxygen its composition was established by Lavoisier in 1783.\\nThe combination takes place exactly in the ratio of 2 volumes\\nof hydrogen to 1 volume of oxygen, as demonstrated by the\\nfollowing experiments.\\n1. Analysis of Water by Electrolysis. Water acidulated\\n1 The density of vapor of water compared to that of hydrogen is 9 that\\nis, if the weight of 1 volume of hydrogen be represented by 1, the weight\\nof 1 volume of vapor of water will be 9 in other words, vapor of water is\\nnine times more dense than hydrogen under the same conditions of tem-\\nperature and pressure.\\n2 The weight of the molecule or the molecular weight expresses the\\nweight of 2 volumes of vapor, if the weight of 1 volume of hydrogen be\\nrepresented by 1.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0084.jp2"}, "85": {"fulltext": "WATER.\\n81\\nwith sulphuric acid is poured into the bulb of a Hofmann s\\nelectrolysis apparatus (Fig. 27) until it rises in the tubes to\\nthe level of the stop-cocks, which are open. The latter are\\nthen closed, and by means of platinum wires fused through the\\nglass and connected with two platinum plates, one in each limb\\nof the tube, a current from a galvanic battery is passed through\\nthe liquid in the bend of the tube. Water is decomposed and\\nbubbles of gas arise in each tube, collect together, and force\\nFig. 27.\\nthe liquid up into the bulb. It soon appears that the gas dis-\\nengaged at the negative pole is sensibly double in volume that\\ndisengaged at the positive. The first is hydrogen, and the\\nsecond oxygen, and the proportion in which these gases are set\\nfree would be exactly that of 2 to 1, were it not that a small\\nquantity of oxygen remains dissolved in the acid liquid, or,\\nunder certain conditions, combines with a portion of the water\\nsurrounding the negative pole to form hydrogen dioxide, as\\nwill be mentioned farther on.", "height": "4792", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0085.jp2"}, "86": {"fulltext": "82 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\n2. Eudiometric Synthesis. The composition of water can\\nbe established by synthesis, that is, by the combination of the\\ntwo elements, hydrogen and oxygen. The experiment, which\\nis made in an eudiometer, has already been described (page 38).\\nIt demonstrates that the two gases combine in the exact ratio\\nof 2 volumes of the first to 1 of the second, and that these\\n3 volumes of gas are condensed into 2 volumes of vapor of\\nwater.\\nThese experiments establish the volumetric composition of\\nwater its composition by weight can be deduced from them,\\nthe densities of hydrogen and oxygen being known for the\\nweighable matter of 2 volumes of hydrogen being added to the\\nweighable matter of 1 volume of oxygen, it is only necessary\\nto add twice the weight of 1 volume of hydrogen to the weight\\nof 1 volume of oxygen in order to determine the weight of 2\\nvolumes of vapor of water. That is to say, the ratio by weight\\nin which hydrogen combines with oxygen to form water is that\\nof double the density of hydrogen (the weight of 2 volumes of\\nH) to the density of oxygen (the weight of 1 volume of 0).\\nThis ratio is\\n2 X 0.06 93 _ 0.1386 _ 1\\n1.1056~~ 1.1056 8\\nIt may be deduced in a more simple manner by a com-\\nparison of the densities of hydrogen and oxygen. If 1 volume\\nof hydrogen weighs 1, 1 volume of oxygen weighs 16 the\\nweight of 2 volumes of hydrogen will then be 2, and it will be\\nseen that the two gases unite, by weight, in the ratio of\\n2 l\\n16 8\\n18 grammes of water then contain 16 grammes of oxygen\\nand 2 grammes of hydrogen. This composition, which can be\\ndetermined only in an approximative manner by a compari-\\nson of the densities, owing to the difficulties in the methods\\nof weighing gases, has been established in the most rigorous\\nmanner by Dumas, in an experiment which has become classic,\\nand will now be described.\\n3. Synthesis of Water by the Gravimetric 3fethod. In order\\nto determine the composition of water by synthesis it is suffi-\\ncient to combine an indeterminate quantity of hydrogen with\\na precisely determined weight of oxygen, and to weigh exactly\\nthe water formed. By subtracting from this latter weight that", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0086.jp2"}, "87": {"fulltext": "WATER.\\n83\\nof the oxygen contained in the water, the weight of the hydro-\\ngen which has com-\\nbined with that oxy-\\ngen is obtained.\\nIn order to thus\\ncombine hydrogen\\nwith\\noxygen.\\nit is\\nconvenient to make\\nthe former gas react\\nupon an oxidized\\nbody which will read-\\nily yield its oxygen\\nto the combustible\\ngas. Cupric oxide, or\\nblack oxide of cop-\\nper, CuO, first sug-\\ngested by Gay-Lus-\\nsac, and employed for\\nthis purpose by Ber-\\nzelius and Dulong,\\nfulfils these condi-\\ntions. Although un-\\ndecomposable by heat\\nalone, it is readily re-\\nduced by hydrogen\\nwhen heated in an at-\\nmosphere of that gas.\\nDumas employed the\\napparatus represent-\\ned in Fig. 28.\\nHydrogen is pre-\\npared by the action\\nof dilute sulphuric\\nacid upon zinc, and\\nis purified by being\\nconducted through a\\nseries of U tubes, the\\nfirst containing frao-\\nments of olass wet\\no\\nwith a solution of lead\\nacetate, the second,\\nfragments of glass wet with a solution of silver sulphate, and", "height": "4799", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0087.jp2"}, "88": {"fulltext": "84 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nthe third, pumice-stone, impregnated with caustic potassa.\\nThe lead acetate retains hydrogen sulphide the silver sulphate\\nabsorbs hydrogen arsenide, and the potassa absorbs any traces\\nof carbides of hydrogen.\\nThe hydrogen thus purified is dried by passage through an-\\nother series of U tubes, the first containing calcium chloride,\\nand the others pumice-stone saturated with sulphuric acid. The\\nlatter tubes are cooled by being surrounded with ice. The gas\\nis lastly passed through a smaller tube containing phosphoric\\noxide. The weight of this tube must remain constant during\\nthe whole of the experiment. It is called the control-tube.\\nThe pure and dry hydrogen now passes through a hard\\nglass bulb, which contains pure cupric oxide. The weight of\\nthis bulb, together with the oxide which it contains, is deter-\\nmined with care. The receiver B as well as the U tubes\\nwhich terminate the apparatus, are also accurately weighed.\\nWhen the whole of the air contained in the apparatus has\\nbeen expelled by the hydrogen, the bulb is heated and the\\ncupric oxide is reduced. Water is formed and is in great part\\ncondensed in the liquid state in the receiver, but a portion of\\nthe vapor remains unconclensed and is carried off by the excess\\nof hydrogen. This vapor is retained in the second series of\\nU tubes, which contain calcium chloride and pumice-stone satu-\\nrated with sulphuric acid. When the reduction has almost\\nterminated, the bulb is allowed to cool, the current of hydro-\\ngen being continued this gas is finally displaced by a current\\nof air, and the weighings are then made.\\nThe weight of the bulb has decreased by that of all of the\\noxygen which has been taken from the oxide of copper by the\\nhydrogen, and which now exists in the water formed.\\nThe weight of the receiver and the condensing apparatus con-\\nnected with it is increased by the weight of all the water formed.\\nBy subtracting the weight of the oxygen from that of the\\nwater we find the weight of the hydrogen.\\nBy the aid of this rigorous method Dumas has found that\\n100 parts by weight of water contain\\nHydrogen 11.11\\nOxygen 88.89\\n100.00\\nThese numbers are in the exact ratio of\\nHydrogen 1\\nOxygen 8", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0088.jp2"}, "89": {"fulltext": "WATER. 85\\nPhysical Properties. Pure water has neither taste nor\\nodor. It is limpid and colorless. It occurs in three states in\\nnature during the colds of winter it is solid. Ice, snow, frost,\\nsleet, and hail are the different forms which it assumes in this\\nstate. The temperature at which ice melts is one of the stand-\\nard points in the thermometric scale. To this temperature\\ncorresponds the of the centigrade scale, which is adopted in\\nthis work.\\nSnow is composed of an agglomeration of little crystals\\nthese are hexagonal prisms, which often present the forms rep-\\nresented in Fig. 29.\\n1 t 3\\nMm 4e #ife M\\n4 5\\n5\\n\u00c2\u00abr i,l\u00c2\u00bb|\\nV/#%\\nFig. 29.\\nAt the moment of freezing, water expands, and its density\\nis then less than that which it possesses in the liquid state.\\nThe density of ice is 0.93. Water contracts in volume from\\nto -f- 4\u00c2\u00b0, and presents its maximum density at the latter tem-\\nperature. Its density at this point is chosen as the unit of\\ncomparison for the densities of solid and liquid bodies.\\nWater and even ice are continually emitting invisible vapors\\nwhich mix with the air. and are. as it were, dissolved in it.\\nThis vaporization takes place more actively as the temperature\\nis raised.\\nThe air is said to be saturated with vapor at any given tem-\\nperature when it refuses to take up any more vapor at that\\ntemperature. Under these conditions, if the temperature be\\nlowered, a portion of the vapor is condensed in fine drops,\\nwhich remain suspended in the air in the form of mist or visi-\\nble vapor. The point at which the moisture of the air is con-\\ndensed is called the dew-point.\\nWater begins to boil when its vapor acquires sufficient ten-\\nsion to overcome the atmospheric pressure. This is the boil-\\ning-point, and under a pressure of 0.760 metre corresponds to\\n100\u00c2\u00b0 of the centigrade scale.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0089.jp2"}, "90": {"fulltext": "86\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nChemical Properties. Water is partially decomposed by\\nthe highest temperatures at our command. On pouring melted\\nplatinum into an iron mortar containing water, Grove observed\\na disengagement of bubbles composed of an explosive mixture\\nof oxygen and hydrogen. According to H. Sainte- Claire De-\\nville, vapor of water undergoes a partial decomposition, which\\nhe calls dissociation, when exposed to a temperature between\\n1100 and 1200\u00c2\u00b0. In order to collect the gases resulting from\\nthis decomposition it is necessary to separate them before they\\nhave reached a part of the apparatus where a less elevated\\ntemperature would permit their recombination. For this pur-\\npose Deville directed a current of steam through a porous clay\\ntube, a (Fig. 30), surrounded by a tube of glazed porcelain, b,\\nFig. 30.\\nwhich was heated to whiteness in a powerful furnace. A cur-\\nrent of carbonic acid gas was passed through the annular space\\nbetween the two tubes, by means of the tube c. The vapor of\\nwater was decomposed by the heat into hydrogen and oxygen\\nbut these two gases separated from each other the hydrogen,\\nbeing the more diffusible, passed in great part through the\\nporous tube, while the oxygen was delivered by the interior\\ntube, together with a small quantity of carbonic acid gas, which\\nentered by diffusion. The gases evolved by the two tubes were\\ncollected in a small jar rilled with a solution of caustic potassa\\nby which the carbonic acid gas was absorbed, and there re-\\nmained an explosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen.\\nWater is decomposed by an electric current, as already seen.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0090.jp2"}, "91": {"fulltext": "WATER.\\n.87\\nIt is likewise decomposed by many of the elements, metallic\\nand non-metallic, which combine with one or the other of its\\ncomponent elements. Thus, chlorine decomposes it at a red\\nheat, uniting with the hydrogen to form hydrochloric acid, and\\nsetting free the oxygen also under the influence of light at\\nordinary temperatures. A number of the metals decompose\\nwater, liberating the hydrogen.\\nIron decomposes it at a red heat, taking up the oxygen and\\nsetting free the hydrogen potassium and sodium, as we have\\nseen in the case of the latter metal, produce the same effect at\\nordinary temperatures.\\nMany compound bodies seize upon the elements of water,\\nand are decomposed by it. Such are the chlorides of phos-\\nphorus and antimony. In these reactions, which will be\\nstudied farther on, the hydrogen of the decomposed water\\nunites with the chlorine, the oxygen with the other element.\\nWe have already noticed the action of water upon the non-\\nmetallic and metallic oxides. It combines with nianv of these\\ncompounds, forming hydroxides, which are either acid, or basic.\\nCertain of these reactions are worthy of reconsideration. It\\nis especially important to fully appreciate the part played by\\nthe water which enters into them.\\nWhen potassium oxide becomes hydrated to form caustic\\npotassa, the reaction takes place by a double decomposition,\\nwhich may be expressed by the following equation\\nPotassium oxide. Water. Potassium hydrate. Potassium hydrate.\\nIt will be seen that both the potassium oxide and the water\\nare converted into potassium hydrate by the exchange of an\\natom of potassium for an atom of hydrogen. Potassium hydrate\\nis, as it were, derived from water by the substitution of an atom\\nof potassium for an atom of hydrogen. This substitution takes\\nplace directly when water is decomposed by potassium.\\n(2) 2H 2 K 2 2KOH H 2\\nThe potassium hydrate in its turn may lose the remaining\\natom of hydrogen if it be heated with potassium, this hydro-\\ngen is displaced, and potassium oxide is formed.\\n(3) 2KOH K 2 2K 2 H 2\\nPotassium hydrate. Potassium. Potassium oxide. Hydrogen.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0091.jp2"}, "92": {"fulltext": "88\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIt will be seen from what precedes that, starting with water,\\nwe may form potassium hydrate (2), potassium oxide (3), and\\nthis again may be converted into potassium hydrate (1). The\\nthree compounds are then closely related. Each contains 1\\natom of oxygen combined with 2 atoms of another body, hy-\\ndrogen or potassium, and the relation is clearly expressed in\\nthe following formulae\\nh}\u00c2\u00b0 g}\u00c2\u00b0 !}o\\nWater. Potassium hydrate. Potassium oxide.\\nIf hypochlorous oxide, CPO, be poured into water, it is in-\\nstantly dissolved and converted into hypochlorous acid. The\\nreaction is expressed in the following equation\\nS}\u00c2\u00b0 g}\u00c2\u00b0 |}o g}0\\nHypochlorous oxide. Water. Hypochlorous acid. Hypochlorous acid.\\nBoth the hypochlorous oxide and the water are converted\\ninto hypochlorous acid by the exchange of an atom of hydro-\\ngen for an atom of chlorine, so that the hypochlorous acid\\nmay be said to represent water in which 1 atom of chlorine is\\nsubstituted for an atom of hydrogen.\\nThus, by their atomic constitution both potassium hydrate\\nand hypochlorous acid are closely related to water. But on\\ncomparing them together they are found to differ widely in\\ntheir properties, both from each other and from water itself.\\nHow could it be otherwise with bodies containing elements as\\nunlike as potassium and chlorine Indeed, the distance which\\nseparates potassium hydrate and hypochlorous acid is not\\ngreater than that which separates potassium and chlorine.\\nThus, a difference of elements may imply a marked difference of\\nproperties between bodies which otherwise present a similar con-\\nstitution, and which may be said to belong to the same type.\\nWater is one of these types. Its constitution serves as a\\nsort of model for that of a multitude of compounds. It will be\\nsufficient to reconsider the examples already cited, and we may\\nsay that water, potassium hydrate, potassium oxide, hypochlo-\\nrous acid, and hypochlorous oxide belong to the water type.\\nTYPE.\\n\u00c2\u00b0j}o g}o g}o \u00c2\u00a3}o |}d\\nHypochlorous Hypochlorous Water. Potassium Potassium\\noxide. acid. hydrate. oxide.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0092.jp2"}, "93": {"fulltext": "WATER. 89\\nThe preceding considerations give but a limited idea, but\\none sufficient for the present, of the role played by water in\\nchemical phenomena. This role is one of great importance,\\nfor water takes part in an immense number of reactions, either\\nby its decomposition, its formation, or its combination.\\nWater presents still another mode of action. It dissolves\\nvery many bodies, and this solvent action is exerted upon\\ngases, liquids, and solids.\\nSolvent Properties of Water. When a gas dissolves in\\nwater, it changes its state, it becomes itself liquid, and in lique-\\nfying it evolves heat. In the same manner a solid body be-\\ncomes liquid by the act of solution, but in order to become\\nliquid it must absorb heat. Consequently, the solution of a\\ngas in water takes place with a production of heat that of a\\nsolid body takes place with a lowering of temperature, or, to\\nuse a common expression, a production of cold.\\nBut sometimes this physical phenomenon of the solution of\\na solid body in water, that is, its liquefaction and diffusion in\\nthe liquid, is complicated by a chemical action.\\nExperiment. If water be poured upon dried and powdered\\ncalcium chloride, the salt is instantly dissolved with a produc-\\ntion of heat. This heat is the evidence of a chemical com-\\nbination, and the water has indeed combined with the calcium\\nchloride if now the solution be sufficiently evaporated, it will\\ndeposit fine transparent crystals of hydrated calcium chloride.\\nThe water contained in these crystals, and which is necessary\\nfor their formation, is what is called water of crystallization.\\nIt is contained in definite proportions, and is retained in the\\ncrystals by affinity. For this reason the combination of water\\nwith calcium chloride is accompanied by a production of heat.\\nIf these crystals of calcium chloride be dissolved in water,\\nthey disappear, and the temperature of the liquid is depressed.\\nThe physical phenomenon of the solution of a solid body in\\nwater can thus be separated from the chemical phenomenon\\nof its combination with that liquid.\\nNatural State of Water. Water is not met with in a pure\\nstate in nature. Whether it has rested upon or has flowed over\\nthe surface of the soil, whether it has fallen in the form of rain,\\nmist, or dew, or whether it has just issued from its subterranean\\npassages, it always contains various matters in solution.\\nIt takes up the gases from the atmosphere, and also certain\\nbodies which it there finds suspended or in vapor. On the\\n8*", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0093.jp2"}, "94": {"fulltext": "90 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nsurface or in the bosom of the earth it dissolves the soluble\\nsubstances which it encounters. Hence the composition of\\nnatural water presents great variations, according to the origin\\nof the water and the localities where it has collected, or the\\nsoils through which it has travelled. In general, meteoric\\nwaters, that is, those which result from the condensation of\\nthe aqueous vapor diffused through the atmosphere, are more\\npure than those which have collected upon the earth s surface.\\nThe latter present in their physical and chemical properties, in\\ntheir composition, and in their action upon the animal econ-\\nomy, such differences that they are classified in several groups.\\nSoft or potable waters are distinguished from hard waters.\\nThe first are such as hold only small quantities of foreign mat-\\nters in solution, and are essentially fit for domestic use. The\\nsecond are too highly charged with saline matters, and princi-\\npally the salts of calcium, to be fit for such purposes. Good\\npotable water should be cool, limpid, without odor, should have\\na faint but agreeable taste, which should be neither insipid,\\nsaline, nor sweet, and should cook and soften vegetables and\\ndissolve soap. The purest water is not necessarily the best.\\nThus distilled water, rain-water, and that coming from the\\nmelting of ice and snow, although more pure, are less salubrious\\nthan good spring or river water.\\nGood potable water should be aerated, that is, it should hold\\nin solution the gases contained in the atmosphere oxygen,\\nnitrogen, and carbonic acid. Rain-water takes from the atmos-\\nphere a proportion of oxygen, and especially of carbonic acid\\ngas, much greater than that in which these gases are contained\\nin the air. This must be so, for Dal ton has shown that the\\nsolvent action of water upon a gaseous mixture is measured for\\neach gas by the product of its coefficient of solubility and the\\nfigure expressing the proportion of that gas in the mixture.\\nThese gases are driven out of water by boiling.\\nThe following figures give the proportions of the atmospheric\\ngases expelled by boiling from a litre of water from the Seine,\\nthe same quantity from the Delaware, and also the proportions\\ncontained in a litre of rain-water\\nWater of the Seine Water of the Dela- Rain-Water in Jan.\\nin January. ware in July.\\nCarbonic acid gas 22.6 c. c. 1.6 c. c. 0.5 c. c. 1.77\\nNitrogen 21.4 12.2 15.1 64.47\\nOxygen 10.1 5.3 7.4 33.76\\n54.1 19.1 ~22[0 100.00", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0094.jp2"}, "95": {"fulltext": "WATER. 91\\nIt is seen that at the same season the running water con-\\ntains a larger amount of all of the gases than rain-water, and\\na notably larger proportion of carbonic acid.\\nSolid Matters dissolved in Water. Soft waters generally\\ncontain a small proportion of fixed matters, among which are\\ncertain salts of calcium and magnesium, certain alkaline salts,\\nsilica, and organic matters.\\nThe calcium salts are the carbonate and sulphate, and some-\\ntimes traces of the chloride, nitrate, and phosphate.\\nCalcium carbonate, or carbonate of lime, is almost insoluble\\nin pure water, but dissolves readily in water charged with\\ncarbonic acid gas in such solutions it exists as dicarbonate.\\nWhen water thus charged with calcium dicarbonate is boiled,\\nthat salt is decomposed, carbonic acid gas is disengaged, and\\nneutral calcium carbonate is precipitated. When the propor-\\ntion of calcium dicarbonate contained in spring-water is large,\\nit may happen that as the water loses carbonic acid gas the\\ncalcium carbonate is deposited at ordinary temperatures. This\\neffect is favored by the tumultuous movements to which spring-\\nwater is subjected either in flowing over an inclined bed or in\\nconducting-pipes. The carbonate then forms a crystalline de-\\nposit, which incrusts the interior walls of the pipes and, in\\ngeneral, whatever objects may be plunged into such waters,\\nwhich for this reason are called incrusting or petrifying waters.\\nThe presence of small quantities of calcium dicarbonate in\\ndrinking-water may be considered as a good condition, from a\\nhygienic stand-point, for the system needs calcareous salts for\\nthe development and nutrition of the bony structures.\\nCalcium sulphate, or sulphate of lime, exists in solution in\\nmany waters, especially in spring and well waters. When the\\nproportion does not exceed fifteen or twenty centigrammes per\\nlitre, such water may be used without inconvenience for do-\\nmestic purposes. Water largely charged with calcium sulphate\\nis called selenitous water it does not become clouded on ebul-\\nlition. Like all other strongly calcareous water, it does not dis-\\nsolve soap without first forming a flocculent precipitate. Salts\\nof barium produce with such water an abundant white precipi-\\ntate of barium sulphate, which is insoluble in nitric acid. Such\\nwater is unfit for economic purposes. In general, the propor-\\ntion of calcareous salts in potable water should not exceed five\\nor six decigrammes per litre water containing more than this\\nis difficult to digest, and is called hard water. Potable water", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0095.jp2"}, "96": {"fulltext": "92 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nshould not contain more than mere traces of organic matter.\\nIf the organic matter be due to sewage, the water yields am-\\nmonia when boiled with an alkaline solution of potassium per-\\nmanganate more than 0.10 per million of such ammonia indi-\\ncates an unwholesome water.\\nMineral or Medicinal Waters. These are waters that by\\nvirtue of their temperature or chemical constituents exercise\\na special action upon the animal economy, and consequently\\nhave a therapeutic value.\\nThey are cold or warm. They are called warm when their\\ntemperature at the moment of emergence is above 12 or 15\u00c2\u00b0.\\nOf course their temperatures vary greatly, covering the whole\\nthermometric scale from 25 to 100\u00c2\u00b0. There are numerous hot\\nsprings in California, Colorado, and Virginia. The tempera-\\nture of the Grand Geyser in Iceland is even above 100\u00c2\u00b0 in the\\ndepths of the tube from which it issues. According to their\\nchemical constituents, mineral waters are classified in a number\\nof characteristic groups, distinguished either by the predomi-\\nnance of certain constituents, or by the presence of principles\\nparticularly active. These groups are as follows\\nAcidulous or gaseous waters, characterized by the presence of free carbonic acid.\\nAlkaline waters, characterized by the presence of a greater or less proportion of\\nsodium dicarbonate, or of an alkaline silicate.\\nChalybeate waters, holding a salt of iron in solution.\\nSaline waters, or those containing certain neutral salts.\\nSulphur waters, characterized by the presence of hydrogen sulphide or other solu-\\nble sulphide.\\nOn arriving at the surface of the earth, certain of these\\nmineral waters undergo a change in chemical constitution.\\nSuch are the sulphur waters which absorb oxygen, as will be\\nnoticed presently. Those containing free carbonic acid lose a\\npart of their gas, and it often happens that some of the car-\\nbonates held in solution by an excess of carbonic acid become\\ninsoluble, and are deposited after the escape of that excess.\\nThis is the principal cause of the deposits which form in the\\nbasins and conducting-pipes of many mineral waters. These\\ndeposits vary greatly in composition sometimes they are floc-\\nculent or pulverulent, and collect in the form of mud some-\\ntimes they form hard concretions or scales. Calcium and\\nmagnesium carbonates, ferric hydrate, alumina, and silica are\\nthe most ordinary constituents of such deposits. Besides these,\\narsenic, various metallic oxides, and materials which it would\\nbe difficult to detect in the water itself, are sometimes concen-\\ntrated, as it were, in these deposits. Thus, arsenic is detected", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0096.jp2"}, "97": {"fulltext": "WATER. 93\\nmuch more readily in the ochrey deposits around a ferruginous\\nspring than in the water of the spring itself.\\nAcidulous or Gaseous Waters. Free carbonic acid is\\nthe characteristic and predominant element of these waters it\\nis dissolved in the depths of the earth under a pressure much\\ngreater than that of the atmosphere hence a certain portion\\nof the gas is disengaged as soon as the water emerges from the\\nsoil, giving rise to a greater or less effervescence. Gaseous\\nwaters are cold their taste is piquant at the moment of emer-\\ngence, but often becomes saline or even alkaline after the dis-\\nengagement of the greater part of the carbonic acid gas. Nat-\\nural gaseous waters never consist of a solution of carbonic\\nacid in pure water they always contain a small quantity of\\nsaline matters, principally traces of sodic, calcic, and magnesic\\ncarbonates, and even traces of chlorides and sulphates. Such\\nis the composition of the celebrated Seltzer water and of Soultz-\\nmatt water. The water of certain of the Saratoga springs\\napproximates in composition to Seltzer water.\\nAlkaline Waters. These waters possess an alkaline re-\\naction, either immediately on their emergence or after the loss\\nof their free carbonic acid. This reaction may be due to an\\nalkaline silicate, but is generally referable to an alkaline car-\\nbonate. Sodium acid carbonate, NaHCO 3 commonly called\\nbicarbonate of soda, exists in nearly all waters of this class,\\ntogether with an excess of carbonic acid. Vichy water con-\\ntains about 5 grammes of this salt per litre.\\nChalybeate Waters. Nearly all waters contain traces\\nof iron in solution chalybeate waters are such as contain\\nsufficient of that metal to sive them an astringent taste and\\nspecial therapeutic properties. The iron may exist in three\\nconditions\\n1. As ferrous carbonate held in solution by carbonic acid.\\n2. As ferrous crenate. Berzelius s;ave the names crenic\\nand apocrenic acids to two bodies which are related to peculiar\\nacids existing in the soil or humus, and which are known as\\nulmic, humic, and geic acids. Ferrous crenate is soluble in\\nwater its constitution is not known.\\n3. As ferrous sulphate.\\nConsequently, chalybeate waters may be carbonated, cre-\\nnated, and sulphated.\\nThe ferrous salts are never contained in these waters in large\\nproportions. Many ferruginous waters of undoubted efficacy", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0097.jp2"}, "98": {"fulltext": "94 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ndo not contain more than 4 or 5 centigrammes per litre.\\nWhen exposed to the air they lose the greater part of their\\ncarbonic acid, and ferrous carbonate is deposited, but this loses\\nits carbonic acid and is converted into brown ferric hydrate.\\nSuch is the manner of formation and the nature of the ochrey\\ndeposits always noticeable around ferruginous springs.\\nChalybeate waters are widely diffused. Those of Spa, Bel-\\ngium, and Pyrmont (carbonated), Bussang in the Vosges, and\\nForges (crenated), and Passy, at Paris, are well known. Cele-\\nbrated springs of this class exist at Bedford, Pennsylvania, Mani-\\ntou, Colorado, and indeed in many localities in the United States.\\nSaline Waters. This class includes a great number of\\nwaters charged with various neutral salts, among which are the\\nchlorides, bromides, and iodides. The salts of sodium, mag-\\nnesium, and calcium are those more usually met with in these\\nwaters. According to the predominating or peculiarly active\\nprinciple present, they are classified as chlorinated, sulphated,\\nand bromo-iodated waters. The Saratoga springs yield an\\nacidulo-saline water.\\nChlorinated Saline Waters. The chlorides generally found\\nin mineral waters are those of sodium, magnesium, and cal-\\ncium the former is much the more abundant, and constitutes\\none of the most common constituents of mineral waters. It\\ncommunicates to them a pure salty taste, free from bitterness.\\nA great number of saline springs serve for the extraction of\\nsodium chloride. After the evaporation of the water and the\\ndeposition of the salt, a mother-liquor remains in which various\\nless abundant salts are concentrated, principally the alkaline\\nbromides and iodides.\\nSea-water is a chlorinated water. It is well known that it\\ncontains a notable proportion of sodium chloride (2.5 to 2.7\\nper cent.). The common salt is accompanied by the chlorides\\nof magnesium and potassium, and by a considerable quantity\\nof magnesium sulphate (0.6 to 0.7 per cent.).\\nThe Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake of Utah are the\\nmost concentrated natural saline waters. The water of the\\nlatter contains 20 per cent, of sodium chloride.\\nSulphated Saline Waters. These are characterized by so-\\ndium, magnesium, or calcium sulphate. The springs of Carls-\\nbad, in Bohemia, contain a large proportion of sodium sulphate,\\ntogether with sodium bicarbonate and sodium chloride.\\nThe purgative waters of Epsom, England, contain magne-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0098.jp2"}, "99": {"fulltext": "HYDROGEN DIOXIDE. 95\\nsium sulphate. The waters of Hunyadi, Friedrichshall, and\\nSeidlitz contain magnesium sulphate and sodium sulphate.\\nTheir taste is bitter. The Avon Spring, New York, is of this\\nclass.\\nBromo-iodated Waters. Many mineral waters contain small\\nquantities of bromides and iodides, independently of the chlo-\\nrides which generally exist in much larger proportions. The\\nwater of the Dead Sea, so rich in magnesium and sodium\\nchlorides, contain 0.43 per cent, of magnesium bromide. The\\nIodine Spring at Saratoga contains a notable proportion of\\nalkaline iodides.\\nSulphur Waters. By this name are designated those\\nwaters containing a soluble sulphide or sulphuretted hydro-\\ngen. They are either natural sulphur waters or accidental\\nsulphur waters. The first contain sodium sulphide they are\\ngenerally warm, and contain but little solid matter. They all\\ndisengage nitrogen on their emergence from the soil. They\\ncontain a nitrogenized organic matter (baregine), and some-\\ntimes deposit a gelatinous precipitate (glairine).\\nCelebrated springs exist in the Pyrenees, at Bagneres-de-\\nLuchon, and at Aix la Chapelle. The sulphur springs of\\nSharon and Avon, in New York, and the Bed and White\\nSulphur Springs of Virginia are well known.\\nAccidental sulphur waters are those which are formed upon\\nthe spot by the reduction of sulphates, and particularly calcium\\nsulphate, contained in the waters. This reduction is accom-\\nplished by the action of organic matters which impregnate the\\nsoil, and of which the combustible elements, carbon and hydro-\\ngen, remove the oxygen of the sulphates. It is thus that the\\nsulphur water of Enghien is formed at the gates of Paris.\\nHYDBOGEN DIOXIDE.\\nH 2 2\\nThis remarkable compound was discovered by Thenard in\\n1818. It is formed by the action of barium dioxide upon di-\\nlute hydrochloric acid. Barium dioxide, powdered and made\\ninto a fine paste with water, is introduced by small portions\\ninto cold and dilute hydrochloric acid. It dissolves without\\ndisengagement of gas, yielding barium chloride and hydrogen\\ndioxide.\\nBaO 2 2HC1 BaCP H 2 2\\nBarium dioxide. Hydrochloric acid. Barium chloride. Hydrogen dioxide.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0099.jp2"}, "100": {"fulltext": "96 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe barium chloride is converted into insoluble sulphate by\\nthe cautious addition of dilute sulphuric acid, and hydrochloric\\nacid is regenerated, so that an additional quantity of barium\\ndioxide may be added this operation is several times repeated.\\nBaCl 2 H 2 S0 4 BaSO 4 2HC1\\nSulphuric acid. Barium sulphate.\\nThe barium chloride finally remaining in solution is exactly\\nprecipitated by a solution of silver sulphate, and the hydrogen\\ndioxide solution poured off and evaporated in vacuo. For use\\nin medicine and the arts dilute hydrogen peroxide is manufac-\\ntured in considerable quantities by the reaction of hydra ted\\nbarium dioxide with cold dilute phosphoric or sulphuric acids.\\nPure hydrogen dioxide is a syrupy, colorless, odorless liquid,\\nhaving a density of 1.452. It is very unstable, and readily\\ngives up half of its oxygen, being converted into water. This\\ndecomposition takes place with a brisk effervescence when the\\ndioxide is heated towards 100\u00c2\u00b0 it is also produced by contact\\nwith a great number of bodies, some of which are themselves\\nunaltered, some oxidized, and others even reduced. Hence\\nhydrogen dioxide enters into three classes of reactions.\\n1. If a solution of hydrogen dioxide be poured into a test-\\ntube containing manganese dioxide, the hydrogen dioxide is\\nreduced with effervescence into water and oxygen. The man-\\nganese dioxide remains unchanged. Finely divided platinum,\\ngold, silver, and carbon act in the same manner.\\n2. Hydrogen dioxide energetically oxidizes arsenic and sele-\\nnium to arsenic and selenic acids, and lead sulphide to lead sul-\\nphate.\\nPbS -f 4H 2 2 PbSO 4 4H 2\\nLead sulphide. Lead sulphate.\\n3. Potassium permanganate, KMnO, is a salt very rich in\\noxygen it dissolves in water, forming a solution having an\\nintense purple color. If hydrogen dioxide be added to it, it is\\nimmediately reduced and decolorized. The oxygen from the\\ndecomposition of the hydrogen dioxide is in this case added to\\nthat from the reduction of the permanganate, and both are dis-\\nengaged in the free state.\\nIf hydrogen dioxide be added to a solution of potassium di-\\nchromate, the latter assumes a deep blue color, but this rapidly\\ndisappears, giving place to a green tint. At the same time an\\nevolution of oxygen takes place. In this case the reaction is\\ncomplex: a portion of the hydrogen dioxide oxidizes the", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0100.jp2"}, "101": {"fulltext": "HYDROGEN DIOXIDE. 97\\nchromic acid for an instant into blue perchromic acid, but the\\nlatter is instantly reduced, with disengagement of oxygen, by\\nanother portion of the hydrogen dioxide, which at the same\\ntime loses half of its oxygen.\\nThe oxygen gas liberated comes then at the same time from\\nthe perchromic acid and the hydrogen dioxide, both of which\\nare supersaturated with oxygen, and which mutually reduce\\neach other. The perchromic acid formed may be removed\\nfrom the action of the excess of hydrogen dioxide by imme-\\ndiately agitating the liquid with ether the latter dissolves the\\nacid and assumes a dark-blue color.\\nThese experiments of reduction are of great interest, and\\npermit of but one explanation. The fact of the reciprocal\\nreduction of two bodies each supersaturated with oxygen can\\nonly be explained by admitting that the oxygen of one body\\npossesses an affinity for that of the other, and that the oxygen\\nwhich is set free is formed by the union of two atoms, one from\\nthe hydrogen dioxide, the other from the perchromic or per-\\nmanganic acid. These two atoms unite to form a molecule of\\noxygen 00. This would represent oxygen in the free state,\\nand occupy two volumes. It would be a true combination, and\\nwe here encounter for the first time the important notion that\\nthe atoms of certain elements are not isolated when in the free\\nstate, but combined in pairs, each pair being held together by\\nchemical force. Free oxygen would then be oxygen oxide, a\\ncombination of two atoms of oxygen, both together forming\\na molecule, and occupying two volumes like the molecule of\\nwater.\\n1 molecule of water H-O-H 2 volumes.\\n1 molecule of oxygen 0=0 2 volumes.\\nWhile the molecular structure of free oxygen or oxygen\\noxide corresponds in a measure to that of hydrogen oxide or\\nwater, there exists a peroxide of oxygen which corresponds in\\na measure to hydrogen peroxide it is ozone.\\nHydrogen dioxide H-0-0-\\n0\\nI\\nOxygen dioxide (ozone) 0\\\\ I\\nE", "height": "4792", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0101.jp2"}, "102": {"fulltext": "98 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nSULPHUR.\\nVapor density compared to air 2.22\\nVapor density compared to hydrogen 32.\\nAtomic weight S =32.\\nSulphur has been known from the greatest antiquity. It\\nexists in combination in a large number of sulphides, among\\nwhich are those of iron and copper (pyrites), of lead (galena),\\nzinc (blende), mercury, etc. In certain volcanic countries it is\\nfound on the surface of the earth in the native state. Sicily and\\nIceland contain large deposits in the neighborhood of extinct\\nvolcanoes (solfatares). In order to separate it from the earthy\\nmatters which accompany it, the ore is piled symmetrically in\\nhemispherical kilns about 10 metres in diameter built on the\\nside of a hill (Fig. 31) air-channels are left through the\\nFig. 31.\\nmass, and the whole is covered with a layer of earth or burnt-\\nout ore. The sulphur is then ignited at the bottom, and the\\nheat produced by the combustion of a portion of the sulphur\\ncauses that remaining in the mass to melt. The liquid sulphur\\nruns out at the bottom of the kiln, and solidifies in masses or\\nis cast into moulds.\\nCrude sulphur is thus obtained. It is purified by distillation\\nfrom the foreign matters which it retains. This refining process\\nis conducted in an apparatus represented in Fig. 32.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0102.jp2"}, "103": {"fulltext": "SULPHUR.\\n99\\nA horizontal cast-iron cylinder, A, receives the melted sul-\\nphur from the vessel C. which is heated by the waste gases\\nfrom the furnace, and which serves as a reservoir. The sulphur\\nvapor enters a large masonry chamber, B, the floor of which is\\nslightly inclined in order that the condensed liquid sulphur may\\nflow towards a tap, H, which can be opened as is necessary. A\\ndamper, R, that can be regulated by an articulated wire, per-\\nmits the closing and opening of the mouth of the cylinder.\\nThe vault of the chamber is provided with a safety-valve, K,\\nwhich allows of the escape of the expanded air.\\nAt the commencement of the operation, when the walls of\\nthe chamber are cold, the sulphur condenses in the form of a\\nfine powder, which is known as flowers of sulphur. But when\\nthe walls of the chamber become heated above the melting-\\npoint of sulphur, the vapor condenses into a liquid, and on\\nopening the tap at H, it is drawn off into a vessel, E, from\\nwhich it is distributed into slightly conical or cylindrical moulds,\\nwhere it solidifies. Boll sulphur is thus obtained.\\nFig. 32.\\nPhysical Properties. Sulphur is a lemon-yellow solid. It\\nis tasteless, odorless, and brittle it is a non-conductor of heat", "height": "4801", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0103.jp2"}, "104": {"fulltext": "100 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nand electricity. A stick of sulphur pressed in the hand or\\nplunged into warm water produces a crackling sound, and\\nfinally breaks into pieces this is due to the unequal expan-\\nsion from the circumference to the centre of the non-conduct-\\ning mass of sulphur, the crystalline particles of which are but\\nslightly held together by cohesion.\\nThe density of sulphur is about 2.03. At 111.5\u00c2\u00b0 it melts\\ninto a brownish-yellow, transparent liquid. If this liquid be\\nallowed to cool slowly until a crust forms upon the surface,\\nand the crust be pierced and the part still remaining liquid be\\ndecanted, after removing the crust the vessel is found lined\\nwith long, transparent, flexible needles of a brownish-yellow\\ncolor. These crystals are oblique-rhombic prisms having a\\ndensity of 1.98. This is not the only crystalline form assumed\\nby sulphur. If a solution of sulphur in carbon disulphide be\\nallowed to evaporate spontaneously, orthorhombic pyramids are\\ndeposited having a density of 2.05. This form is also that of\\nnative sulphur.\\nSulphur crystallizes, then, in two distinct crystalline systems.\\nIt is dimorphous. It is a curious fact that the prisms formed\\nby way of fusion do not long retain their transparency and\\ntheir flexibility. At ordiuary temperatures, they soon become\\nopaque and brittle, owing to their transformation into micro-\\nscopic right rhombic octahedra.\\nConversely, the transparent octahedral crystals become\\nopaque when maintained for some time at a temperature of\\n111\u00c2\u00b0 they are then transformed into a multitude of little crys\\ntals of prismatic sulphur. The two crystalline modifications\\nof sulphur are thus transformed into each other by varying\\nthe conditions.\\nSulphur melted in a sealed tube will remain liquid for a\\nlong time at temperatures below its ordinary point of solidifi-\\ncation it is then said to be in a state of superfusion. When\\nit finally solidifies, it crystallizes in voluminous octahedra\\nhaving the form of crystallized native sulphur.\\nThere are other and amorphous modifications of sulphur.\\nExperiment. If sulphur be melted in a flask, and the tem-\\nperature be gradually raised above its point of fusion, it assumes\\na thick consistence and a dark color. At 220\u00c2\u00b0 it has a brown-\\nred color and is very thick. Above 260\u00c2\u00b0 it again becomes\\nfluid if while in this state it be poured into cold water, it is\\nconverted into a soft, transparent, brownish-yellow, and elastic", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0104.jp2"}, "105": {"fulltext": "SULPHUR.\\n101\\nmass. It has become amorphous, and is now soft sulphur.\\nWhen abandoned to itself for several days, it hardens, becomes\\nopaque, and reassumes the properties of ordinary sulphur.\\nThis change takes place immediately if the soft sulphur be\\nheated to 90 or 95\u00c2\u00b0 is then accompanied by a sensible disen-\\ngagement of heat (Regnault).\\nThere are two modifications of soft sulphur. If it be treated\\nwith carbon disulphide, a part of it is dissolved, and a residue\\nremains. The soluble part constitutes soluble soft sulphur;\\nthe residue is insoluble soft sulphur (Ch. Sainte-Claire Deville).\\nIn recently-sublimed flowers of sulphur the sulphur exists in\\nthe amorphous condition.\\nThe octahedral, prismatic, and insoluble varieties are dis-\\ntinguished as a, ft and y sulphur.\\nSulphur boils at 440\u00c2\u00b0 its vapor is red. At 500\u00c2\u00b0 it has a\\ndensity of 6.654 (Dumas). Towards 1000\u00c2\u00b0 its density is only\\nabout one-third as great. According to H. Deville and Troost,\\nthe vapor density of sulphur, determined at 860\u00c2\u00b0 and reduced\\nby calculation to 0\u00c2\u00b0, is 2.22. Compared to hydrogen, this\\ndensity is equal to 32, which is the normal density of sulphur\\nvapor, and gives its atomic weight. If 1 volume of hydrogen\\nweighs 1, 1 volume of sulphur vapor weighs 32; the latter\\nfigure is therefore the atomic weight of sulphur.\\nBetween the boiling-point and 860\u00c2\u00b0 the vapor density of\\nsulphur is not constant under ordinary pressures this is ac-\\ncounted for by the fact that sulphur does not assume the true\\ngaseous state below a temperature of 860\u00c2\u00b0.\\nSulphur is insoluble in water, but very slightly soluble in\\nalcohol, a little more soluble in ether and benzene. Its best\\nsolvent is carbon disulphide.\\nChemical Properties. Sulphur possesses energetic affini-\\nties. It combines directly with a great number of the other\\nelements. It is well known that it is combustible, burning\\nwith a blue flame. Its combustion in air or oxygen produces\\nsulphurous oxide.\\nSulphur combines directly with chlorine, bromine, iodine,\\nphosphorus, arsenic, and carbon, and with very many of the\\nmetals. Iron and copper burn in the vapor of sulphur. The\\nsulphides thus formed generally possess the atomic constitution\\nof the corresponding oxides. Thus, the compound of sulphur\\nand carbon, carbon disulphide, is analogous to carbonic acid\\ngas. This analogy is maintained between a great number of\\n9*", "height": "4785", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0105.jp2"}, "106": {"fulltext": "102\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\noxygen and sulphur compounds, as will be seen by the follow-\\ning examples\\nH 2 water.\\nH 2 S hydrogen sulphide.\\nKOH potassium hydrate.\\nKSH potassium sulphydrate.\\nCO 2 carbon dioxide.\\nCS 2 carbon disulphide.\\nK 2 potassium monoxide.\\nK 2 S potassium monosulphide.\\nBaO barium monoxide.\\nBaS barium monosulphide.\\nK 2 C0 3 potassium carbonate.\\nK 2 CS 3 potassium sulphocarbonate.\\nSULPHYDRIC ACID, OR HYDROGEN SULPHIDE.\\nDensity compared to air 1.192\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 17.\\nMolecular weight H 2 S =34.\\nThis gas, known also as sulphuretted hydrogen, was discov-\\nered by Meyer and Rouelle, and studied\\nby Scheele, in 1777, and by Berthollet.\\nPreparation. Hydrogen sulphide is\\nusually prepared in the laboratory by the\\nA \u00e2\u0096\u00a0B.? r JH reaction of dilute sulphuric acid and fer-\\nrous sulphide, as indicated in the follow-\\ning equation\\nFeS H 2 S0 4 FeSO 4 H 2 S\\nFerrous Sulphuric Ferrous\\nsulphide. acid. sulphate.\\nThe apparatus used for the preparation\\nof hydrogen may be employed. As hy-\\ndrogen sulphide is very largely used as\\na reagent, many forms of self-regulating\\napparatus have been devised by which\\nthe gas may be obtained as required.\\nOne of the most convenient of these is\\ndue to Norblad, and is represented in\\nFig. 33. Ferrous sulphide is introduced\\ninto the bulb B, to which another bulb,\\nC, is adapted by a well ground joint.\\nThe only passage from B to G is by\\nmeans of a groove in one side of this\\njoint in B and a small hole in C which\\nmay be brought opposite the groove.\\nThe hole opens into a tube which rises\\nin C and is then directed downward, so that gas coming from\\nB must pass through a little water contained in the bulb C\\nFig. 33.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0106.jp2"}, "107": {"fulltext": "HYDROGEN SULPHIDE. 103\\nand be thus washed. Dilute sulphuric acid is poured into the\\nreservoir J., the stop-cock D being closed. As soon as the\\nliquid comes in contact with the ferrous sulphide, hydrogen\\nsulphide is disengaged and passes out by the delivery-tube F.\\nOn closing the passage from B to C by rotating C so that the\\nopening in the ground joint is not opposite the groove in B,\\nthe accumulation of gas forces the acid liquid back into the\\nreservoir A, and the reaction ceases as soon as the acid is no\\nlonger in contact with the ferrous sulphide. The stop-cock D\\nserves to draw off the liquid when the acid becomes exhausted.\\nA much purer hydrogen sulphide may be prepared by heat-\\ning antimony trisulphide with hydrochloric acid. The reaction\\ntakes place according to the following equation, the antimony\\ntrichloride remaining in solution\\nSb 2 S 3 6HC1 2SbCl 3 -f 3H 2 S\\nADtimony trisulphide. Hydrochloric acid. Antimony trichloride.\\nIt has been recently recommended to employ aluminium sul-\\nphide, APS 3 when the gas is wanted perfectly pure. The re-\\naction which takes place is exactly analogous to the preceding.\\nHydrogen sulphide may be collected over warm water or by\\ndry downward displacement.\\nPhysical Properties. Hydrogen sulphide is a colorless gas.\\nIt has a penetrating odor of putrid eggs. Under a pressure of\\n17 atmospheres, it condenses to a transparent, strongly refract-\\ning liquid, having a density of about 0.91. At 85.5\u00c2\u00b0 this\\nliquid solidifies to a white crystalline mass (Faraday). Hydro-\\ngen sulphide is soluble in water. At 0\u00c2\u00b0, one volume of water\\ndissolves 4.37 volumes; at 10\u00c2\u00b0, 3.58 volumes; and at 20\u00c2\u00b0,\\n2.90 volumes.\\nComposition. 2 volumes of hydrogen sulphide contain 2\\nvolumes of hydrogen and 1 volume of sulphur vapor.\\nIf a given volume of this gas be introduced into a bent tube\\nover mercury (Fig. 44), and a morsel of tin be then introduced\\nand heated for about twenty minutes, the hydrogen sulphide is\\ndecomposed the sulphur combines with the tin, and the hy-\\ndrogen is set free. After cooling, the latter gas occupies a\\nvolume exactly equal to that of the hydrogen sulphide at first\\ncontained.\\nThe density of hydrogen sulphide 17\\nhence its molecular weight 34\\nsubtracting from this the weight of one molecule of\\nhydrogen 2\\nwe obtain the weight of one atom of sulphur 32", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0107.jp2"}, "108": {"fulltext": "104 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIt is hence concluded that one molecule of hydrogen sulphide\\ncontaius one atom of sulphur to two atoms of hydrogen.\\nIt is also seen that hydrogen sulphide has exactly the same\\nchemical constitution as vapor of water.\\nH 2 2 volumes or one molecule of vapor of water.\\nH 2 S 2 volumes or one molecule of hydrogen sulphide.\\nThe analogy between sulphur and oxygen is here manifested\\nin a striking manner. One atom of each of these elements\\nrequires two atoms of hydrogen. This is expressed by saying\\nthat both oxygen and sulphur are diatomic elements.\\nChemical Properties. Hydrogen sulphide is combustible,\\nburning with a bluish flame. The products of its complete\\ncombustion are water and sulphurous oxide. When mixed\\nwith one and a half times its volume of oxygen, it explodes on\\nthe application of a flame or the passage of an electric spark.\\n2H 2 S 30 2 2S0 2 2H 2\\nTwo volumes. Three volumes. Two volumes. Two volumes.\\nWhen the supply of oxygen is insufficient, the combustion\\nis incomplete and sulphur is deposited.\\nIn the presence of water, oxidation takes place slowly at\\nordinary temperatures, occasioning a deposit of sulphur. In\\ncontact with porous matters and oxygen the oxidation goes\\nfurther, sulphuric acid being formed.\\nHydrogen sulphide has a feeble acid reaction it changes\\nblue litmus to a wine-red color. When it reacts with potassium\\nhydrate, water and potassium sulphydrate are formed.\\ni} s h}\u00c2\u00b0 s !}o\\nHydrogen sulphide. Potassium hydrate. Potassium sulphydrate.\\nChlorine, bromine, and iodine decompose hydrogen sulphide,\\ncombining with its hydrogen. When these bodies are dry, the\\naction is energetic, and the sulphur combines with the excess\\nof the element employed. If water be present, the sulphur\\nis set at liberty.\\nBodies rich in oxygen readily decompose hydrogen sulphide.\\nExperiments. 1 If a few drops of the strongest nitric acid\\nbe poured into a jar filled with hydrogen sulphide, the gas is\\ninstantly inflamed. The nitric acid gives up oxygen, water is\\nformed, sulphur is set free, and abundant red fumes appear at\\nthe same time.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0108.jp2"}, "109": {"fulltext": "HYDROGEN PERSULPHIDE. 105\\n2. If four volumes of hydrogen sulphide be mixed with two\\nvolumes of sulphurous oxide over the mercury-trough, a deposit\\nof sulphur is at once formed.\\n2H 2 S SO 2 2H 2 3S\\nHydrogen sulphide. Sulphurous oxide. Water. Sulphur.\\n(4 volumes.) (2 volumes.)\\nHydrogen sulphide decomposes a great number of metallic\\nsolutions, forming insoluble sulphides, which are precipitated.\\nThe color, solubility in acids and alkalies, and other charac-\\nteristics of the precipitates thus furined render hydrogen sul\\nphide an almost indispensable reagent in aualysis.\\nExperiments. 1. If hydrogen sulphide be passed into a\\nsolution of blue vitriol or cupric sulphate, a brownish black\\nprecipitate of cupric sulphide is formed. The reaction is\\nexpressed by the following equation\\nCuSO H 2 S CuS IPSO\\nCupric sulphate. Cupric sulphide. Sulphuric acid.\\n2. By an analogous reaction, a solution of plumbic acetate,\\nor a paper impregnated with that salt, is at once blackened by\\nthe presence of hydrogen sulphide.\\nIn the same manner hydrogen sulphide throws down white\\nzinc sulphide from alkaline solutions of zinc salts, the pre-\\ncipitate being redissolved by acids. In acid solutions of anti-\\nmony it forms an orange precipitate of antimony trisulphide\\ninsoluble in ammonia, while arsenic is precipitated as yellow\\narsenic trisulphide, soluble in ammonia, from acid solutions\\nof arsenic.\\nHydrogen sulphide acts as a poison when inhaled in large\\nquantities or for any length of time.\\nHYDROGEN PERSULPHIDE.\\nH 2 S 5 (probably).\\nThis compound is prepared by pouring, drop by drop, a\\nsolution of calcium disulphide into dilute hydrochloric acid.\\n4CaS 2 8HC1 4CaCl 2 3H 2 S H 2 S 5\\nCalcium disulphide. Hydrochloric acid. Calcium chloride. Hydrogen persulphide.\\nHydrogen persulphide is formed and collects at the bottom of\\nthe vessel in the form of a yellowish oil, having a disagreeable,\\nirritating odor.", "height": "4785", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0109.jp2"}, "110": {"fulltext": "106 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nUnder a pressure of five millimetres it may be distilled at\\nabout 60\u00c2\u00b0, and is then colorless. When perfectly dry it is\\nstable if kept in the dark, but in the light, or if moisture be\\npresent, it soon decomposes into hydrogen sulphide and sul-\\nphur. This decomposition is also brought about by presence\\nof the bodies that react with either hydrogen sulphide or\\nsulphur.\\nOXYGEN ACIDS OF SULPHUR.\\n1 Sulphur forms four compounds with oxygen\\nSulphur sesquioxide S 2 3\\nSulphur dioxide SO 2\\nSulphur trioxide SO 3\\nPersulphuric oxide S 2 7\\n2. By combining with a molecule of water, the last three\\nare converted into the corresponding acids.\\n50 2 H 2 H 2 SO* sulphurous acid.\\n50 3 H 2 H 2 SO* sulphuric acid.\\nS 2 7 H 2 2HS0 4 persulphuric acid.\\n3. There are two other important acids of sulphur, thio-\\nsulphuric and hyposulphuric acids. The former may be con-\\nsidered as sulphuric acid in which 1 atom of oxygen is replaced\\nby an atom of sulphur.\\nH 2 S0 4 sulphuric acid.\\nH 2 (S0 3 )S thiosulphuric (formerly called hyposulphurous)\\nacid.\\nHyposulphuric acid may be considered as resulting from the\\naddition of sulphurous oxide to sulphuric acid.\\nSO 2 H 2 S0 4 H 2 S 2 6 hyposulphuric acid.\\n4. These are not the only known sulphur acids.\\nHyposulphuric acid, which is called also dithionic acid, is\\nthe first of a series of acids, each of which contains 2 atoms of\\nhydrogen and 6 atoms of oxygen, the number of sulphur atoms\\nregularly increasing. This series is called the thionic series.\\nThe following is the nomenclature and composition of the\\nacids\\nH 2 S 2 6 dithionic, hyposulphuric acid.\\nH 2 S 3 6 trithionic acid.\\nH 2 S 4 6 tetrathionic acid.\\nH 2 S 5 6 pentathionic acid.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0110.jp2"}, "111": {"fulltext": "SULPHUR DIOXIDE. 10T\\n5. Schiitzenberger made known a new sulphur acid, which\\nhe named hydrosulphurous acid, and which is formed by the\\naction of zinc upon sulphurous acid, as will be described farther\\non. The composition of this acid, which is properly named\\nhyposulphurous, is represented by the formula\\nIPSO 2\\nThere is an interesting relation between this acid and sul-\\nphurous and sulphuric acids.\\nH 2 S0 2 hyposulphurous acid.\\nH 2 S0 3 sulphurous acid.\\nIPSO 4 sulphuric acid.\\nSulphur sesquioxide, S 2 3 appears to be a green solid,\\nobtained by the action of sulphur on sulphur trioxide in the\\ncold. It is very unstable, decomposing readily into sulphur and\\nsulphur dioxide.\\nSULPHUR DIOXIDE.\\nDensity compared to air 2.234\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 32.\\nMolecular weight SO 2 =64.\\nSulphurous oxide or sulphurous acid gas may be prepared\\nby decomposing sulphuric acid with copper. The metal in\\nsmall clippings and the acid are introduced into a flask fitted\\nFig. 34.\\nwith a delivery-tube (Fig. 34) heat is applied and the gas\\ncollected over the mercury- trough. The reaction which takes\\nplace is expressed by the following equation\\nCu 2H 2 S0 4 CuSO 4 2H 2 SO 2\\nCopper. Sulphuric acid. Cupric sulphate.", "height": "4785", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0111.jp2"}, "112": {"fulltext": "108 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nA solution of sulphurous acid in water is often needed in\\nthe laboratory. It may be conveniently prepared by reducing\\nsulphuric acid by charcoal the products of the reaction are\\nwater, and sulphurous and carbonic acid gases.\\n2H 2 SO C 2H 2 2S0 2 CO 2\\nSulphuric acid. Carbon dioxide.\\nThe mixed gas is passed through a series of bottles contain-\\ning water, which dissolves the sulphurous oxide, but takes up\\nonly an insignificant quantity of the carbon dioxide.\\nPhysical Properties. Sulphur dioxide is a colorless gas\\nhaving a pungent, suffocating odor. It is readily liquefied by\\nbeing led into a vessel surrounded by a mixture of ice and salt.\\nIt condenses at ordinary temperatures, under a pressure of\\nabout two atmospheres. The liquid has a density of 1.45 it-\\nboils at 10\u00c2\u00b0, and produces great cold by its evaporation on\\nthis account it is used for the manufacture of ice, and in other\\ncases where intense cold is required. 73\u00c2\u00b0 may be obtained\\nby the evaporation of liquid sulphurous acid aided by double-\\nacting pumps (Raoul Pictet).\\nWater at 0\u00c2\u00b0 dissolves 79.9 times its volume of sulphurous\\noxide, and only 39.4 volumes at 20\u00c2\u00b0.\\nExperiments. 1. If a small quantity of mercury contained\\nin a porcelain capsule be covered with a deep layer of liquid\\nsulphurous oxide, and the evaporation of the latter be favored\\nby directing a rapid current of air over its surface, the mercury\\nis frozen into a solid button.\\n2. When liquid sulphurous acid is poured into not too great\\na quantity of water, a part of it is dissolved, but the excess\\nabsorbs heat from the mass of liquid, volatilizes suddenly, and\\nthe water is frozen.\\nChemical Properties. Sulphurous oxide is not decom-\\nposed by heat. It is incombustible, and extinguishes burning\\nbodies.\\nIts most striking property is its affinity for oxygen. If a\\nmixture of two volumes of sulphurous oxide and one volume\\nof oxygen be passed through a tube containing slightly heated\\nspongy platinum, the two gases combine, forming sulphuric\\noxide (Kuhlmann).\\nA solution of sulphurous oxide in water slowly absorbs oxy-\\ngen, and is converted into sulphuric acid. It may be admitted\\nthat the aqueous solution contains the veritable sulphurous acid.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0112.jp2"}, "113": {"fulltext": "SULPHUR DIOXIDE. 109\\nIPSO 3 IPSO*\\nSulphurous acid. Sulphuric acid.\\nSulphurous acid reduces a great number of oxidized bodies.\\nAt ordinary temperatures it takes the oxygen from iodic acid,\\nsetting free the iodine but the latter disappears on the addi-\\ntion of an excess of sulphurous acid, sulphuric and hydriodic\\nacids being formed.\\nH 2 S0 3 H 2 P IPSO 2HI\\nIt decolorizes the purple solution of potassium permanganate,\\nforming manganese sulphate and potassium sulphate. It con-\\nverts arsenic acid into arsenious acid. It combines directly\\nwith lead dioxide, forming lead sulphate.\\nPbO 2 SO 2 PbSO 4\\nLead dioxide. Lead sulphate.\\nChlorine will unite directly with sulphurous oxide. If a\\nmixture of equal volumes of chlorine and sulphurous oxide be\\nexposed to sunlight, the two gases combine, forming a liquid\\nhaving a suffocating odor. It is sulphuryl chloride. Its den-\\nsity is 1.66, and its boiling-point is 77\u00c2\u00b0. It may be regarded\\nas sulphur trioxide in which one atom of oxygen is replaced\\nby two atoms of chlorine.\\nSO 3 (S0 2 0 sulphuryl oxide or sulphuric oxide.\\nS0 2 C1 2 (S0 2 CP sulphuryl chloride.\\nIn these reactions in which the sulphurous oxide combines\\ndirectly with either one atom of oxygen or two atoms of chlorine,\\nit plays the part of an element it is a comjjoinid radical, and\\nthis radical is diatomic, because it unites with two atoms of the\\nmonatomic element chlorine, or with one atom of the diatomic\\nelement oxygen, which is equivalent to two atoms of chlorine.\\nIn the formulae given, the diatomicity is expressed by the\\naccents\\nSulphurous acid bleaches various vegetable and animal mat-\\nters. A bouquet of violets or a rose is bleached in a few minutes\\nby a solution of sulphur dioxide. This property renders sul-\\nphur dioxide a valuable bleaching agent the gas used for this\\npurpose is generally obtained by burning sulphur or by roasting\\nsulphides.\\n10", "height": "4791", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0113.jp2"}, "114": {"fulltext": "110 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nHYPOSULPHUROUS (HYDROSULPHUROUS) ACID.\\nH 2 S0 2\\nWhile sulphurous acid reduces a number of bodies, it is in its\\nturn reduced by the action of zinc upon its aqueous solution. A\\nyellow liquid is thus obtained which energetically bleaches indigo\\nand litmus solutions (Schonbein). Schutzenberger has shown\\nthat the liquid gifted with these properties contains the zinc salt\\nof a new acid, which is properly named hyposulphurous. This\\nacid is formed by the combination of hydrogen with sulphurous\\noxide. The reaction is expressed by the following equations\\nH 2 S0 3 Zn ZnSO 3 H 2\\nSulphurous acid. Zinc. Zinc sulphite.\\nSO 2 H 2 H*SO*\\nSulphurous oxide. Hyposulphurous acid.\\nWhen this liquid is treated with very dilute sulphuric acid,\\nit gives a liquor of a dark orange-yellow color, having ener-\\ngetic bleaching powers. It then contains hyposulphurous\\nacid. It soon becomes clouded and deposits sulphur. This\\nacid is not stable, but its acid sodium salt is more so the latter\\nhas the composition NaHSO 2 It readily absorbs oxygen from\\nthe air, being converted into sodium acid sulphite.\\nNaHSO 2 NaHSO 3\\nThis oxidation is also brought about by the presence of cer-\\ntain metallic salts, such as those of copper, mercury, and lead.\\nIn this case the metal is reduced and precipitated, and the\\nhyposulphite is decomposed, yielding sulphurous oxide.\\nNaHSO 2 CuSO 4 NaHSO 4 SO 2 Cu\\nSodium hyposulphite. Cupric sulphate. Sodium acid sulphate.\\nSodium acid hyposulphite may be obtained by the electrol-\\nysis of a solution of sodium acid sulphite. In this case the\\nhydrogen, which would otherwise be disengaged at the negative\\npole, accomplishes the reduction.\\nNaHSO 3 IP NaHSO 2 H 2\\nSULPHUR TRIOXIDE, OR SULPHURIC OXIDE.\\n(SULPHURIC ANHYDRIDE.)\\nVapor density compared to hydrogen 40\\nMolecular weight SO 3 =80\\nSulphur trioxide is formed by the union of oxygen with\\nsulphurous oxide in the presence of finely-divided platinum.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0114.jp2"}, "115": {"fulltext": "SULPHURIC ACID. Ill\\nIt has long been prepared by gently heating fuming sulphuric\\nacid in a retort vapors are given off which, when condensed\\nin a receiver surrounded by a freezing mixture, solidify into a\\nwhite mass, having a fibrous appearance and a silky lustre.\\nAccording to Weber, the silk-like solid is an impure trioxide\\ncontaining small quantities of 3S0 3 .H 2 SO*. It is purified by\\nrepeated meltings at a moderate temperature, decanting the\\nliquid from the still solid portion until all melts at the same\\ntemperature.\\nThus prepared, sulphur trioxide is a mobile liquid which\\nboils at 46.2\u00c2\u00b0, and upon slow cooling solidifies in long prisms\\nwhich melt at 14.8\u00c2\u00b0. At ordinary temperatures it produces\\nwhite fumes in the air by condensing the atmospheric moisture.\\nIts most striking property is its affinity for water when thrown\\ninto that liquid, it becomes hydrated with such energy that a\\nportion of the water is suddenly vaporized, and a hissing noise\\nis produced similar to that heard on plunging a red-hot iron\\ninto water.\\nSULPHURIC ACID.\\nMolecular weight ft~^ S0 2 =98\\nThis acid, which has been known for centuries, was formerly\\nobtained by the distillation of ferrous sulphate. Large quan-\\ntities of it are now consumed in the arts, and it is manufac-\\ntured in extensive apparatus known as leaden chambers. Sul-\\nphurous oxide is conducted into these chambers, where it\\nmeets with nitric acid, by which it is oxidized.\\nSO 2 2HN0 3 H 2 SO 2N0 2\\nNitric acid. Nitrogen peroxide.\\nThe products of the first reaction are sulphuric acid and\\nnitrogen peroxide (red vapors) but the latter is decomposed\\nby steam, which is injected into the chamber nitric acid is\\nregenerated and nitrogen dioxide is formed.\\n3N0 2 H 2 2HN0 3 NO\\nNitrogen peroxide. Nitric oxide.\\nBut the nitric oxide is not lost it combines with the oxy-\\ngen of the air contained in the chamber, and is reconverted\\ninto nitrogen peroxide.\\nNO NO 2", "height": "4791", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0115.jp2"}, "116": {"fulltext": "112\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe latter is again decomposed into nitric acid and nitrogen\\ndioxide by the action of water, and the sulphurous oxide which\\ncontinually arrives in the chamber always encounters nitric\\nacid, by which it is converted into sulphuric acid. It is a\\ncontinuous operation, which theoretically leaves no residue,\\nand permits of the conversion of an indefinite amount of sul-\\nphurous oxide into sulphuric acid.\\nIt is really the oxygen of the air, continually absorbed and\\ngiven up by the nitrogen dioxide, which effects the oxidation\\nof the sulphurous oxide the nitric acid is the direct agent,\\nand the nitrogen dioxide is intermediate, for it is the vehicle\\nfor the transfer of the oxygen.\\nThe reactions may be well exhibited by the aid of the appa-\\nratus shown in Fig. 35, in which sulphur dioxide from the\\nflask B and nitric\\noxide prepared by\\nthe action of nitric\\nacid on copper in the\\ngenerating bottle C\\nare conducted into a\\nlarge globe, A, con-\\ntaining a little water.\\nThe cork of the\\nglobe is also pro-\\nvided with two bent\\ntubes, through one\\nof which air or oxy-\\ngen may be blown\\nin, while the other\\nserves as an exit for the gases. The color of the gases in the\\nglobe indicates the phases of the reaction, the red vapors produced\\nby the action of air on the nitric oxide being rapidly reduced\\nto colorless NO by contact with the sulphur dioxide. During\\nthe reaction the walls of the globe become lined with long white\\ncrystals, which are a compound of sulphurous acid and nitrogen\\nperoxide; on agitating the globe so that they come in contact\\nwith water, they are at once decomposed into sulphuric acid and\\nred vapors. They are known as the leaden chamber crystals.\\nFig. 36 represents a section of a series of leaden chambers\\nfor the manufacture of sulphuric acid.\\nSulphur or pyrite is burned in furnaces, AA, and the heat\\ngenerated is employed to boil the water contained in the boilers\\nFig, 35.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0116.jp2"}, "117": {"fulltext": "SULPHURIC ACID.\\n113\\n10*", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0117.jp2"}, "118": {"fulltext": "114 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nabove the flame, the steam being distributed to the chambers\\nby the pipes c d. The sulphurous oxide, together with a\\ngreat excess of air, passes through the pipes BB into a leaden\\ndrum, C. A thin layer of sulphuric acid charged with nitrous\\nproducts trickles over the inclined shelves in the drum. The\\ngases pass first into the chamber C, then into D, where they\\nmeet with nitric acid, which falls in thin layers over a double\\ncascade, EE, in such a manner as to present a large surface for\\nthe action of the sulphurous oxide. The sulphuric acid which\\nis formed in this chamber is charged with nitrous products it\\nis therefore allowed to flow by the inclined tube F into the\\nchamber C, where it encounters an excess of sulphurous oxide,\\nand which is called the denitrifier. The sulphurous oxide, the\\nexcess of air, and the nitrogen peroxide pass from D into the\\nlarge chamber HH, into which steam is projected by several\\njets. Here the larger portion of the sulphuric acid is pro-\\nduced, and the reaction is completed in another chamber. In\\nthe engraving the last two chambers are not fully represented.\\nThe gases from the last chamber enter a refrigerator, in which\\nthe condensation takes place they are lastly conducted into a\\nleaden column, R, filled with coke which is kept saturated\\nwith sulphuric acid by a thin stream from the reservoir 0.\\nThis acid completely absorbs the nitric oxide, and descends\\nby the tube ba into the reservoir i, situated near the furnace.\\nAs soon as this reservoir is full, the stop-cock r is closed, and\\nr is opened the pressure of the steam then forces the acid\\nup into the reservoir which feeds the first drum. The gas\\nwhich escapes from the last column, which is known as Gay-\\nLussac s tower, consists of nitrogen charged with an insignifi-\\ncant quantity of nitrous vapors.\\nThe acid which is drawn from the chambers is not suffi-\\nciently concentrated, having a density of only about 1.5. It\\nis first evaporated in leaden vessels until it becomes strong\\nenough to act upon the lead, and the concentration is then fin-\\nished in large platinum retorts. The excess of water is thus\\ndriven out. The concentrated acid possesses a density of\\n1.842.\\nIn many manufactories pyrites is burned instead of sulphur.\\nSulphurous oxide is produced, and a residue of ferric oxide\\nremains.\\nPurification of Sulphuric Acid. The sulphuric acid of\\ncommerce contains impurities. It holds in solution a small", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0118.jp2"}, "119": {"fulltext": "SULPHURIC ACID. 115\\nquantity of lead sulphate, formed in the evaporating basins it\\nis often charged with nitrous products, and sometimes with ar-\\nsenic acid, when the sulphurous oxide employed in its prepa-\\nration has been obtained by the combustion of arsenical pyrites.\\nIt may be freed from these impurities by distillation. The\\nnitrous products are first disengaged, and are found in the first\\nportions of the distillate, which must be rejected. Pure sul-\\nphuric acid then passes the lead sulphate and arsenic acid\\nremain in the retort with the last portions of the acid, which\\nmust not be distilled.\\nThe operation may be conducted in a glass retort connected\\nwith a cooled receiver. The retort should be heated laterally\\nby an annular flame so that explosive evolution of vapor may\\nbe avoided, and it is well to introduce some platinum wires with\\nthe acid, and to cover the retort with a sheet-iron hood.\\nConstitution of Sulphuric Acid. Since oxygen combines\\ndirectly with sulphurous oxide to form sulphuric oxide, the\\nlatter may be regarded as sulphuryl oxide, S0 2 0.\\nSulphuric acid is the hydrate of this oxide.\\nSO 3 H 2 IPSO*\\nThe following experiment indicates the relations which exist\\nbetween the elements composing this hydrate.\\nIf sulphuryl chloride be poured into water, it disappears,\\nsulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid being formed.\\nS 2 {c! HO? S0 1\u00c2\u00a7H 2HC1\\nSulphuryl 2 molecules Sulphuric 2 molecules\\nchloride. of water. acid. hydrochloric acid.\\nSulphuric acid is thus formed by the decomposition of 2\\nmolecules of water, of which 2 atoms of hydrogen have been\\nremoved by 2 atoms of chlorine, and replaced by the group\\nSO 2 It may then be truly said that sulphuric acid is derived\\nfrom two molecules of water by the substitution of the diatomic\\nradical (SO 2 for two monatomic atoms of hydrogen.\\nH.OH r 2f\\\\2\\\\ f OH\\nH.OH (b(J {OH\\n2 molecules of water. Sulphuric acid.\\nIf the composition of sulphuric acid be compared to that\\nof sulphuryl chloride, from which it may be formed, it will be", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0119.jp2"}, "120": {"fulltext": "116 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nseen that both compounds contain the same nucleus or radical\\nSO 2 and that instead of the two atoms of chlorine of the\\nchloride, the acid contains two groups OH. The group OH\\nis a residue, as it were, which represents a molecule of water\\nminus one atom of hydrogen, and which is called hydroxyl.\\nIt is a ironatomic group, and sulphuric acid is formed by the\\nsaturation of the affinity of the diatomic radical sulphuryl by\\ntwo monatomic groups hydroxyl, which replace the two atoms\\nof chlorine of sulphuryl chloride. Williamson has described\\nan intermediate compound in which the radical sulphuryl is\\ncombined with one atom of chlorine and one OH group.\\n802 {c! S 2 {0H S 2 {\u00c2\u00a3S\\nSulphuryl chloride. Sulphuryl chlorohydrate. Sulphuric acid.\\nPhysical Properties. Sulphuric acid is a colorless oily\\nliquid its density at 12\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.842 (Marignac). Its boiling-point\\nis 325\u00c2\u00b0, and it solidifies at 34\u00c2\u00b0. If it be crystallized several\\ntimes at a low temperature, and the part remaining liquid be\\ndecanted off each time, the melting-point is gradually raised to\\n-(-10.5\u00c2\u00b0, where it remains stationary. According to Marignac,\\nthe acid which solidifies and fuses at -}-i0.5 o constitutes the\\ntrue monohydrated acid, H SO 4 At a temperature about 40\u00c2\u00b0\\nit emits some fumes, and between this point and 290\u00c2\u00b0 it disen-\\ngages a small quantity of vapor of sulphuric oxide. At 290\u00c2\u00b0\\nit begins to boil, but its boiling-point soon rises to 338\u00c2\u00b0, where\\nit remains. Such are, according to Marignac, the properties of\\nmonohydrated sulphuric acid. According to this chemist, the\\nacid purified by simple distillation, and boiling at 325\u00c2\u00b0, still\\ncontains a small amount of water.\\nChemical Properties. When exposed to a red heat, sul-\\nphuric acid decomposes into sulphurous oxide, oxygen and\\nwater.\\nH 2 SO* SO 2 H 2\\nMany bodies having an affinity for oxygen reduce sulphuric\\nacid by the aid of heat. Thus sulphur effects the reduction,\\nbeing at the same time oxidized to sulphurous oxide.\\n2H 2 SO* S 3S0 2 2H 2\\nWe have already studied the action of charcoal and copper\\nupon sulphuric acid when boiled with that liquid, and we have\\nseen that zinc and iron decompose the dilute acid with evolu-\\ntion of hydrogen and formation of a sulphate.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0120.jp2"}, "121": {"fulltext": "SULPHURIC ACID. 117\\nSulphuric acid has a strong affinity for water. When four\\nparts of sulphuric acid are quickly mixed with one part of\\nwater, the temperature rises to above 100\u00c2\u00b0. If the experiment\\nbe made with large quantities, it is not without danger, and re-\\nquires prudence lest part of the acid be projected from the vessel.\\nExperiments. If four parts of sulphuric acid be quickly\\nadded to one part of snow, the latter is immediately liquefied\\nand a notable elevation of temperature takes place for the\\nenergy of the combination of the sulphuric acid with the water\\nis so great that the heat produced by the union is greater than\\nthat consumed in the liquefaction of the ice.\\nBut if four parts of snow be mixed with one part of sul-\\nphuric acid, the result is the reverse there is a lowering of\\ntemperature.\\nThe affinity of sulphuric acid for water is manifested in a\\nnumber of reactions. In the following it is sufficiently power-\\nful to cause the formation of the water it requires\\nIf a morsel of sugar be moistened with sulphuric acid, it\\nbecomes blackened and carbonized in a few minutes. The sugar\\ncontains no water already formed, but independently of carbon\\nit contains hydrogen and oxygen in the proportions necessary\\nto form water, so that the latter compound is produced by the\\ninfluence of the sulphuric acid, and a carbonaceous matter\\nremains.\\nThis water which is absorbed by sulphuric acid with so much\\nenergy, combines with the acid in a manner analogous to that\\nin which water of crystallization combines with certain salts.\\nIndeed, if sulphuric acid to which 18.3 per cent, of water has\\nbeen added be exposed to a temperature of 0\u00c2\u00b0, large prismatic\\ncrystals are formed, which remain solid even at a temperature\\nof -j-7\u00c2\u00b0 or -|~8\u00c2\u00b0. The composition of these crystals is ex-\\npressed by the formula H 2 SO*,H 2 0. They constitute a dihy-\\ndrated acid, for they result from the union of two molecules\\nof water with one molecule of sulphuric oxide.\\nConcentrated sulphuric acid will absorb red nitrous vapors\\n(see page 165). forming colorless crystals that are often de-\\nposited in the leaden chambers. The compound is nitrosyl\\nsulphuric acid.\\nho} 802 n mo} s02 HN 3\\nSulphuric acid. Red vapors. Nitrosyl sulphuric Nitric acid.\\nacid.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0121.jp2"}, "122": {"fulltext": "118 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nSulphuric acid is a dibasic acid that is, it contains two atoms\\nof hydrogen that are replaceable by an equivalent quantity of\\nmetal. This substitution takes place when the acid is treated\\nwith a hydrate, such as potassium hydrate, or with an oxide,\\nsuch as lead oxide.\\nH 2 SO 2KOH K 2 SO 2H 2\\nPotassium hydrate. Potassium sulphate.\\nH 2 SO PbO PbSO 4 H 2\\nLead oxide. Lead sulphate.\\nWhen saturated with potassium hydrate, the sulphuric acid\\nis converted into potassium sulphate, and, in the salt, two atoms\\nof potassium replace the two atoms of hydrogen of the acid.\\nIn the case of the lead oxide, on the contrary, the reaction,\\nwhich is only a double decomposition, takes place so that a\\nsingle atom of lead replaces the two atoms of hydrogen. The\\nmetal lead is then said to be diatomic that is, one atom of\\nlead is capable of replacing two atoms of a monatomic element\\nsuch as hydrogen, and one atom of lead is equivalent to two\\natoms of potassium.\\nSulphuric acid may be detected by the following reactions,\\nwhich are also applicable to the soluble sulphates.\\nIn solutions containing sulphuric acid or a sulphate, barium\\nsalts produce a white pulverulent precipitate, which is insolu-\\nble in either cold or hot nitric acid this precipitate is barium\\nsulphate. When mixed with an excess of charcoal and heated\\nto whiteness, it is converted into barium sulphide.\\nBaSO 4C 4CO BaS\\nBarium sulphate. Carbon monoxide. Barium sulphide.\\nThe sulphide of barium disengages hydrogen sulphide when\\nit is moistened with hydrochloric acid this gas may be recog-\\nnized by its odor and by its blackening a paper impregnated\\nwith lead acetate.\\nFUMING SULPHURIC ACID (PYROSULPHURIC).\\nFuming sulphuric acid, or Nordhausen sulphuric acid, as it\\nwas formerly called, can be regarded as a combination of sul-\\nphuric acid and sulphuric oxide.\\nso- OH\\nIPSO SO 3 H 2 S 2 0\\nS0 2\\nOH", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0122.jp2"}, "123": {"fulltext": "HYPOSULPHUROUS ACID. 119\\nIt is a light-brown, oily liquid. At 0\u00c2\u00b0 it solidifies into a leafy\\nmass. It gives off white fumes in the air. When heated, it\\ndecomposes into sulphuric oxide and sulphuric acid. It is ob-\\ntained in the arts by the distillation of ferrous sulphate that has\\nbeen previously transformed into ferric subsulphate by roasting.\\nThis subsulphate is calcined in stoneware retorts it gives\\noff sulphuric oxide when it is perfectly dry, but as it is difficult\\nto entirely free it from water of crystallization, the vapor of\\nsulphuric oxide is mixed with that of sulphuric acid, and the\\nmixed vapors are condensed in cooled receivers. The residue\\nof the distillation is ferric oxide, Fe 2 3 Fuming sulphuric\\nacid is used by dyers to dissolve indigo.\\nTHIOSULPHURIC ACID.\\nH 2 S(S0 3\\nThis acid, called also hyposulphurous and sulphosulphuric\\nacid, is not known in the free state. When sodium thiosulphate\\nis treated with dilute sulphuric acid, the thiosulphuric acid set\\nfree is at once decomposed into sulphurous acid and sulphur.\\nNa 2 S 2 3 IPSO* Na 2 S0 4 H 2 S0 3 S\\nSodium thiosulphate. Sodium sulphate.\\nSodium thiosulphate is formed when sulphur is boiled with\\na solution of sodium sulphite.\\nNa 2 S0 3 S Na 2 S(S0 3\\nSodium sulphite. Sodium thiosulphate.\\nIt is a very soluble salt, forming voluminous crystals. It is\\nused in photography and in the manufacture of paper.\\nHYPOSULPHURIC (DITHIONIC) ACID.\\nH 2 S 2 0\\nIf fuming sulphuric acid represent a combination of sul-\\nphuric acid and sulphuric oxide, hyposulphuric acid can be\\nregarded as resulting from the union of sulphuric acid with\\nsulphurous oxide.\\nS0 3 .H 2 S0 4 fuming sulphuric acid.\\nS0 2 .H 2 S0 4 hyposulphuric acid.\\nPreparation. Hyposulphuric acid is prepared by passing\\nsulphurous oxide into water in which manganese dioxide is sus-\\npended.\\n2S0 2 MnO 2 MnS 2 6\\nManganese dioxide. Manganese hyposulphate.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0123.jp2"}, "124": {"fulltext": "120 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nManganese hyposulphate is thus formed, and this is con-\\nverted into barium hyposulphate by a double decomposition\\nwith barium sulphide. The liquid is separated from the man-\\nganese sulphide by filtration, and exactly decomposed with\\ndilute sulphuric acid. Barium sulphate is precipitated, and the\\nhyposulphuric acid remains in solution. The liquid is then\\nconcentrated in vacuo.\\nProperties. Hyposulphuric acid is a very acid, syrupy\\nliquid, having a density of 1.347. It is not stable when\\nboiled it decomposes into sulphuric acid and sulphurous oxide.\\nPERSULPHURIC OXIDE.\\nS 2 0*\\nThis body was discovered by Berthelot, who obtained it in\\nthe pure state by the action of silent electric discharges of\\nhigh tension upon a mixture of equal volumes of perfectly dry\\nsulphurous oxide and oxygen in an apparatus like that shown\\nin Fig. 22. Persulphuric oxide is formed, and there remains\\na residue of oxygen.\\nS 2 4 O 4 S 2 7\\n4 vol. sulphurous oxide. 4 vol. oxygen. Persulphuric oxide. Oxygen.\\nWhen pure it is solid at ordinary temperatures, crystallizing\\nsometimes in grains, sometimes in thin and flexible transparent\\nneedles. Sometimes it remains liquid.\\nIt is not stable, and decomposes spontaneously in about two\\nweeks. When heated, it decomposes rapidly into sulphuric\\noxide and oxygen.\\nS 2 7 2S0 3 O\\nPersulphuric oxide. Sulphuric oxide.\\nWater dissolves it with production of dense fumes and a\\nbrisk effervescence due to the disengagement of oxygen. The\\nliquid then contains sulphuric acid. At the same time a small\\nquantity of persulphuric acid, H 2 S 2 8 or HSO 4 is formed,\\nwhich soon decomposes into sulphuric acid and oxygen.\\nThis persulphuric acid, which is very unstable, would be\\nanalogous to permanganic acid its formation is expressed by\\nthe following equation\\ng 2 7 H 2 _ 2HS0 4", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0124.jp2"}, "125": {"fulltext": "SELENIUM AND TELLURIUM. 121\\nAccording to Berthelot, persulphuric acid is formed by the\\nelectrolysis of concentrated solutions of sulphuric acid. The\\npotassium salt is obtained by electrolyzing a saturated solution\\nof potassium acid sulphate the salt being obtained at the\\nanode, which must be artificially cooled.\\n2KHSO 0-H 2 2KS0 4\\nBarium persulphate, Ba(S0 4 2 4H 2 0, is soluble in water.\\nSELENIUM AND TELLURIUM.\\nThese two rare elements present a great analogy to sulphur.\\nSelenium was discovered by Berzelius in certain Swedish py-\\nrites. It forms an essential part of but a few rare minerals, but\\nappears to be widely distributed accompanying iron and copper\\npyrites. Like sulphur, selenium has two allotropic forms, one\\ncrystalline, the other vitreous and amorphous. The crystalline\\nvariety begins to melt above 217\u00c2\u00b0, but liquefies only at 250\u00c2\u00b0\\n(Regnault) after rapid cooling it solidifies into a dark-brown\\nmass. Its density is 4.8 when crystallized, and 4.3 when vit-\\nreous. When heated in the air to a temperature above its\\nmelting-point it takes fire and burns with a blue flame, being\\nconverted into selenious oxide, SeO 2 When sulphurous acid\\nis added to a solution of selenious oxide the latter is reduced,\\nsulphuric acid is formed, and the selenium is precipitated in\\nthe form of brown -red flakes. Its compound with hydrogen\\nis a colorless gas having a fetid and irritating odor.\\nThe electrical conductivity of selenium is remarkably modi-\\nfied by the action of light: when exposed to direct sunlight it\\nconducts the current ten times as well as it does in the dark.\\nTellurium is still more rare than selenium it occurs com-\\nbined with gold and other metals in certain minerals of Tran-\\nsylvania and Hungary, and also in the Rocky Mountain gold\\nregion in the United States. It has the external appearance\\nand the lustre of a metal. Its color is silvery -white its den-\\nsity 6.25. It melts at about 500\u00c2\u00b0, and can be volatilized at a\\nwhite heat in a current of hydrogen. It has a great tendency\\nto crystallize. When heated in the air it burns with a green-\\nish-blue flame, forming tellurous oxide, TeO 2 Its compound\\nwith hydrogen is a gas having an odor analogous to that of\\nhydrogen sulphide.\\nThe following table shows the analogy between the principal\\ncompounds of sulphur selenium, and tellurium\\ny 11", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0125.jp2"}, "126": {"fulltext": "122\\nELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIPS\\nHydrogen sulphide.\\nSO 2\\nSulphurous oxide.\\nSO 3\\nSulphuric oxide.\\n[H 2 S0 8\\nSulphurous acid.\\nH 2 SO\\nSulphuric acid.\\nH 2 Se\\nHydrogen selenide.\\nSeO 2\\nSelenious oxide.\\n[SeO 3\\nSelenic oxide.\\nH 2 Se0 3\\nSelenious acid.\\nH 2 SeO\\nSelenic acid.\\nH 2 Te\\nHydrogen telluride.\\nTeO 2\\nTellurous oxide.\\nTeO 3\\nTelluric oxide.\\nH 2 Te0 3\\nTellurous acid.\\nH 2 TeO*\\nTelluric acid.\\nCHLORINE.\\nDensity compared to air 2.44\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 35.5\\nAtomic weight CI 35.5\\nChlorine was discovered by Scheele in 1774, and was first\\nrecognized as an element by Gay-Lussac and Thenard in 1809,\\nand by Sir Humphry Davy in 1810. It is one of the elements\\nof common salt, or sodium chloride.\\nPreparation. One part of manganese dioxide in coarse\\npowder and six parts of common hydrochloric acid are intro-\\nFig. 37.\\nduced into a flask fitted with a safety-tube and delivery-tube\\n(Fig. 37). The reaction begins in the cold chlorine gas is", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0126.jp2"}, "127": {"fulltext": "CHLORINE.\\n123\\ndisengaged, and may be collected over salt water. As soon as\\nthe disengagement of gas diminishes, it may be re-established\\nby the application of a gentle heat.\\nIt is more convenient to collect the gas by dry displacement,\\nand it may be obtained pure and dry by being washed with\\nwater, then passed through sulphuric acid, and finally through\\na tower, E, containing calcium chloride, as represented in the\\nfigure. It is then passed, by means of a tube bent at a right\\nangle, into a dry jar. The chlorine being heavier than the\\nair, collects at the bottom of the jar and gradually drives out\\nthe air, and the uniform greenish color of the whole of the gas\\nin the jar indicates when the latter is completely filled.\\nThe reaction which takes place in the preparation of chlorine\\nis a double decomposition between the manganese dioxide and\\nthe hydrochloric acid. Water and manganese chloride are\\nformed, and chlorine is set free.\\nMnO 2 -f 4HC1 2H 2 MnCl 2 CI 2\\nManganese dioxide. Hydrochloric acid. Manganese chloride.\\nLarge quantities of chlorine are required for the manufacture\\nof bleaching-powder (page 329). The gas is generally prepared\\nin large stone stills (Fig. 38) by the reaction just described;\\nthe heating is effected by injecting steam,\\nand the manganese chloride solution is\\ndrawn off and treated with milk of lime,\\nwhich precipitates manganous hydroxide,\\nMn(OH) 2 After washing this, steam and\\nair are blown through it, and it is thus\\noxidized to Mn 3 4 (Weldon). On treat-\\nment with hydrochloric acid this evolves\\nchlorine, and the manganese is thus used\\ncontinuously.\\nMn 3 0* 8HC1 3MnCl 2 4H 2 CI 2\\nBy another process air and hydrochloric\\nacid gas are passed over pumice-stone satu-\\nrated with cuprous chloride, Cu 2 Cl 2 The reaction takes place\\nin two phases first cupric chloride and water are formed, and\\nthe former is decomposed into cuprous chloride and chlorine\\n(Deacon).\\nCu 2 Cl 2 2HC1 2CuCl 2 H 2\\n2CuCl 2 Cu 2 Cl 2 CI 2\\nPhysical Properties. Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas\\nFig. 38.", "height": "4791", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0127.jp2"}, "128": {"fulltext": "124\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nhaving a strong and suffocating odor. A litre of this gas\\nweighs 3.16 gr. It may be liquefied at 15\u00c2\u00b0 by a pressure of\\nfour atmospheres. A small quantity of the liquid may easily\\nbe prepared in the following manner:\\nSome crystals of chlorine hydrate are introduced into a tube\\nof thick glass closed at one end and bent in the middle the\\nother end is then hermetically\\nsealed at the blast-lamp. The\\nbranch containing the crystals is\\nthen heated in a water-bath, while\\nthe other branch is cooled in a\\nfreezing mixture (Fig. 39). The\\nhydrate of chlorine breaks up\\ninto water and chlorine, and the\\ngreater part of the latter is disen-\\ngaged, and condenses by its own\\npressure into a deep-yellow liquid,\\nwhich collects in the cooler limb\\nof the tube (Faraday).\\nChemical Properties. One volume of water at 8\u00c2\u00b0 dissolves\\n3 volumes of chlorine at 17\u00c2\u00b0, 2.42 volumes. The saturated\\nsolution has a yellow color. When it is exposed to a tempera-\\nture of 0\u00c2\u00b0, it deposits crystals containing 27.7 per cent, of\\nchlorine, and 72.3 per cent, of water, and constituting a hydrate\\nof chlorine corresponding to the formula CI 2 10H 2 O (Fara-\\nday).\\nChlorine possesses powerful affinities. It unites directly\\nwith the greater number of the other elements, and the com-\\nbination frequently takes place with such energy that luminous\\nheat is produced.\\nExperiments. If powdered antimony or arsenic be sprinkled\\ninto a jar containing dry chlorine, each particle of the black\\npowder burns with a bright spark as soon as it enters the atmos-\\nphere of chlorine, producing thick, white fumes of antimony\\nor arsenic chloride as the case may be.\\nIf a morsel of phosphorus, contained in a deflagrating spoon,\\nbe plunged into a jar of chlorine, the phosphorus melts and\\ninflames spontaneously, and the sides of the jar become covered\\nwith a yellow, crystalline deposit of phosphorus pentachloride,\\nPCI 5\\nBut the affinity of chlorine is most strikingly manifested by\\nits action on hydrogen and hydrogen compounds.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0128.jp2"}, "129": {"fulltext": "CHLORINE. 125\\nWhen a lighted taper is applied to a mixture of equal vol-\\numes of chlorine and hydrogen, the two gases unite instantly\\nand explosively. Such a mixture will also explode violently\\non being exposed to direct sunlight the rays of the sun may\\neven be replaced by the flame of magnesium or that of carbon\\ndisulphide.\\nSo great is the affinity of chlorine for hydrogen that it de-\\ncomposes all hydrogen compounds, except hydrochloric and\\nhydrofluoric acids. When it is dissolved in water, it slowly\\ndecomposes that liquid under the influence of sunlight, com-\\nbining with the hydrogen and setting the oxygen at liberty.\\nIf a tube filled with an aqueous solution of chlorine be\\ninverted over the pneumatic trough and exposed to direct sun-\\nlight, small bubbles of gas will be seen to rise through the liquid\\nand collect at the top of the tube. This is the oxygen result-\\ning from the decomposition of the water.\\nAt a red heat, the vapor of water is rapidly decomposed by\\nchlorine hydrogen sulphide gives up its hydrogen to chlorine\\nat ordinary temperatures.\\nAll organic substances contain hydrogen they are therefore\\ngenerally modified, and often destroyed by the action of chlorine.\\nColoring matters of organic origin are bleached.\\nExperiment. If a solution of chlorine be added to a solu-\\ntion of litmus, sulphate of indigo, or ink, the intense colors\\npeculiar to these substances disappear, giving place to a pale\\nyellow or brown tint. This effect is due to the more or less\\nprofound decomposition which these coloring matters undergo\\nby reason of the removal of a certain portion of their hydro-\\ngen in the form of hydrochloric acid.\\nThis bleaching property of chlorine is of great service in the\\narts.\\nA wax taper will burn in chlorine gas with a red, smoky\\nflame. The hydrogen of the wax combines with the chlorine,\\nwhile the carbon is set free as smoke. A piece of paper satu-\\nrated with oil of turpentine takes fire spontaneously when\\nintroduced into a jar of chlorine, producing a dense cloud of\\nsmoke the turpentine contains only carbon and hydrogen the\\nlatter is attacked by the chlorine, the former being set free.\\nChlorine is also an efficacious disinfectant. It decomposes\\nhydrogen sulphide. It destroys odorous matters of organic\\norigin, the effluvia resulting from putrid fermentation, and\\nthe miasms which are sometimes diffused in the air. It\\n11*", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0129.jp2"}, "130": {"fulltext": "126 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nis employed to disinfect privys, etc., and to purify the air in\\ncertain epidemics.\\nThe bleaching properties and disinfecting properties of\\nchlorine are due to the same cause, its powerful affinity for\\nhydrogen.\\nHYDROCHLORIC ACID.\\nDensity compared to air 1.27\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 18.33\\nMolecular weight HC1 36.5\\nHydrochloric acid exists among the gaseous products disen-\\ngaged by volcanoes.\\nIll lUltUW; I\\n1\\nFig. 41.\\nPreparation. Fragments of fused common salt are intro-\\nduced into a flask fitted with a safety-tube and delivery-tube,\\nlike that for the preparation of chlorine, and concentrated sul-\\nphuric acid is added. Hydrochloric acid gas is disengaged, and", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0130.jp2"}, "131": {"fulltext": "HYDROCHLORIC ACID.\\n127\\nmay be collected over mercury. Sodium acid sulphate remains\\nin the retort.\\nH 2 S0 4 NaCl NaHSO HC1\\nSodium chloride. Sodium acid sulphate.\\nIn the arts, the operation is conducted in cast-iron cylinders\\nor furnaces (Fig. 41), at a high temperature. Under these\\nconditions, one molecule of sulphuric acid acts upon two mole-\\ncules of sodium chloride, yielding sodium neutral sulphate,\\nand two molecules of hydrochloric acid.\\nH 2 S0 4 2NaCl Na 2 S0 4 2HC1\\nSodium sulphate.\\nThe hydrochloric acid gas evolved is passed into stoneware\\nbottles, C, C, C containing water. It is thus dissolved,\\nand the solution obtained constitutes the muriatic acid of com-\\nmerce.\\nA solution of hydrochloric acid may be prepared in the\\nlaboratory by passing the gas through water contained in a\\nseries of Wolff bottles surrounded by cold water, the contents\\nof the first bottle being rejected (Fig. 42).\\nFig. 42\\nComposition of Hydrochloric Acid. The composition of\\nthis gas may be deduced from the following experiments", "height": "4784", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0131.jp2"}, "132": {"fulltext": "128\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nFig. 43.\\n1. A bottle, B (Fig. 43), the neck of which is adapted by\\ngrinding with emery to the flask A, is filled with dry chlorine\\nA, which has exactly the same capacity as\\nthe bottle, is filled with dry hydrogen the\\ntwo vessels are then fitted together, and by\\nmeans of the ground joint are hermetically\\nsealed. The apparatus is now abandoned\\nfor a time to diffuse light, and as the two\\ngases slowly mix they combine. The union\\nis completed by exposing the apparatus to\\ndirect sunlight. When the tint of the\\nchlorine has entirely disappeared, the two\\nvessels are separated under the surface of\\nmercury, and it is found that no change in\\nvolume has taken place. The chlorine and\\nhydrogen have both disappeared to form\\nhydrochloric acid, which occupies precisely\\nthe same volume as the two primitive gases. Consequently 2\\nvolumes of hydrochloric gas contain 1 volume of chlorine and\\n1 volume of hydrogen and if the weight of one volume of\\nhydrogen (unity) be added to that of one volume of chlorine\\n(its density compared to hydrogen as unity), the sum will be\\nthe weight of two volumes of hydrochloric acid, and will also\\nrepresent the weight of the molecule.\\nDensities com\\npared to H.\\nWeight of 1 volume of hydrogen 1\\nWeight of 1 volume of chlorine 35.5\\nWeight of 2 volumes of hydrochloric acid 36.5 2.5093\\n2. Two volumes of hydrochloric acid gas are passed into a\\nbent tube over mercury (Fig. 44), and a small piece of sodium\\nis passed up into the bulb and\\nheated by the flame of a spirit-\\nlamp. The sodium combines\\nwith the chlorine setting the\\nhydrogen at liberty, and after\\nthe experiment one volume of\\nhydrogen remains in the tube.\\nThis second experiment con-\\nfirms the first, both proving\\nthat hydrogen and chlorine\\nunite in equal volumes, and\\nwithout condensation, to form\\nDensities com-\\npared to Air\\n0.0693\\n2.44\\nFig. 44.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0132.jp2"}, "133": {"fulltext": "HYDROCHLORIC ACID.\\n129\\nhydrochloric acid. One volume of hydrochloric acid contains\\nhalf a volume of hydrogen and half a volume of chlorine, but\\nwe cannot admit that the atoms of these elements are divided\\ninto two in the formation of hydrochloric acid such a sup-\\nposition would be contrary to all ideas of atoms, which repre-\\nsent the smallest particles of an element that can exist in a\\ncompound. It is more natural to conclude that two vol-\\numes of chlorine and two volumes of hydrogen react together\\nin the formation of hydrochloric acid. Two volumes of\\nchlorine contain two atoms, constituting one molecule of chlo-\\nrine. In the same manner two volumes of hydrogen contain\\ntwo atoms, constituting one molecule of hydrogen.\\nCl\\nCI\\nH\\nH\\n2 volumes or 1 molecule of\\nchlorine C1C1.\\n2 volumes or 1 molecule of\\nhydrogen HH.\\nIt is these molecules which are separated into two when\\nchlorine combines with hydrogen they exchange their atoms,\\nand from the exchange, which is a double decomposition, there\\nresult two molecules of hydrochloric acid, which occupy pre-\\ncisely the same volume as the two molecules of the simple gases.\\nCl\\nCl\\nH\\nH\\nH Cl\\nH\\nCl\\n2 vols, of chlorine 2 vols, of hydrogen\\n2 vols, of hydro- -f 2 vols, of hydro-\\nchloric acid chloric acid.\\nWe encounter here again the notion that certain elements in\\nthe free state are composed of molecules, each of which con-\\ntains two atoms of the same kind. The force which unites\\nthem is not different from affinity. It is affinity which unites\\nchlorine to chlorine in the molecule of that element hydrogen\\nto hydrogen in the molecule of free hydrogen (Gerhardt).\\nWhen, however, these two molecules are brought together, the\\naffinity of chlorine for hydrogen preponderates, and brings about\\nan exchange, a double decomposition.\\nPhysical Properties. Hydrochloric acid is a colorless gas\\nhaving a pungent odor. It forms thick white fumes in the air\\nby condensing the atmospheric moisture. It may be liquefied\\nby a pressure of 40 atmospheres.\\nIt is one of the most soluble of gases in water. If a jar\\nfilled with this gas and inverted on a plate containing mercury", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0133.jp2"}, "134": {"fulltext": "130 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nso that the mouth is sealed, be depressed in the pneumatic\\ntrough, and the plate be then quickly removed, the water im-\\nmediately rushes into the jar as it would into a vacuum. The\\nshock of the column of water is sometimes sufficient to break\\nthe jar.\\nOne volume of water at 0\u00c2\u00b0 dissolves 500 volumes of hydro-\\nchloric acid at ordinary temperatures, about 480 volumes.\\nThe water becomes heated and increases in volume. The cold\\nsaturated solution has a density of 1.21 and contains 42.4\\nper cent, by weight of the dry gas. It is a colorless liquid,\\ngiving off white fumes. When it is heated, it loses a large\\nquantity of the gas which it holds in solution, but the whole\\nof the gas is not disengaged, and when the temperature reaches\\n110\u00c2\u00b0 the liquid distils without further loss of gas. A dilute\\nhydrochloric acid is thus obtained, having a uniform density of\\n1.10 and containing 20.24 per cent, of the acid.\\nChemical Properties. Hydrochloric acid is an energetic\\nacid it strongly reddens litmus-paper. It is not decomposable\\nby heat, but is partly decomposed by a series of electric sparks.\\nAll of the metals which decompose water also decompose hy-\\ndrochloric acid with the liberation of hydrogen and the for-\\nmation of a chloride. Such metals are sodium, zinc, iron,\\naluminium, tin, etc.\\nHydrochloric acid decomposes the metallic oxides and hy-\\ndrates with the formation of water and a chloride.\\nIf hydrochloric acid be added in small quantities to a con-\\ncentrated solution of potassium hydrate, the liquid becomes\\nheated and deposits potassium chloride as a crystalline powder.\\nHC1 KOH KC1 H 2\\nPotassium hydrate. Potassium chloride.\\nHydrochloric acid is then a true acid although it contains no\\noxygen, for it contains an atom of hydrogen that is replaceable\\nby an atom of metal. In its action upon potassium hydrate it\\nresembles nitric acid, for this acid also contains one atom of\\nhydrogen, which is replaceable by an atom of metal.\\nHNO 3 KOH KNO 3 H 2\\nNitric acid. Potassium nitrate.\\nIt is seen that the acids are compounds containing a strongly\\nelectro-negative atom or group of atoms, united with hydrogen,\\nwhich hydrogen can be replaced by a metal. In nitric acid,\\nH(N0 3 the group NO 3 plays the part taken by chlorine in", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0134.jp2"}, "135": {"fulltext": "OXYGEN COMPOUNDS OF CHLORINE.\\n131\\nhydrochloric acid like the chlorine, it renders the hydrogen\\nreplaceable by a metal.\\nThe action of hydrochloric acid upon the metallic oxides is\\nanalogous to that which it exerts upon the hydrates.\\nIf a current of hydrochloric acid be passed over mercuric\\noxide contained in a tube (Fig. 45), the oxide becomes heated,\\nFig. 45.\\nand is converted into a white powder which is mercuric chlo-\\nride at the same time water is formed and condenses in the\\nbulb.\\nHgO 2HC1 HgCl 2 H 2\\nMercuric oxide. Mercuric chloride.\\nOXYGEN COMPOUNDS OF CHLORINE.\\nWith oxygen, chlorine forms compounds which may be an-\\nhydrous or hydrated the latter are acids.\\nThe oxides are\\nHypochlorous oxide C1 2\\nChlorous oxide C1 2 3\\nChlorine peroxide CIO 2\\nThe acids are\\nHypochlorous acid HCIO\\nChlorous acid HCIO 2\\nChloric acid HCIO 3\\nPerchloric acid HCIO*", "height": "4785", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0135.jp2"}, "136": {"fulltext": "132\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nHYPOCHLOROUS OXIDE AND ACID.\\nHypochlorous oxide is prepared by passing a current of dry\\nchlorine over mercuric oxide contained in a tube surrounded\\nby cold water, and may be condensed in a long-necked matrass\\nplaced in a freezing mixture (Fig. 46).\\nHgO 2C1 5\\nMercuric oxide.\\nHgcr 2 cpo\\nMercuric chloride.\\nFig. 46.\\nThe oxide condenses as a brown-red liquid, boiling at 20\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAbove that temperature it is a reddish-yellow vapor, having a\\ndensity of 2.977, or, compared to hydrogen as unity, 43.5.\\nTwo volumes of this vapor contain two volumes of chlorine\\nand one volume of oxygen, a composition represented by the\\nformula CPO.\\nHypochlorous oxide is a dangerous body, and cannot be kept\\nfor more than a few hours without spontaneous decomposition\\nits vapor frequently explodes.\\nIn combining with the elements of water, hypochlorous oxide\\nforms hypochlorous acid, the solution of which is almost color-\\ng}o !}o \u00c2\u00ab}o \u00c2\u00ab}o\\nPreparation of Hypochlorous Acid. 1. A solution of\\nhypochlorous acid may be prepared by agitating mercuric oxide", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0136.jp2"}, "137": {"fulltext": "CHLOROUS OXIDE. 133\\nwith water in jars filled with chlorine gas. The water will then\\ncontain hypochlorous acid and mercuric chloride, and there re-\\nmains a brown powder, which is mercury oxychloride. (Balard.)\\n2. A current of chlorine is passed through water holding\\nrecently-precipitated calcium carbonate in suspension. The\\nlatter disappears, carbonic acid gas is disengaged, and the\\nwater becomes charged with calcium chloride and hypochlorous\\nacid. The mixture is distilled, and the acid which passes with\\nthe water is condensed in a cooled receiver (Williamson).\\nCaCO 3 2C1 2 H 2 CO 2 CaCl 2 2HC10\\nCalcium Carbon Calcium Hypochlorous\\ncarbonate. dioxide. chloride. acid.\\nWhen chlorine is passed into a rather dilute solution of an\\nalkaline hydrate, a chloride and a hypochlorite are formed\\n2KOH 2C1 KC1 KCIO H 2\\nIn this manner are prepared solutions containing potas-\\nsium hypochlorite (eau de Javelle). and sodium hypochlorite\\n(Labarraque s solution), extensively used for bleaching and\\ndisinfecting.\\nProperties of Hypochlorous Acid. Concentrated hypo-\\nchlorous acid is a dark-yellow liquid, having the peculiar smell\\nof chlorinated lime or bleaching-powder. It is very caustic,\\nand rapidly destroys the skin its bleaching power is very en-\\nergetic, double that of the chlorine it contains. Hydrochloric\\nacid decomposes it into chlorine and w T ater.\\nHCIO HC1 CI 2 H 2\\nCHLOROUS OXIDE.\\nCPO 3\\nChlorous oxide is formed when potassium chlorate is decom-\\nposed by dilute nitric acid in the presence of a body capable\\nof uniting with oxygen, such as arsenious oxide. At a gentle\\nheat a greenish gas is disengaged which does not liquefy at a\\ntemperature of 20\u00c2\u00b0. This gas is not stable; above 57\u00c2\u00b0 it\\ndecomposes with explosion into chlorine and oxygen.\\nIt dissolves in water, forming a dark golden-yellow solution\\ncontaining chlorous acid, a body quite unstable itself.\\nC p 3 H 2 2HC10 2\\nChlorous oxide. Chlorous acid.\\n12", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0137.jp2"}, "138": {"fulltext": "134\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nCHLORINE PEROXIDE.\\nCIO 2\\nThis compound, which was\\ndiscovered by Sir Humphry\\nDavy, is prepared by the ac-\\ntion of concentrated sulphuric\\nacid upon fused potassium\\nchlorate. The salt is finely\\npulverized and added in small\\nquantities to sulphuric acid\\ncooled to 10\u00c2\u00b0. The pasty\\nmass is then introduced into\\na small test-tube fitted with a\\ndelivery-tube (Fig. 47), and\\nis gently heated in a water-\\nbath the gas disengaged is\\nYiq. 47. collected in dry jars by down-\\nward displacement.\\n3KC10 3 2H 2 S0 4 KCIO 4 2KHS0 4 H 2 2C10 2\\nPotassium Potassium Potassium acid\\nchlorate. perchlorate. sulphate.\\nChlorine peroxide is a yellow gas having a strong irritating\\nodor. At 20\u00c2\u00b0 it condenses to an orange-red liquid. Its\\ndensity in the gaseous state is 33.75 (hydrogen being unity)\\nhence the molecular weight is 67.50, corresponding to the above\\nformula.\\nA mixture of this gas with chlorine is disengaged when\\nhydrochloric acid is heated with potassium chlorate. This\\nmixture is called euchlorine, and was formerly believed to be a\\ndefinite compound.\\n4KC10 3 12HC1 4KC1 6H 2 3C10 2 9C1\\nChlorine peroxide is a dangerous body it sometimes decom-\\nposes spontaneously with violent explosions.\\nIt is soluble in water, and the solution may be prepared by\\npassing into water the mixture of carbonic acid gas and chlorine\\nperoxide which is evolved when potassium chlorate is heated\\non a water-bath with an equal quantity of oxalic acid.\\nIt acts as a powerful oxidizing agent. A jet of hydrogen\\nsulphide passed into it takes fire spontaneously and continues\\nto burn, and on contact with it sugar and other organic com-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0138.jp2"}, "139": {"fulltext": "CHLORIC ACID PERCHLORIC ACID. 135\\npounds are iuflamed. If a drop of sulphuric acid be allowed\\nto fall on a mixture of equal parts of sugar and potassium\\nchlorate, both in powder, the chlorine peroxide disengaged at\\nonce ignites the sugar in contact with it, and the potassium\\nchlorate yields its oxygen for the rapid combustion of the\\nentire mass.\\nChlorine peroxide is absorbed by alkaline solutions with the\\nformation of a chlorate and a chlorite.\\n2KOH CFO KCIO 3 KCIO 2 H 2\\nPotassium hydrate. Potassium chlorate. Potassium chlorite.\\nCHLORIC ACID.\\nHCIO 3\\nThis acid is formed by the spontaneous decomposition of\\nsolutions of hypochlorous and chlorous acids and chlorine per-\\noxide.\\nIt may be prepared by treating barium chlorate with dilute\\nsulphuric acid. Barium sulphate precipitates, and is removed\\nby filtration, and the solution of chloric acid is concentrated by\\nevaporation in vacuo.\\nIf chlorine be passed into a concentrated solution of an\\nalkaline hydrate, a chloride and a chlorate are formed.\\n6KOH 6C1 5KC1 KCIO 3 3H 2\\nChloric acid is a syrupy liquid, ordinarily of a yellow color\\nit is not very stable at a temperature of 40\u00c2\u00b0 it commences to\\ndecompose, and at a higher temperature it is resolved into per-\\nchloric acid, chlorine, oxygen, and water. It has extremely\\nenergetic oxidizing properties when concentrated, it at once\\ninflames sulphur, phosphorus, alcohol, and paper. It oxidizes\\nsulphurous and phosphorous acids and hydrogen sulphide.\\nWith hydrochloric acid it forms water and chlorine.\\nHCIO 3 5HC1 3H 2 3C1 2\\nPERCHLORIC ACID.\\nHCIO 4\\nThis is the most rich in oxygen of all the chlorine acids,\\nand it is a curious circumstance that it is also the most stable.\\nIt may be prepared by distilling potassium perchlorate with\\nconcentrated sulphuric acid. Roscoe obtains it by distilling\\nchloric acid, which is prepared by decomposing a solution of\\npotassium chlorate by hydrofluosilicic acid. The insoluble po-", "height": "4779", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0139.jp2"}, "140": {"fulltext": "136 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ntassium fluosilicate is separated by filtration, the filtered liquid\\nis concentrated until white fumes appear, and then the distil-\\nlation is commenced. The product must be rectified after\\nbeing freed from the chlorine which is formed at the same\\ntime.\\nThe perchloric acid thus obtained is a heavy, oily, colorless\\nliquid, resembling concentrated sulphuric acid. It still con-\\ntains water, which may be removed by distillation with four\\ntimes its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid. At about\\n100\u00c2\u00b0 dense vapors pass and condense into a very mobile, yellow\\nliquid this is the perchloric acid HCIO 4 the temperature\\nthen rises, and at 200\u00c2\u00b0 a liquid passes which solidifies to a\\ncrystalline mass on cooling. These crystals are a hydrate,\\nHCIO 4 H 2 0.\\nThe pure or normal perchloric acid has a density of 1.782\\nat 15.5\u00c2\u00b0. When brought into contact with water, it combines\\nwith that liquid, producing a hissing noise. Its oxidizing\\npowers are so energetic that it explodes on contact with paper,\\nwood, or charcoal. It may be mixed with alcohol, but with\\nether it explodes. It cannot be distilled. The hydrate\\nHCIO* H 2 melts between 50 and 51\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCHLORIDES OF SULPHUR.\\nWhen a current of dry chlorine is passed over sulphur heated\\nin a retort, a liquid condenses in the receiver which fumes in\\nthe air, has a yellow color, and an irritating, fetid odor. This\\nis sulphurous chloride, S 2 CP. In order that this compound\\nmay be formed, the sulphur must be maintained in excess, and\\nthe operation must be stopped before it has all disappeared.\\nThe product is purified by rectification, that part being collected\\nwhich passes at 139\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWhen chlorine is passed for several hours through the\\nchloride of sulphur just described, the yellow color of the\\nlatter changes to deep red. The liquid obtained is mobile,\\nfumes in the air, and continually disengages chlorine. It can-\\nnot be distilled without decomposition. The product which\\npasses is at first red, but afterwards assumes a lighter color, and\\nwhen the temperature reaches 139\u00c2\u00b0 there remains in the retort\\nonly sulphurous chloride, S 2 G 2\\nThe red liquid has a composition which corresponds to the\\nformula SCI 2 It is called perchloride of sulphur. Carius", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0140.jp2"}, "141": {"fulltext": "BROMINE. 137\\nregards it as a mixture of the chloride S 2 CP with a tetra-\\nchloride SCI 4 corresponding to sulphurous oxide.\\nSO 2 sulphur dioxide.\\nSCI 4 sulphur tetrachloride.\\nThis tetrachloride has been recently isolated by Michaelis,\\nbut it can only exist at a low temperature it decomposes into\\nchlorine and sulphurous chloride, S 2 C1 2 as soon as it is removed\\nfrom the freezing mixture where it has been condensed.\\nThe chlorides of sulphur are employed in vulcanizing\\ncaoutchouc.\\nBROMINE.\\nVapor density compared to air 5.393\\nVapor density compared to hydrogen 79.76\\nAtomic weight Br 79.76\\nBromine was discovered by Balard in 1826.\\nPreparation. It is obtained by decomposing potassium\\nbromide by manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid. Potassium\\nsulphate and manganese sulphate are formed, and the bromine\\nis liberated.\\n2KBr MnO 2 2H 2 S0 4 K 2 S0 4 MnSO 4 2H 2 Br a\\nPotassium Manganese Potassium Manganese\\nbromide. dioxide. sulphate. sulphate.\\nThe operation is conducted in a tubulated retort, heated on\\na sand-bath, and the bromine is condensed in a cooled receiver\\nfitted to the retort by the aid of an adapter.\\nThe potassium bromide may be replaced by magnesium\\nbromide, which exists in the mother-liquors obtained in the\\nmanufacture of potassium chloride from carnallite and also in\\ncertain brine springs. The liberation of bromine from this salt\\nis effected by the action of chlorine, thus\\nMgBr 2 CI 2 MgCl 2 Br 2\\nProperties. Bromine is a dark-red liquid, which solidifies\\nat 7.3. Its density at 15\u00c2\u00b0 is 2.99. It boils at 63\u00c2\u00b0, and at\\nordinary temperatures gives off red, irritating vapors, for its\\nvapor tension is considerable even in the cold. It stains the\\nskin yellow, and immediately corrodes the tissues. It dissolves\\nin about 33 times its weight of water at 15\u00c2\u00b0, forming an orange-\\nred solution. At a low temperature it combines with water,\\nforming a crystalline hydrate, Br 2 -f- 10H 2 O, analogous to that\\nformed by chlorine.\\n12*", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0141.jp2"}, "142": {"fulltext": "138 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nBromine dissolves in carbon disulphide, in chloroform, and in\\nether.\\nExperiment. A small quantity of solution of potassium\\nbromide is introduced into a long tube, closed at one end, and\\nthe tube is then nearly filled with chlorine-water when the two\\nsolutions are mixed, the liquor assumes an orange-red color\\nfrom the liberation of the bromine. The tube is now filled up\\nwith ether and agitated briskly, the open end being closed with\\nthe finger. The ether passes through the aqueous solution\\nand dissolves out all of the bromine, assuming at the same time\\na dark-red color.\\nThe affinity of bromine for hydrogen is powerful, but not as\\nenergetic as that of chlorine. Like chlorine, it has remarkable\\nbleaching properties.\\nHYDROBROMIC ACID.\\nDensity compared to air 2.73\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 40.5\\nMolecular weight HBr =81.\\nPreparation. This gas is prepared by the action of water\\nupon phosphorus tribromide.\\nPBr 3 gIjo\u00c2\u00bb {j,}0 8 3HBr\\nPhosphorus tribromide. 3 molecules water. Phosphorous acid.\\nThe operation may be conveniently conducted in a doubly-\\ncurved tube (Fig. 48). Into the long branch CD fragments of\\nphosphorus are introduced, carefully separated from each other\\nby moistened broken glass. The bromine is introduced into\\nthe bend A. The shorter end is then corked, a delivery-tube\\nadapted to the end D, and the bromine is gently heated until it\\nboils. The vapor comes into contact with the phosphorus and\\nforms phosphorus tribromide, but this is at once decomposed\\nby the water into phosphorous acid and hydrobromic acid.\\nThe latter may be collected in jars over the mercury-trough.\\nAmorphous phosphorus may be advantageously employed in\\nthis operation, and the process conducted as directed for hydri-\\nodic acid (Personne). HBr may also be prepared by passing\\nhydrogen charged with bromine vapor over heated platinum.\\nHydrobromic acid may also be prepared by the action of bro-\\nmine upon benzene in the presence of iron bromide dibromoben-\\nzene remains, while hydrobromic acid is disengaged and is puri-\\nfied by passing over fragments of ferric bromide and anthracene.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0142.jp2"}, "143": {"fulltext": "OXYGEN ACIDS OF BROMINE.\\n139\\nProperties. Hydrobromic acid is a colorless gas, producing\\ndense white fumes in the air. A litre of this gas weighs 3.547\\ngrammes. It liquefies at 73\u00c2\u00b0, and may be solidified at a\\nlower temperature. It is formed by the union of equal volumes\\nof bromine vapor and hydrogen without condensation, so that\\nits composition corresponds to that of hydrochloric acid. It\\nis very soluble in water its concentrated solution fumes in the\\nair, and is very corrosive.\\nChlorine decomposes hydrobromic acid, liberating bromine.\\nFig. 48.\\nOXYGEN ACIDS OF BROMINE.\\nThere are known three bromine oxygen acids\\nHypobromous acid, HBrO\\nBroniic acid, HBrO 3\\nPerbromic acid, HBrO 4\\nThey correspond to hypochlorous, chloric, and perchloric acids.\\nHypobromous Acid, HBrO. When mercuric oxide is\\nagitated with an aqueous solution of bromine, a yellowish\\nliquid is obtained which contains hypobromous acid, and can\\nbe distilled in vacuo. W. Dancer has obtained this acid by the\\naction of bromine upon silver oxide suspended in water.\\n2Br 2 Ag 2 H 2 2AgBr 2HBrO\\nSilver oxide. Silver bromide.\\nIn this process it is necessary to operate rapidly and avoid", "height": "4780", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0143.jp2"}, "144": {"fulltext": "140 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nthe contact of an excess of silver oxide with the hypobromous\\nacid, as the latter would be destroyed by the oxide with evolu-\\ntion of oxygen.\\n2HBrO Ag 2 2AgBr H 2 O 2\\nThe solution of hypobromous acid has a yellow color and\\nbleaching properties analogous to those of hypochlorous acid.\\nBromic Acid, HBrO 3 Potassium bromide and potassium,\\nbromate are formed by the action of bromine upon a concen-\\ntrated solution of potassium hydrate. This reaction is similar\\nto that of chlorine upon potassa.\\nKammerer recommends the preparation of bromic acid by\\nthe action of chlorine upon bromine in presence of water.\\n5CP Br 2 6H 2 10HC1 2HBr0 3\\nThe hydrochloric acid is driven out by evaporation, and\\nbromic acid remains in the form of a liquid that cannot be con-\\ncentrated to a syrupy consistence without partial decomposition.\\nPerbromic Acid, HBrO 4 Kammerer has obtained this\\nacid by decomposing perchloric acid with bromine chlorine is\\ndisengaged. After concentration on a water-bath, the per-\\nbromic acid remains as a colorless oily liquid. It is relatively\\nstable, as are the corresponding chlorine and iodine acids. Like\\nthem, it resists the reducing action of sulphurous acid and\\nhydrogen sulphide.\\nIODINE.\\nVapor density comp. ired to air 8.716\\nVapor density compared to hydrogen 125.1\\nAtomic weight I =126.54\\nIodine was discovered by Courtois in 1811, and was studied\\nby Gay-Lussac in 1813 and 1814.\\nNatural State. Iodine is widely disseminated in nature.\\nIt is found in the mineral kingdom combined with various\\nmetals, such as potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, silver,\\nmercury. The alkaline iodides exist in small quantity in sea-\\nwater, in a great number of salt-springs, and in certain rock-\\nsalts. The sodium nitrate found native in Chili contains traces\\nof sodium iodate, and the mother-liquors from which the nitrate\\nhas been deposited contain enough iodate to be profitably\\nemployed for the preparation of iodine. The ashes of certain", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0144.jp2"}, "145": {"fulltext": "IODINE. 141\\nsea-plants, such as the algae and fuci, are the most abundant\\nsources of iodine.\\nPreparation. The ashes of sea-weeds, called kelp, are ex-\\nhausted with water and the solution concentrated. Various\\nsalts, such as sodium and potassium sulphates and chlorides\\nand sodium carbonate, are deposited, and the potassium iodide,\\nwhich is contained in smaller quantity than these salts, remains\\nin the mother-liquor.\\nA regulated current of chlorine is passed into this solution\\nas long as it continues to set free iodine, which is deposited as\\na pulverulent, black precipitate. An excess of chlorine must\\nbe avoided, as this would redissolve a portion of the iodine,\\nforming iodine chloride.\\nStill larger quantities of iodine are obtained from Chili salt-\\npetre the mother-liquor from the nitrates, which contains all\\nthe iodine in the form of iodates, is treated with the exact\\nquantity of sulphur dioxide required for its decomposition.\\n2NaI0 3 5S0 2 4H 2 21 -f 5H 2 S0 4\\nImpure iodine is precipitated and is refined by sublimation.\\nIn the laboratory, iodine is set free from the iodides by the\\naction of nitric acid, a nitrate being formed and red vapors\\ndisengaged.\\nProperties of Iodine. The iodine obtained by sublimation\\noccurs as scales or crystalline plates, having a brilliant, dark\\nbluish-gray surface, and a density of 4.948 at 17\u00c2\u00b0. It may be\\nobtained crystallized in rhombic octahedra by exposing to the\\nair a solution of hydriodic acid.\\nIodine melts at 107\u00c2\u00b0. It boils at about 175\u00c2\u00b0, but volatilizes\\nsensibly at ordinary temperatures. Its vapor has an intense\\nviolet color. A litre of this vapor weighs 11.32 grammes.\\nAbove 700\u00c2\u00b0 the density of iodine vapor diminishes, while\\nits color becomes deep blue. At very high temperatures the\\nmolecule appears to be dissociated into single atoms.\\nIodine is but very slightly soluble in water one part of\\niodine requires 7000 parts of water for its solution, but com-\\nmunicates a light-brown color to the whole of that liquid.\\nAlcohol and ether dissolve iodine freely, forming dark-brown\\nsolutions. Carbon disulphide, benzine, and chloroform also\\ndissolve it, assuming a beautiful violet color.\\nExperiment. If a few drops of chlorine-water be added to\\na very dilute solution of potassium iodide, the chlorine will", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0145.jp2"}, "146": {"fulltext": "142 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ncombine with the potassium, displacing the iodine, which will\\ncolor the liquid brown if now the solution be agitated with a\\nsmall quantity of chloroform, the latter will take up all of the\\niodine, assuming a violet color.\\nIodine strikes an intense blue color with starch. The reac-\\ntion is very delicate and permits the detection of the smallest\\ntrace of free iodine.\\nExperiment. If a few drops of a solution of potassium\\niodide be added to a solution of starch, no coloration takes\\nplace, because the iodine is in combination but if a drop or\\ntwo of chlorine-water be added, the iodine will be set free, and\\ncombining with the starch will at once produce the character-\\nistic blue color. An excess of chlorine will again destroy the\\ncolor.\\nHYDRIODIC ACID.\\nDensity compared to air 4.443\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 64.1\\nMolecular weight HI =128.\\nPreparation. Hydriodic acid is prepared by the action of\\niodine upon phosphorus in presence of water phosphorus\\ntriiodide is first formed, and this is decomposed into phos-\\nphorous acid and hydriodic acid.\\npp g;jo* p,}o 3\\nPhosphorus 3 molecules Phosphorous\\ntriiodide. of water. acid.\\n3HI\\nAmorphous phosphorus in powder is introduced into a glass-\\nstoppered retort the neck of which is soldered to the delivery-\\ntube (Fig. 49), and covered with a layer of water the iodine\\nis then added, and on the application of a gentle heat a regular\\ncurrent of hydriodic acid is obtained. The gas may be col-\\nlected, like chlorine, by downward displacement in dry jars.\\nProperties. Hydriodic acid is a colorless gas producing\\nwhite fumes in the air. It may be condensed to a colorless\\nliquid by strong pressure or intense cold, and can even be solid-\\nified. Dry oxygen decomposes it at a high temperature, water\\nbeing formed and the iodine being set at liberty.\\nIf a lighted taper be applied to a mixture of hydriodic acid\\nand oxygen, the violet vapor of the iodine set free is instantly\\napparent.\\nThis decomposition of hydriodic acid by oxygen takes place\\nat ordinary temperatures in the presence of water. A solution", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0146.jp2"}, "147": {"fulltext": "HYDRIODIC ACID.\\n143\\nof hydriodic acid exposed to the air rapidly becomes brown,\\nand after a time deposits crystals of iodine.\\nSolution of hydriodic acid is prepared by passing the gas into\\nwater cooled to 0\u00c2\u00b0. It may also be made by passing a current\\nof hydrogen sulphide through water holding iodine in suspen-\\nsion hydriodic acid is formed, and sulphur is precipitated,\\nH 2 S P 2HI S\\nThe solution of hydriodic acid saturated at 0\u00c2\u00b0 has a density\\nof 2, and fumes in the air. When freshly prepared, it is color-\\nFig. 49.\\nless when heated, it loses part of its gas, and finally distils\\nwithout further alteration at 126\u00c2\u00b0. The solution then con-\\ntains 57.7 per cent, of hydriodic acid.\\nChlorine and bromine at once decompose hydriodic acid,\\ncombining with the hydrogen and setting free the iodine. The\\nexperiment may be made by pouring a few drops of bromine\\ninto a jar filled with hydriodic acid gas, when the appearance\\nof a violet vapor immediately indicates the liberation of iodine.\\nPotassium, zinc, iron, mercury, and silver decompose hydri-\\nodic acid, but with unequal energies, setting free the hydrogen.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0147.jp2"}, "148": {"fulltext": "144 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nSulphuric acid also decomposes it, and is itself reduced to sul\\nphurous oxide.\\nH 2 SO 2HI 2H 2 SO 2 P\\nNitric acid is still more readily reduced by hydriodic acid.\\n2HN0 3 2HI 2H 2 2N0 2 I 2\\nNitric acid. Nitrogen peroxide.\\nIODINE OXIDES AND OXYGEN ACIDS.\\nAmong the compounds of iodine and oxygen, iodic and periodic\\noxides are the only ones known with certainty. In combining with\\nwater they form acids.\\nI 2 5 H 2 2HIO a ,2 molecules iodic acid.\\nI 2 7 H 2 2HIOVJ molecules periodic acid.\\nIODIC ACID.\\nHIO\u00c2\u00bb I0 2 (OH)\\nIodic acid is formed when iodine is submitted to the action\\nof energetic oxidizing agents, such as concentrated nitric acid\\nor a mixture of nitric acid and potassium chlorate. It is also\\nformed by the action of an excess of chlorine on iodine in\\npresence of water.\\nI 2 5CP 6H 2 10HC1 2HI0 3\\nPreparation. Iodic acid may be conveniently prepared by\\nheating iodine and potassium chlorate with dilute nitric acid.\\nThe oxygen of the chlorate oxidizes the iodine to iodic acid,\\nand on adding barium nitrate to the liquid, barium iodate is\\nprecipitated. The latter salt is decomposed by sulphuric acid\\niodic acid is set free in the solution, and barium sulphate is\\nprecipitated the filtered solution is concentrated by evapora-\\ntion in vacuo.\\nProperties. Iodic acid is solid, and crystallizes in hex-\\nagonal tables. When heated to 170\u00c2\u00b0 it loses water and is\\nconverted into iodic oxide, and at a red heat the latter is\\ndecomposed into iodine and oxygen.\\nIt is seen that iodic acid is much more stable than its ana-\\nlogue, chloric acid nevertheless it is easily reduced by bodies\\navid of oxygen.\\nIf sulphurous acid be added to a solution of iodic acid, a\\nprecipitate of iodine is formed instantly, but an excess of sul-\\nphurous acid redissolves the precipitate, part of the water being\\ndecomposed and hydriodic and sulphuric acids being formed.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0148.jp2"}, "149": {"fulltext": "PERIODIC ACID. 145\\nIodic acid is also decomposed by hydriodic acid. If a solu-\\ntion of iodic acid be poured into a solution of starch, no color-\\nation appears, but the characteristic blue color is at once\\ndeveloped on adding a drop of hydriodic acid.\\nHIO 3 5HI 3H 2 3P\\nPERIODIC ACID.\\nThis acid has been obtained from disodic periodate, a salt\\nwhich is precipitated when a current of chlorine is passed\\nthrough a solution of sodium iodate mixed with sodium hydrate.\\nNalO 3 3NaOH CI 2 IO 5 j ^,R 2 2NaCl\\nSodium iodate. Sodium hydrate. Disodic periodate. Sodium chloride.\\nThe crystalline precipitate is dissolved in nitric acid, and\\nlead nitrate is added to the solution lead periodate is precipi-\\ntated, and this salt is exactly decomposed by sulphuric acid\\nthe liquid is filtered to separate the lead sulphate, and evapo-\\nrated at a gentle heat. The periodic acid crystallizes out in\\ncolorless, deliquescent, rhombic prisms, fusible at 130\u00c2\u00b0. These\\ncrystals contain H 3 I0 5 H 2 0. At 160\u00c2\u00b0 they lose water and\\nare converted into a white mass of periodic oxide.\\n2(H 3 I0 5 .H 2 0) PO 7 5H 2\\nBetween 180 and 190\u00c2\u00b0 periodic oxide abandons oxygen, and\\nis converted into iodic oxide, PO 5\\nAnalogy between Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine.\\nChlorine, bromine, and iodine present a striking analogy in their\\nchemical properties, and this analogy is seen in all of their com-\\npounds. They combine with hydrogen, atom for atom, forming the\\nacids HC1, HBr, HI, and the atoms of chlorine, bromine, and iodine\\nare equivalent to each other and to an atom of hydrogen each of\\nthese elements is monatomic.\\nTheir affinities for hydrogen are far from being equal in this respect\\nchlorine is more powerful than bromine, and bromine than iodine.\\nThe contrary has been noticed regarding their affinities for oxygen, for\\nthe oxygen acids of iodine are more stable than those of chlorine.\\nThe analogy between these three elements is followed out in the\\nconstitution of their oxides and acids, and in their combinations with\\nthe metals. The chlorides, iodides, and bromides possess in general\\nthe same constitution, and it is to be remarked that the greater num-\\nber of these binary compounds are soluble in water and are crystal-\\nlizable like salts, of which they otherwise present the characters.\\nHence the name halogen bodies, which was applied by Berzelius to\\nthis group of elements, to indicate that they form salts in combining\\nwith the metals.\\nQ k 13", "height": "4791", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0149.jp2"}, "150": {"fulltext": "146\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nFLUORINE.\\nFl 19\\nFluorine belongs to the group of elements just considered, but its\\nchemical energy is much greater than that of chlorine. It occurs\\nchiefly in combination with calcium, and also with aluminium and\\nsodium, forming the\\nminerals fluor spar,\\nCaFl 2 and cryolite,\\nAlFl 3 .3NaFl. It was\\nfirst isolated by Mois-\\nsan, who obtained it by\\nthe electrolysis of an-\\nhydrous hydrofluoric\\nacid in which hydrogen\\npotassium fluoride was\\ndissolved in order to\\ngive the necessary elec-\\ntrical conductivity. The\\ndecomposition was ef-\\nfected in a U- sna P e d\\ntube of platinum (Fig.\\n50) each limb of which\\nwas provided with a\\nside tube, and closed\\nwith a fluor spar stop-\\nper carrying and insu-\\nlating the platinum\\nelectrodes.\\nFig. 50.\\nthe escape\\nfluoric acid,\\nratus was\\n\u00e2\u0080\u009440\u00c2\u00b0 bv\\nTo prevent\\nof hydro-\\nthis appa-\\ncooled to\\nthe rapid\\nevaporation of methyl chloride surrounding it. A battery of 25\\nGrove cells furnished the current: hydrogen was disengaged at the\\nnegative electrode, while a yellowish gas of powerful odor escaped\\nfrom the delivery-tube near the positive pole it was recognized as\\nfluorine. It has also been obtained by Brauner by the action of\\nheat on potassium fluoplumbate, KF.HF.PbF 4\\nThe affinities of fluorine are so powerful that it is difficult to\\ncollect it. It can be received only in platinum vessels, by dry dis-\\nplacement, for it decomposes water and readily combines with\\nmercury.\\nWith hydrogen it combines with explosive violence arsenic,\\nantimony, sulphur, phosphorus, and silicon ignite spontaneously in\\nthe gas, and all the metals combine with it directly and in the cold\\nplatinum at higher temperatures. It acts upon water with forma-\\ntions of ozone and hydrofluoric acid. Alcohol, benzene, turpen-\\ntine, and even cork are violently attacked and inflamed by it.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0150.jp2"}, "151": {"fulltext": "HYDROFLUORIC ACID.\\n147\\nHYDROFLUORIC ACID.\\nMolecular weight HF1\\n20\\nThis compound is prepared by decomposing powdered cal-\\ncium fluoride with sulphuric acid.\\nCaFl 2 IPSO*\\nCalcium fluoride.\\nCaSO* 2HF1\\nCalcium sulphate.\\nFig. 51.\\nThe operation is conducted in a leaden retort, to which is\\nadapted a receiver of the same metal surrounded by a freezing\\nmixture (Fig. 51).\\nThe hydrofluoric\\nacid condenses as\\na very acid liquid,\\nwhich fumes strong-\\nly in the air. Its\\ndensity is 1.06. In\\nthis state it still re-\\ntains water but\\nFremy obtained it\\nanhydrous by de-\\ncomposing dry hy- =^=^=Sg\\ndrogen potassium\\ndouble fluoride KF1,\\nHF1, by heat in a\\nplatinum retort. This salt breaks up into potassium fluoride,\\nwhich remains, and hydrofluoric acid, which is disengaged and\\nmust be condensed in a platinum receiver cooled to 20\u00c2\u00b0.\\nPure hydrofluoric acid is liquid at ordinary temperatures; it\\nis very mobile, it freezes at 92.3\u00c2\u00b0 and boils at 19.4\u00c2\u00b0. It is\\nextremely corrosive, and manipulations with it should be con-\\nducted with great care. Its affinity for water is so great that\\neach drop of the acid let fall into that liquid produces a hissing\\nnoise, as would a red-hot iron. The solution is employed for\\netching upon glass, for hydrofluoric acid attacks and corrodes\\nthat substance. This effect is due to the action of the acid\\nupon the silica of the glass, which it converts into either sili-\\ncon fluoride or hydrofluosilicic acid, as will be seen farther on.\\nA design may readily be engraved on glass by covering the\\nglass with a thin coating of wax, through which the design is\\ntraced with a sharp point the glass is then placed over a leaden\\ncapsule containing a mixture of powdered calcium fluoride and", "height": "4785", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0151.jp2"}, "152": {"fulltext": "148\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nstrong sulphuric acid, which is gently heated by a spirit-lamp.\\nHydrofluoric acid vapor is disengaged and attacks the glass\\nwherever it is not protected by the wax. When the wax is re-\\nmoved, the design is found to be permanently etched on the glass.\\nA dilute solution of hydrofluoric acid or a bath of hydro-\\nfluoride of potassium fluoride may be employed instead of the\\nvapor in the former experiment, but in this case the etched\\nportions are transparent and not opaque as when produced by\\nthe vapor they may be rendered opaque by adding a salt, such\\nas potassium or ammonium sulphate, to the bath.\\nNITROGEN.\\nDensity compared to air 0.9714\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 14.1\\nAtomic weight N =14.\\nNitrogen was discovered by Rutherford in 1772. Tt is one\\nof the elements of the air, and was first obtained free from\\noxygen by Lavoisier and Scheele, in 1777.\\nPreparation. A flat piece of cork, B (Fig. 52), floating in\\nthe pneumatic-trough, supports a small capsule containing a\\nfragment of phosphorus. The latter\\nis inflamed, and the capsule immedi-\\nately covered with a bell-jar. The\\nheat produced by the combustion at\\nfirst expands the air and drives out\\na portion, but in a few minutes the\\nwater rises in the jar, taking the\\nplace of the oxygen which has been\\nconsumed. When the phosphorus is\\nextinguished, the experiment has ter-\\nminated. The water gradually dis-\\nsolves the white smoke of phosphoric\\noxide which fills the jar, and there\\nremains a colorless, irrespirable gas\\nthat will not support combustion. This gas is nitrogen, still\\nmixed with argon, traces of oxygen, and carbonic acid gas.\\nNitrogen containing no impurity except argon may be ob-\\ntained by passing a current of air, previously freed from moisture\\nand carbon dioxide, through a porcelain tube containing incan-\\ndescent copper. The copper absorbs the oxygen, and nitrogen\\nFig. 62.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0152.jp2"}, "153": {"fulltext": "AMMONIA. 149\\npasses out at the end of the tube and may be collected over the\\npneumatic trough.\\nPure nitrogen is best obtained by heating ammonium nitrite\\nin a glass retort nitrogen and water are found.\\n(NH*)N0 2 2H 2 N 2\\nAmmonium nitrite.\\nProperties. Nitrogen is a colorless gas, somewhat lighter\\nthan the air. A litre of this gas weighs 1.257 grammes. It\\nextinguishes burning bodies, and is not combustible itself; it\\nproduces no precipitate in lime-water. Water dissolves only\\n-^j- of its volume of nitrogen at 0\u00c2\u00b0. Animals are quickly suffo-\\ncated in an atmosphere of pure nitrogen, but the gas does not\\nexert a poisonous influence upon the economy.\\nIt can be liquefied at temperatures below 146\u00c2\u00b0 (its critical\\ntemperature). Its critical pressure is 35 atmospheres. Under\\na pressure of one atmosphere this liquid boils at 190\u00c2\u00b0. The\\naffinities of nitrogen are not energetic. It combines directly\\nwith only a very small number of elements, among which may be\\nmentioned magnesium, silicon, boron, and titanium. Under the\\ninfluence of electrical discharges it will unite with oxygen, form-\\ning nitrogen peroxide, and with hydrogen, forming ammonia.\\nThere are at present known three compounds of nitrogen\\nand hydrogen, ammonia, NH 3 hydrazine, N 2 H 4 and hydra-\\nzoic acid, N 3 H.\\nAMMONIA.\\nDensity compared to air 0.596\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 8.60\\nMolecular weight NH 3 =17.\\nAmmonia was discovered by Priestley, studied by Scheele,\\nand analyzed by Berthollet in 1785.\\nPreparation. Equal weights of quick-lime and sal am-\\nmoniac, both in powder, are rapidly mixed in a mortar, and\\nthe mixture introduced into a glass flask, which is then filled\\nup with fragments of quick-lime. A cork and delivery-tube\\nare adapted to the flask, which is then gently heated and the\\ngas disengaged collected over mercury.\\nThe calcium oxide or lime decomposes the ammonium\\nchloride (sal ammoniac), with the formation of calcium\\nchloride, ammonia gas, and water the latter is absorbed by\\nthe fragments of lime which fill up the flask.\\n2NH*C1 CaO 2NH 3 CaCP H 2\\nAmmonium chloride. Calcium oxide. Ammonia. Calcium chloride.\\n13*", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0153.jp2"}, "154": {"fulltext": "150\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nA solution of ammonia in water may be prepared by passing\\nthe gas through a series of Wolff s bottles, about half filled with\\nwater, excepting the first, which should only contain a small\\nquantity destined to wash the gas.\\nPhysical Properties. Ammonia is a colorless gas, having\\na powerful and pungent odor, which excites tears. Its taste is\\nburning and caustic. It may be liquefied by a temperature of\\n40\u00c2\u00b0, or at 10\u00c2\u00b0 under a pressure of 6 J atmospheres. Fara-\\nday s method of liquefying it is as follows ammonia is passed\\nover dry silver chloride, by which it is absorbed. The silver\\nchloride, saturated with ammonia, is introduced into a bent\\ntube (Fig. 53), the empty limb of which is then sealed at the\\nFig. 53.\\nFig. 54.\\nblow-pipe. The end containing the chloride is now heated in\\na water-bath, while the empty end is cooled in a freezing mix-\\nture (Fig. 54). The ammonia is driven out from the silver\\nchloride, and condenses into a transparent liquid in the cooler\\nbranch. Faraday succeeded in solidifying ammonia by subject-\\ning this liquid to rapid evaporation. In the solid state it is a\\nwhite, crystalline, transparent substance, fusible at 75\u00c2\u00b0, and\\nhaving only a feeble odor. According to Bunsen, liquid ammo-\\nnia boils at 35\u00c2\u00b0 under a pressure of 0.7493 metre its density\\nis 0.76.\\nAmmonia gas is very soluble in water, which dissolves 1000\\ntimes its volume at 0\u00c2\u00b0, and about 740 times its volume at\\n15\u00c2\u00b0. The rapid absorption of ammonia by water may be strik-\\ningly shown by the following experiment. A bottle, A (Fig. 55),\\nis filled with ammonia gas, and fitted with a cork, through\\nwhich passes a tube drawn out at both extremities, and the\\nouter end of which is sealed. If this end be plunged under\\nwater and the point be broken off, the water at once rises into", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0154.jp2"}, "155": {"fulltext": "AMMONIA.\\n151\\nthe bottle, forming a fountain, and the vessel becomes filled\\nwith water in a very short time.\\nThe aqueous solution of ammonia possesses the odor of the\\ngas it is caustic, and\\nwas formerly called vol-\\natile alkali and spirits\\nof hartshorn. It is\\nlargely used in the arts\\nand as a reagent. Its\\ndensity is 0.855. When\\nheated, it loses ammonia\\ngas, the whole of which\\nmay be driven out by\\nboiling.\\nComposition of Am-\\nmonia. 200 volumes\\nof ammonia gas are in-\\ntroduced into an eudi-\\nometer, and electric\\nsparks are passed\\nthrough the gas for\\nsome time by means of\\na Ruhmkorff coil (Fig.\\n56). When the experiment has terminated, the volume of\\ngas will be found to have doubled. 200 volumes of oxygen\\nare added to the 400 volumes of gas thus obtained, and a spark\\nis passed an explosion takes place, and after making the\\nFig. 55.\\nnecessary corrections for temperature and pressure, the 600\\nvolumes of gas are found to be reduced to 150 volumes 450\\nvolumes have thus disappeared to form water.", "height": "4785", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0155.jp2"}, "156": {"fulltext": "152\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThese 450 volumes must have contained\\n300 volumes of hydrogeo,\\n150 volumes of oxygen.\\nConsequently the 200 volumes of ammonia gas, which were\\ndecomposed by the spark into 400 volumes, must have been\\nformed by the union of\\n300 volumes of hydrogen,\\n100 volumes of nitrogen.\\nThe latter gas remains in the eudiometer, together with the\\n50 volumes of oxygen that were employed in excess.\\nFrom this analysis it is seen that two volumes of ammonia\\ncontain three volumes of hydrogen and one volume of nitrogen,\\na composition which is expressed by the formula NH 3\\nChemical Properties. Ammonia gas is decomposed by a\\nhigh temperature, as by a series of electric sparks. The experi-\\nment may be made by passing the gas through a porcelain tube\\nFig. 57.\\nfilled with fragments of broken porcelain and heated to white-\\nness, and collecting the gas resulting from the decomposition in\\nvessels filled with water (Fig. 57). This gas is found to be a\\nmixture of three volumes of hydrogen and one volume of\\nnitrogen.\\nThe decomposition takes place more readily if iron, copper,\\nor platinum wires be introduced into the porcelain tube. The", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0156.jp2"}, "157": {"fulltext": "AMMONIA.\\n153\\nFig. 58.\\nlatter metal is not altered, but the iron and copper become\\nbrittle and retain a few per cent, of nitrogen. The decompo-\\nsition of the ammonia seems here to\\nbe favored by the formation of metallic\\nnitrides, unstable compounds which are\\nalmost entirely decomposed by the pro-\\nlonged action of the heat.\\nAmmonia will not burn in air, but\\nwill burn in an atmosphere of oxygen.\\nA glass tube about 25 millimetres in\\ndiameter and 15 centimetres long is\\nfitted with a cork through which pass\\ntwo bent tubes, one reaching nearly to\\nthe open end of the tube, the other ^f\\nonly a little beyond the cork (Fig. 58),\\nand some cotton-wool or loose asbestos\\nis thrust into the wide tube beyond\\nthis point. Ammonia gas, conven-\\niently obtained by heating strong am-\\nmonia water, is passed through the longer tube, while oxygen\\ngas is delivered through the shorter. The ammonia may then\\nbe ignited, and will burn with a yellow\\nflame. 4NH 1 30 2 6H 2 2N 2\\nA mixture of four volumes of ammonia\\nwith three of oxygen will explode on the\\napplication of flame.\\nIndependently of this rapid combustion,\\nammonia may undergo slow combustion.\\nA spiral of platinum wire is suspended\\nabove a little ammonia water in a beaker\\n(A, Fig. 59). The latter is gently heated,\\nand oxygen is passed through the liquid.\\nThe mixed ammonia and oxygen gases\\nin contact with the platinum spiral com-\\nbine and develop so much heat that the\\nspiral is heated to redness. The vessel\\nsometimes becomes filled with white fumes\\nof ammonium nitrite, produced by the\\nslow oxidation of the ammonia. If a\\nmixture of oxygen and ammonia be\\npassed through a heated tube containing spongy platinum,\\nnitric acid and water will be formed and disengaged in vapor.\\nFig. 59.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0157.jp2"}, "158": {"fulltext": "154\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nAction of Chlorine and Iodine upon Ammonia. Chlorine\\ninstantly decomposes ammonia, combining with its hydrogen.\\nIf a drawn-out tube through which a jet of ammonia is escaping\\nbe plunged into a bottle tilled with dry chlorine (Fig. 60), the\\nammonia takes fire immediately, and white vapors of ammo-\\nnium chloride are formed.\\n4NH 3 Cl a 3NH*C1 N\\nIf a long tube closed at one end be almost filled with satu-\\nrated chlorine-water, and then filled up with ammonia-water,\\nand quickly inverted on the pneumatic\\ntrough, the lighter solution of ammonia will\\nrise through the chlorine-water, and reaction\\noccurs according to the preceding equation.\\nAmmonium chloride remains in solution,\\nwhile the nitrogen collects in the tube.\\nNitrogen Chloride. Under certain con-\\nditions the nitrogen combines with chlorine,\\nforming a very explosive and dangerous\\ncompound, nitrogen chloride, NCI 3 This\\nis an oily yellow liquid, heavier than water,\\nwhich explodes violently on contact with\\nphosphorus, turpentine, and other combusti-\\nble substances.\\nA small jar of chlorine is inverted in a saucer containing a\\nsolution of ammonium chloride the salt is slowly decomposed\\nby the chlorine, with the formation of hydrochloric acid and\\nnitrogen chloride, and a drop of yellow liquid soon collects on\\nthe surface. A light tap on the vessel causes it to sink through\\nthe solution into the saucer. The jar is now removed and a\\nsmall piece of phosphorus pushed into the drop of nitrogen\\nchloride by the aid of a long wooden rod. Instantly the nitro-\\ngen chloride explodes and the saucer is broken into pieces.\\nWhen a warm saturated solution of ammonium chloride is\\nelectrolyzed, the chlorine set free at the anode reacts with the\\nsolution nitrogen chloride is formed, and carried to the sur-\\nface with the escaping gases. If a little turpentine be poured\\non the surface of the liquid, on contact with this each little\\nglobule of the chloride explodes with a flash and a continual\\ncrackling is kept up.\\nNitrogen chloride has been carefully investigated by Gatter-\\nmann, who found that it explodes also when exposed to direct\\nsunlight.\\nFig. 60.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0158.jp2"}, "159": {"fulltext": "AMMONIA. 155\\nNitrogen Iodide. There is another explosive compound\\nanalogous to nitrogen chloride, but containing iodine. It is\\nobtained as a black powder by treating powdered iodine with\\nammonia when dry it explodes with great violence on the\\nlightest touch, and sometimes spontaneously. Bunsen has\\nattributed it to the formula N 2 H 3 F.\\nAccording to Stahlschmidt, the composition of nitrogen iodide\\ncorresponds to the formula NP, when this body is prepared by\\nthe action of an alcoholic solution of iodine upon aqueous am-\\nmonia; but if both bodies be in alcoholic solution, an iodide\\nis obtained having the formula NHP. If this be correct,\\nthese bodies present very simple relations with ammonia.\\n(H fCl (I (I\\nN H N CI N I N I\\n(H (CI U [H\\nAmmonia. Nitrogen chloride. Triiodammonia. Diiodammonia.\\nTrichlorammonia. Nitrogen iodides.\\nThe last named compound has been recently carefully studied\\nby Szuhay, who obtained it by the action of aqueous solution\\nof ammonia upon a strong solution of iodine in potassium\\niodide. Its hydrogen is replaceable by metals.\\nAction of Potassium upon Ammonia. When potassium\\nis heated in an atmosphere of ammonia, the brilliant surface\\nof the metal becomes covered with a greenish-black liquid,\\nand at the same time hydrogen is disengaged. The metal\\nentirely disappears little by little, and, on cooling, the liquid\\nsolidifies to an olive-green mass. This substance represents\\nammonia in which one atom of hydrogen has been replaced\\nby an atom of potassium.\\nH) Kl\\nH N Ammonia. H N Potassium amide.\\nIt reacts with water, forming ammonia and potassium hydrate.\\nKNH 2 H 2 KOH NH S\\nPotassium amide. Potassium hydrate.\\nAmmonium Amalgam. If liquid amalgam of potassium\\nor sodium and mercury be treated with a saturated solution of\\nammonium chloride, the amalgam increases in volume, assumes\\na buttery consistence, and is converted into a soft, light mass\\nhaving the metallic lustre of mercury. It will retain the im-\\npression of the finger, and will float upon water but it grad-\\nually decomposes, losing hydrogen and ammonia, and only\\nmercury remains. This unstable body is called ammonium\\namalgam. Whether it is really an amalgam of the group NH 4", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0159.jp2"}, "160": {"fulltext": "156 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nwith mercury or is simply metallic mercury containing hydrogen\\nand ammonia gases is still doubtful.\\nAlthough the ammonium group has not been isolated, there\\ncan be no doubt that it exists in many compounds, and plays\\nin them a part analogous to that of a metallic atom. Thus\\nammonium may replace potassium in the potassium salts, pro-\\nducing compounds similar and analogous to the latter.\\nNH 3 .HC1 (NH 4 )C1 analogous to KC1\\nAmmonium chloride. Potassium chloride.\\nNHIHNO 8 (NH*)N0 3 analogous to KNO 3\\nAmmonium nitrate. Potassium nitrate.\\nNH 3 .H 2 S N h}s analogous to S\\nAmmonium sulphydrate. Potassium sulph\\n(NH 8 2 .H 2 S NH* 1 S analo S\u00c2\u00b0 us t0 k 1 S\\nAmmonium sulphide. Potassium sulphide.\\nAMMONIUM CHLORIDE.\\nNH*C1\\nThis salt was formerly obtained from Egypt, where it was\\nmade by subliming the soot produced by the combustion of\\ncamel s dung. It is now prepared in large quantities from gas-\\nliquor, or the water condensed in the manufacture and purifi-\\ncation of illuminating gas from coal. This liquor is heated\\nwith lime, ammonia is disengaged and is conducted into hydro-\\nchloric acid. Ammonium chloride is obtained by simply\\nevaporating the solution. It is purified by sublimation in\\nstoneware pots which are heated in a furnace out of which the\\nupper parts of the pots project. There the volatilized chloride\\ncondenses, and the sublimed product is known in commerce as\\nsal ammoniac, or muriate of ammonia.\\nIt generally occurs as white or grayish, compact masses,\\nhaving a crystalline fibrous structure. Its taste is sharp and\\nsalty. It dissolves in two and a half parts of cold, and in its\\nown weight of boiling water. It is deposited from a satu-\\nrated solution in small octahedra, grouped together in needles,\\nand presenting a fern-leaf-like appearance. At a high tem-\\nperature it volatilizes without melting its vapor is dissociated,\\nbut the resulting NH 3 and HC1 at once recombine on cooling.\\nAmmonium chloride is formed by the union of equal vol-\\numes of hydrochloric acid and ammonia gases.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0160.jp2"}, "161": {"fulltext": "AMMONIUM SULPHYDRATE AND AMMONIUM SULPHIDE. 157\\nAMMONIUM SULPHYDRATE AND AMMONIUM\\nSULPHIDE.\\nHydrogen sulphide and ammonia gases unite in the cold\\nin two different proportions, forming two compounds, ammo-\\nnium sulphydrate and ammonium sulphide.\\nH 2 S NH 3 N h 4 }s\\nHydrogen sulphide. Ammonia. Ammonium sulphydrate.\\n(2 vol.) (2 vol.)\\nIPS 2NH\\nNH 4\\nNH 4\\nHydrogen sulphide. Ammonia. Ammonium sulphide.\\n(2 vol.) (4 vol.)\\nThese compounds are definite, but are decomposed into their\\nelements by heat. Horstmann and Salet have shown that hy-\\ndrogen sulphide and ammonia gases may be mixed in all pro-\\nportions without contraction in volume taking place, provided\\nthe temperature be maintained above 60\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAmmonium sulphydrate is generally obtained in solution by\\nsaturating aqueous ammonia with hydrogen sulphide. This\\nsolution is colorless, but acquires a yellow color on exposure to\\nthe air. When a quantity of ammonia is added to it equal to\\nthat which it already contains, ammonium sulphide, (NH 4 J 2 S,\\nis formed, which corresponds to potassium sulphide, K 2 S.\\nAmmonium sulphide is largely employed in the laboratory\\nas a reagent for the detection of certain metals.\\nIf ammonium sulphide be added to a solution of ferrous\\nsulphate, a double decomposition takes place ammonium sul-\\nphate is formed and remains in solution, while ferrous sulphide\\nforms a black precipitate.\\nFeSO 4 (NH 4 2 S FeS (NH 4 2 S0 4\\nFerrous sulphate. Ferrous sulphide. Ammonium sulphate.\\nThe salts of zinc, manganese, cobalt, and nickel are likewise\\nprecipitated as sulphides by ammonium sulphide.\\nThe salts of aluminium and chromium are precipitated as\\nhydrates, hydrogen sulphide being disengaged.\\nThe preceding salts are not precipitated by hydrogen sul-\\nphide (the zinc salts are not precipitated if they be acid), but\\nthe latter reagent precipitates in the form of sulphides the salts\\nof lead, bismuth, copper, cadmium, mercury, silver, antimony,\\ntin, gold, and platinum. The sulphides of the latter four\\nmetals dissolve in an excess of ammonium sulphide.\\n14", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0161.jp2"}, "162": {"fulltext": "158 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe sulphides of arsenic, tin, antimony, gold, and platinum\\nall form compounds with ammonium sulphide, in which the\\nlatter plays the part of a base.\\nAMMONIUM NITRATE.\\n(NH*)NO*\\nAmmonium nitrate is prepared by saturating nitric acid\\nwith ammonia. It crystallizes in large, transparent, fusible\\nprisms, which are very soluble in water and produce a notable\\ndepression of temperature in the act of solution, extending\\neven to 15\u00c2\u00b0. At 300\u00c2\u00b0 ammonium nitrate is decomposed\\ninto nitrogen monoxide and water. It is used for the prepa-\\nration of nitrogen monoxide, much used as an anaesthetic.\\nAMMONIUM CARBONATE.\\nWhen dry carbon dioxide and ammonia gases are mixed in\\nthe proportion of 2 volumes of the first to 4 volumes of the\\nsecond, they condense, forming a white powder, which is am-\\nmonium carbamate, a compound which was formerly called\\nanhydrous carbonate of ammonia.\\nCO 2 2NH 3 CO ggg 4\\nAmmonium carbamate.\\nThe ammonium carbonate of commerce is generally consid-\\nered as a sesquicarbonate. It contains 2[C0 3 (NH 4 2 -j- CO 2\\n2H 2 0. It is obtained by heating a mixture of equal parts of\\nammonium sulphate and chalk in a subliming apparatus.\\nAmmonia and water are disengaged, and the sesquicarbonate\\nof ammonium sublimes.\\nRecently sublimed ammonium sesquicarbonate is transparent\\nand crystalline. It has a strong ammoniacal odor and a sharp\\ncaustic taste. When exposed to the air it gradually loses\\nammonia and is converted into ammonium acid carbonate.\\nAmmonium Acid Carbonate. This salt, which is com-\\nmonly known as bicarbonate of ammonia, may be obtained by\\npassing a current of carbonic acid gas into aqueous ammonia,\\nto saturation. The acid salt separates in right rhombic prisms.\\nThe neutral carbonate of ammonium crystallizes from a cooled\\nsolution of the sesquicarbonate in ammonia-water. These salts\\npresent the following relations to the hypothetical carbonic acid", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0162.jp2"}, "163": {"fulltext": "AMMONIUM SULPHATE HYDROXYLAMINE. 159\\noo OH oo^ ONH co r ONH4\\nLU OH OU OH LU ONH 4\\nCarbonic acid. Ammonium acid Ammonium\\n(Hypothetical.) carbonate. carbonate.\\nAMMONIUM SULPHATE.\\n(NH*)*SO*\\nThis salt is obtained in the arts by passing the ammonia\\nthat is disengaged when gas-liquor is heated with lime into\\ndilute sulphuric acid. It crystallizes in right rhombic prisms.\\nIt is colorless and has a sharp taste. It dissolves in two\\nparts of cold, and in its own weight of boiling, water. It is\\ninsoluble in alcohol.\\nAmmonium sulphate is manufactured on an enormous scale,\\nand is used as a fertilizer and for the preparation of other\\nammonium compounds.\\nHYDROXYLAMINE. 1\\nNH 2 (OH)\\nThis remarkable compound was discovered by Lossen. It is a\\nproduct of the action of dilute nitric acid upon tin, and that of\\nhydrochloric acid and tin upon ammonium nitrate the nitric acid\\nis reduced by the hydrogen resulting from the action of a dilute\\nacid upon tin, and which is then, just as it is set free, in what is\\ncalled the nascent state.\\nHNO 3 3H 2 2H 2 NH 2 .OH\\nNitric acid.\\nIt is prepared synthetically by passing nitrogen dioxide over tin\\nmoistened with hydrochloric acid.\\n2NO 3H 2 2[NH 2 (OH)]\\nThe hydroxylamine thus formed remains in the liquid combined\\nwith an excess of acid. It possesses the properties of an energetic\\nbase. It forms definite salts with the acids, and can be regarded as\\nammonia, in which the group OH (hydroxyl) has been substituted\\nfor one atom of hydrogen.\\n(H (OH\\nNi H ]SN H\\n(h (h\\nAmmonia. Hydroxylamine.\\nLobry de Bruyn has obtained free hydroxylamine by the reaction\\nof hydroxylamine hydrochloride and sodium methylate (page 486)\\ndissolved in methyl alcohol.\\nNH 2 .OH.HCl NaCH 3 \u00c2\u00a3TH 2 OH NaCl CH 3 OH\\nHydroxylamine Sodium Methyl\\nhydrochloride. methylate. alcohol.\\n1 An amine is a compound representing NH 3 in which one or more atoms\\nof H are replaced by equivalent atoms or groups.", "height": "4789", "width": "2923", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0163.jp2"}, "164": {"fulltext": "160 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nHydroxy lamine is a colorless solid, crystallizing in hard plates or\\nneedles having a density of 1.23. It is odorless. It melts at 33\u00c2\u00b0,\\nand distils at 58\u00c2\u00b0 under 22 m.m. pressure, but explodes somewhat\\nabove 100\u00c2\u00b0. A remarkable property of hydroxylamine is its solvent\\naction on salts, many of which it dissolves very freely\\nHydroxylamine possesses reducing properties it precipitates gold\\nand mercury from solutions of their salts, and upon boiling with a\\ncupric salt throws down cuprous oxide.\\nHYDRAZINE.\\nNH 2 -NH 2\\nBy warming triazoacetic acid (CHN 2 COOH) 3 with sulphuric\\nacid, Curtius obtained the sulphate of a new compound of hydrogen\\nand nitrogen, (NH 2 2 =H 2 N\u00e2\u0080\u0094 NH 2 which is named hydrazine.\\nThis base forms a dihydrochloride (NH 2 2 2HC1, and a hydrochloride\\n(NH 2 2 HC1, both of which are crystallizable solids.\\nThe base itself is yet unisolated, but its hydrate (NH 2 2 .H 2 may\\nbe formed by heating the hydrochloride with lime in a silver retort.\\nIt is a fuming, caustic, and nearly odorless liquid which boils at 1 19\u00c2\u00b0,\\ndestroys cork and caoutchouc, and even corrodes glass when hot.\\nHYDRAZOIC ACID.\\nHN 3\\nThe same chemist has isolated a remarkable gaseous compound\\nof hydrogen and nitrogen whose molecule contains HN 3 and which\\nclosely resembles hydrochloric acid in its chemical behavior. It is\\nhydrazoic acid it is readily soluble in water, and the solution has\\nstrongly acid properties, dissolving many metals, with evolution of\\nhydrogen and formation of metallic hydrazoates. The gas has a\\nvery penetrating odor, and strongly attacks the mucous membranes.\\nHydrazoic acid and many of its salts are very explosive.\\nSodium hydrazoate is readily obtained by passing nitrous oxide\\nover heated sodium amide (W. Wislicenus).\\n2NaNH 2 N 2 NaN 3 NaOH NH 3\\nSodium amide. Sodium hydrazoate.\\nOXYGEN COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN.\\nFive compounds of nitrogen and oxygen are known.\\nATOMIC\\nCOMPOSITION. VOLUMETRIC COMPOSITION.\\nNitrogen monoxide, or nitrous\\noxide N 2 2 vol. N and 1 v. condensed in 2 v.\\nNitric oxide NO 1 vol. N and 1 v. =2v.\\nNitrogen trioxide N 2 3 2 vol. N and 3 v. condensed in 2 v.\\nNitrogen tetroxide, or nitro-\\ngen peroxide NO 2 and N 2 4 2 vol. N and 4 v. condensed in 2 v.\\nNitrogen pentoxide, or nitric\\nanhydride N 2 5 2 vol. N and 5 v. condensed in 2 v.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0164.jp2"}, "165": {"fulltext": "NITROGEN MONOXIDE.\\n161\\nNitrogen trioxide and nitrogen pentoxide combine with\\nwater, forming nitrous and nitric acids.\\nN 2 0\u00c2\u00bb IPO 2HN0 2\\nN 2 _j_ H 2 _ 2HNO\\nNITROGEN MONOXIDE.\\nDensity compared to air 1.527\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 22.\\nMolecular weight N 2 44.\\nThis gas, known also as protoxide of nitrogen, nitrous oxide,\\nand laughing-gas, was discovered by Priestley in 1776.\\nPreparation. It is obtained by gently heating ammonium\\nnitrate in a glass retort. The salt melts, and then decomposes\\nFig. 61.\\nwith effervescence into water and nitrogen monoxide, which\\nmay be collected over water (Fig. 61).\\n(NH 4 )N0 3 N 2 2H 2\\nProperties. Nitrogen monoxide is colorless and odorless,\\nbut possesses a sweetish taste. It is not permanent, and may\\nbe liquefied by strong pressure. It is liquefied on a consider-\\nable scale at present, that it may be transported in small bulk\\nfor the use of dentists. For this purpose it is compressed in\\nstrong iron reservoirs from which it may be easily drawn in\\nthe liquid state for experiments after first cooling the reser-\\nvoir in ice and salt.\\nA remarkable experiment can be performed as follows A\\nquantity of liquid nitrogen monoxide is poured into a test-tube\\nfixed by a cork in the neck of a bottle a portion of it\\ninstantly volatilizes, producing intense cold. If now a little\\nmercury be poured into the tube, it will sink through the\\nliquid monoxide and immediately be solidified. A small piece\\nI 14*", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0165.jp2"}, "166": {"fulltext": "162\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nFig. 62.\\nof incandescent charcoal let fall into the tube will float upon\\nthe surface of the monoxide, and burn with great brilliancy,\\nnotwithstanding the intense cold\\nby which it is surrounded, as evi-\\ndenced by the freezing of the\\nmercury (Fig. 62).\\nWater dissolves about its own\\nvolume of nitrogen monoxide at\\nordinary temperatures.\\nA taper which has been extin-\\nguished, but still bears a spark\\nof fire, is relighted, and burns\\nbrilliantly when plunged into a\\njar of nitrous oxide (Fig. 63).\\nIn the same manner, the combustion of sulphur and phos-\\nphorus is effected with great\\nenergy in an atmosphere of\\nthis gas.\\nEqual volumes of nitrous\\noxide and hydrogen form a\\nmixture which explodes on\\nthe passage of an electric\\nspark or on the application\\nof flame.\\nN 2 H 2 H 2 N 2\\n2 2 2 2\\nvolumes, volumes, volumes, volumes.\\nRespiration is a slow com-\\nbustion and may be sustained\\nfor a few seconds by nitrogen\\nmonoxide. Such inhalation\\ndoes not suffocate but it dis-\\nturbs the functions of the\\nY 1Q 63 nervous system, producing\\nanaesthesia, and for this pur-\\npose nitrous oxide is now largely employed by surgeons and\\ndentists. The insensibility is frequently preceded by a stage\\nof intoxication, hence the name laughing-gas which was given\\nby Davy.\\nIt must be added that these exhilarating effects have not\\nbeen observed in recent experiments with perfectly pure nitro-\\ngen monoxide.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0166.jp2"}, "167": {"fulltext": "NITRIC OXIDE.\\n163\\nNITRIC OXIDE.\\nDensity compared to air 1.039\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 15.\\nMolecular weight NO =30.\\nPreparation. This gas was discovered in 1772 by Hales;\\nit is prepared by decomposing cold, dilute nitric acid by metallic\\ncopper.\\n3Cu 8HN0 3 3Cu(N0 3 2 4H 2 2X0\\nCopper. Nitric acid. Cupric nitrate.\\nThe copper and water are introduced into a gas-bottle, and\\nordinary nitric acid is added by means of a funnel-tube the\\ncopper is immediately attacked and dissolved, forming cupric\\nnitrate (Fig. 64), and at the same time nitric oxide gas is dis-\\nengaged. This gas absorbs oxygen from the air and is con-\\nFig. 64.\\nverted into red vapors, which are at first apparent in the gas-\\nbottle, but as the evolution of nitric oxide continues, the gas\\nin the flask gradually becomes colorless, and may then be col-\\nlected in jars over water.\\nProperties. Nitric oxide is a colorless gas. Its liquefaction\\nwas first effected by Cailletet. It is decomposable by heat, but\\nless easily than the monoxide. It is scarcely soluble in water,\\nwhich only takes up a twentieth of its volume. Its most charac-\\nteristic property is the energy with which it absorbs half its\\nvolume of oxygen, passing into the state of nitrogen peroxide\\nor red vapors.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0167.jp2"}, "168": {"fulltext": "164 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIf a jar filled with nitric oxide be opened to the air, the red\\nvapors appear at once.\\n2NO O 2 N 2\\nNitric oxide supports the combustion of certain substances.\\nPhosphorus burns in it brilliantly, but the gas does not, like\\noxygen and nitrogen monoxide, relight a taper still presenting\\na spark.\\nHydrogen decomposes nitric oxide at a temperature but\\nslightly elevated, forming water and nitrogen.\\nNO H 2 N H 2\\nThe mixture of the two gases in equal volumes takes fire on\\nthe application of flame.\\nIf a few drops of carbon disulphide be poured into a jar of\\nnitric oxide, the vapor of the volatile liquid is at once diffused\\nthroughout the gas, and on the approach of a lighted taper a\\nbrilliant flash of light is produced, the sulphur and carbon being\\nburned by the oxygen of the nitric oxide.\\nThe light produced by this combustion is rich in actinic rays\\nlike the solar light, it effects the explosive combination of\\nchlorine and hydrogen.\\nWhen a mixture of nitric oxide with an excess of hydrogen\\nis passed through a heated tube containing platinum sponge,\\nwater and ammonia are formed.\\nNO 5H H 2 -f NH 3\\nUnder other circumstances hydroxylamine may be produced.\\nA solution of ferrous sulphate absorbs nitric oxide with\\navidity, assuming a dark-brown color this is a characteristic\\nproperty, by which nitric oxide may be recognized.\\nNITROGEN TRIOXIDE.\\nN 2 3\\nThis compound is formed when a mixture of nitric oxide\\nwith a large excess of oxygen is subjected to intense cold. It\\nis also formed, together with nitric acid, when nitrogen perox-\\nide is treated with a small quantity of cold water.\\n2N 2 4 H 2 2HN0 3 N 2 3\\nNitrogen peroxide. Nitric acid.\\nIt is a blue liquid, which boils at a low temperature.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0168.jp2"}, "169": {"fulltext": "NITROGEN PEROXIDE.\\n165\\nNITKOGEN PEROXIDE.\\nNO 2 or N 2 0*\\nPreparation. When well dried lead nitrate is heated to\\nredness it is decomposed into lead oxide and nitrogen peroxide,\\nwhich may be condensed in a well-cooled receiver.\\nPb(N0 3 2 PbO N 2 4\\nLead uitrate. I ad oxide.\\nThe first portions of nitrogen peroxide that are condensed\\ngenerally retain a trace of moisture, and present a green color\\nif the receiver be then changed, there collects a yellow liquid\\nwhich solidifies to a crystalline mass at 10\u00c2\u00b0.\\nProperties. Nitrogen peroxide is a mobile liquid, almost\\ncolorless at very low temperatures at 0\u00c2\u00b0 it has a somewhat\\ndarker color, and at 15\u00c2\u00b0 it is orange-brown. It boils at 22\u00c2\u00b0,\\nand its vapor is red. Near the point of ebullition its volu-\\nmetric composition corresponds to the formula N*0* that is,\\ntwo volumes of nitrogen and four volumes of oxygen are con-\\ndensed into two volumes of NO, and occupy the same space\\nas two atoms (one molecule) of hydrogen.\\nBut at a higher temperature this vapor is dissociated that\\nis, it is gradually decomposed in such a manner as to occupy\\ndouble its primitive volume. Tub two atoms of nitrogen and\\nfour atoms of oxygen which constitute two volumes of N 2 4\\nat a low temperature, occupy four volumes at about 70\u00c2\u00b0.\\nNO 2\\nNO 2\\nNO\\nNO\\nRed vapors at 20\u00c2\u00b0. Red vapors at 70\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe vapor of nitrogen peroxide is very corrosive, and dan-\\ngerous to inhale.\\nA small quantity of cold water decomposes nitrogen perox-\\nide into nitrogen trioxide and nitric acid a larger quantity of\\nwater causes the formation of nitrous and nitric acids.\\nN 2Q4 _|_ H 2Q HX0 2 _|_ HNQ 3\\nNitrous acid. Nitric acid.\\nAt ordinary temperatures and in presence of much water,\\nnitric oxide is formed.\\n3N0 2 H 2 2HN0 3 NO", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0169.jp2"}, "170": {"fulltext": "166 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nWhen a mixture of nitrogen peroxide and hydrogen is passed\\nover heated platinum sponge, water and ammonia are formed.\\nCertain very finely divided metals, especially copper, nickel,\\nand cobalt, have the property of absorbing large quantities of\\nnitrogen peroxide, apparently combining with it to form definite\\ncompounds that have been named nitro-metals. The copper\\ncompound is a dark-brown powder, having the composition\\nCu 2 N0 2 decomposed at 90\u00c2\u00b0 into copper and nitrogen peroxide.\\nNitryl Chloride and Bromide. Like nitric oxide, which\\nmay be called nitrosyl, nitrogen peroxide may play the part of\\na radical. There exists a chloride and also a bromide of nitro-\\ngen peroxide or nitryl.\\nN0 2 C1 NO Br\\nNitryl chloride. Nitryl bromide.\\nThe latter compound is formed, together with other products,\\nwhen bromine acts upon nitrogen peroxide at a very low tem-\\nperature. The chloride of nitryl has recently been obtained\\nby the reaction of phosphorus oxy chloride upon silver nitrate.\\nPOCP -f 3AgN0 3 Ag 3 PO* 3(N0 2 C1)\\nPhosphorus Silver nitrate. Silver phosphate. Nitryl chloride,\\noxychloride.\\nNitryl chloride is a light-yellow liquid, boiling at -)-5\u00c2\u00b0 and\\nsolidifying at 31\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIn contact with water, it forms nitryl hydrate (nitric acid),\\nand hydrochloric acid.\\nN0 2 C1 H 2 HC1 N0 2 .OH\\nThe nitric acid is formed at the expense of the water, of\\nwhich one atom of hydrogen is removed by the chlorine and\\nreplaced by the radical nitryl. Hence in nitric acid the group\\nNO 2 replaces one atom of hydrogen in water; this group is\\ntherefore monatomic.\\nBut the atom of hydrogen in nitric acid may also be replaced\\nby another nitryl group, and the result is an oxide of nitryl,\\nthe anhydride of nitric acid, or nitrogen pentoxide. The fol-\\nlowing formulae will illustrate the relations between these com-\\npounds and water which is their type\\nH} N0 2 N0 2 Q\\nH U H U NO 2 U\\nWater. Nitric acid. Nitrogen pentoxide.\\n(Nitryl hydrate.) (Nitryl oxide.)", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0170.jp2"}, "171": {"fulltext": "NITROGEN PENTOXIDE NITRIC ACID. 167\\nNITROGEN PENTOXIDE.\\n(NITRIC ANHYDRIDE.)\\nN2Q5\\nThis compound was obtained by H. Sainte-Claire Deville by\\nthe action of chlorine upon dry silver nitrate heated to between\\n58 and 60\u00c2\u00b0.\\n2AgN0 3 CI 2 N 2 5 2AgCl\\nSilvei^nitrate. Nitrogen pentoxide. Silver chloride.\\nIt may also be obtained by passing the vapor of nitryl chlo-\\nride over silver nitrate heated to 70\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAgO.NO 2 N0 2 C1 AgCl (N0 2 2\\nSilver nitrate. Nitryl chloride. Nitrogen pentoxide.\\nAlso, as shown by Berthelot, by the action of phosphorus\\npentoxide upon concentrated nitric acid.\\n2HN0 3 H 2 N 2 5\\nNitrogen pentoxide is solid and crystallizes in right-rhombic\\nprisms. It melts at 29.5\u00c2\u00b0, and boils between 48 and 50\u00c2\u00b0. It\\nis very unstable and explodes spontaneously even when it is\\npreserved at a low temperature.\\nNITRIC ACID.\\nHN03\\nThe atmosphere frequently contains a trace of nitric acid\\nvapor or other compounds of nitrogen and oxygen, and small\\nquantities of ammonium nitrate and nitrite may be detected in\\nrain-water. After passing a current of air for a long time\\nthrough a solution of potassium carbonate, the liquid is found\\nto contain potassium nitrate (Cloez). It may be admitted that\\nthe compounds of nitrogen and oxygen are formed directly by\\nthe action of electricity upon the elements of the air.\\nThe nitrates of potassium, sodium, magnesium, and calcium\\nare met with in certain soils, often in abundance. They are\\nformed wherever nitrogenized organic matters decompose in\\ncontact with the air and in presence of porous matters and\\nalkaline bases. Under these circumstances, the ammonia re-\\nsulting from the decomposition is oxidized to nitric acid.\\nThe experiments of Cloez have shown that the elements of", "height": "4790", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0171.jp2"}, "172": {"fulltext": "168\\nELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nthe air may unite directly, forming nitrates in the soil, wherever\\nalkaline bases and oxidizable matters are present.\\nPreparation. Nitric acid is obtained by decomposing an\\nalkaline nitrate with sulphuric acid. In the laboratory, the\\noperation may be conducted in a glass retort, the neck of which\\npasses, without cork, into a cooled receiver. 98 parts of con-\\ncentrated sulphuric acid and 85 parts of sodium nitrate are\\nemployed. On the application of heat, nitric acid is vola-\\ntilized, mixed at the commencement of the operation with red\\nvapors. The acid condenses in the receiver as a yellow liquid,\\nfuming in the air. Sodium acid sulphate remains in the retort.\\nH 2 SO* NaNO 3\\nSodium nitrate.\\nH a }sO*\\nSodium acid sulphate.\\nHNO 3\\nIn the arts, the sodium nitrate is decomposed with a less\\nconcentrated sulphuric acid, the decomposition of the nitric\\nacid during the operation being thus avoided. The operation\\nis conducted in cast-iron retorts, A (Fig. 65), the lateral tubes\\nof which, B, are adapted to stoneware tubes communicating\\nwith a series of stoneware bottles, D, where the acid condenses.\\nThe temperature is elevated towards the close of the operation,\\nand sodium neutral sulphate is formed.\\nH 2 S0 4 2NaN0 3 Na 2 S0 4 2HN0 3\\nProperties. When perfectly pure, nitric acid is colorless,\\nbut it rapidly becomes yellow under the influence of light,\\nundergoing a partial decomposition. When exposed to the", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0172.jp2"}, "173": {"fulltext": "NITRIC ACID. 169\\nair, it gives off abundant white fumes. Its density is 1.52 it\\nsolidifies at \u00e2\u0080\u009449\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at 86\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWhen its vapor is passed through a red-hot porcelain tube,\\nit is decomposed into nitrogen peroxide, oxygen, and water.\\n2HN0 3 H 2 X 2 4\\nThe same decomposition takes place when the concentrated\\nacid is boiled under ordinary pressures its boiling-point gradu-\\nally rises while the acid becomes weaker until a temperature of\\n120.5\u00c2\u00b0 is reached. The residual liquid, which distils without\\nfurther decomposition, contains 68 per cent, of the acid and has\\na density of 1.414. The same acid results when a weaker acid\\nis distilled it becomes gradually stronger until a boiling-point\\nof 120.5\u00c2\u00b0 is attained. However, the acid which distils at a\\ntemperature higher than 86\u00c2\u00b0 cannot be considered a definite\\nhydrate its composition depends on the pressure.\\nNitric acid readily gives up a portion of its oxygen to bodies\\nhaving an affinity for that element. It energetically oxidizes\\nsulphur, phosphorus, arsenic, iodine, silicon, carbon, and most\\nof the metals.\\nIf nitric acid be poured upon red-hot charcoal, the combus-\\ntion is vividly intensified by the decomposition of the nitric\\nacid, and red fumes appear at the same time.\\nCopper decomposes nitric acid with an abundant disengage-\\nment of nitric oxide, which is converted into nitrogen peroxide\\nby contact with the air.\\nIf dilute nitric acid be poured upon clean iron wire, chenik\\ncal action at once takes place, and there is an abundant evolu-\\ntion of red vapor but if the same wire be plunged into the\\nconcentrated acid, no action is manifested and further, if the\\nstrong acid be poured off and replaced by dilute acid, the latter\\nundergoes no decomposition the iron has become passive by\\nbecoming covered with a thin layer of gas. But if its surface\\nbe touched with a copper wire, chemical action is at once re-\\nestablished between the iron and the nitric acid.\\nThe action of tin upon nitric acid is worthy of notice. Tor-\\nrents of red vapor are disengaged, and the metal is converted\\ninto a white powder, which is stannic acid. In this reaction\\nsmall quantities of ammonia and hydroxylamine are formed at\\nthe expense of the elements of the nitric acid, and remain\\ncombined with the excess of acid.\\nThe conversion of nitric acid into ammonia may be more\\nh 15", "height": "4788", "width": "2924", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0173.jp2"}, "174": {"fulltext": "170 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ncomplete. If zinc be introduced into very dilute nitric acid,\\nthe metal dissolves slowly and without disengagement of gas\\nthe liquid is then found to contain zinc nitrate and ammo-\\nnium nitrate. The nascent hydrogen set free from a portion\\nof the nitric acid by the zinc reduces another portion of the\\nacid, forming water and ammonia.\\nZn 2HN0 3 Zn(N0 3 2 H 2\\nZinc. Zinc nitrate.\\n2HN0 3 4H 2 3H 2 (NH 4 )N0 3\\nAmmonium nitrate.\\nNitric oxide decomposes nitric acid. The acid is reduced,\\nand either nitrogen peroxide or nitrous acid is formed and\\nremains dissolved in the liquid, the former communicating a\\nbrown, the second a blue or green color.\\nNitric acid is one of the most important acids. It is em-\\nployed in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, and also to oxidize\\ncertain organic matters, such as starch and sugar, which it\\nconverts into oxalic acid. It is also used in parting gold, in\\nthe manufacture of nitrates, nitroglycerin, picric acid, and coal-\\ntar colors, and is the most generally useful oxidizing agent in\\nthe laboratory.\\nBTitro-hydrochloric Acid. A mixture of nitric and hydro-\\nchloric acids is called nitro hydrochloric or nitro-muriatic acid,\\nor aqua regia. This liquid dissolves gold and platinum, and\\nit owes this property to the chlorine, which is set at liberty by\\nthe mutual action of the two acids.\\n2HC1 2HNO* 2H 2 N 2 4\\ncr\\nWhen the mixture is left to itself it gradually assumes a\\nyellow color, undergoing a partial decomposition, as indicated\\nby the above formula but this decomposition is limited, and\\nonly complete in the presence of a metal capable of absorbing\\nthe chlorine.\\nBut the reaction between hydrochloric and nitric acids gives\\nrise to the formation of other products, noticed by Gay-Lussac\\nand Baudrimont these are ternary compounds of oxygen, ni-\\ntrogen, and chlorine. One is a red vapor, condensing at 7\u00c2\u00b0\\nto an orange-red liquid. Its composition is probably expressed\\nby the formula NOC1 2\\nIt may be regarded as nitrogen peroxide in which one atom\\nof oxygen is replaced by an equivalent quantity, that is, two\\natoms, of chlorine.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0174.jp2"}, "175": {"fulltext": "PHOSPHORUS. 171\\nThe other is a gas which does not liquefy at very low tem-\\nperatures it is nitrosyl chloride, NO. CI. By reacting with\\nwater it forms hydrochloric and nitrous acids.\\nNO.C1 H 2 HC1 NO.OH\\nIt will be noticed that nitrosyl chloride bears the same rela-\\ntion to nitrous acid that nitryl chloride bears to nitric acid.\\nThe following formulae will illustrate the constitution of these\\nbodies\\nno.ci N .9?o \u00c2\u00a32 o\\nS}\u00c2\u00b0\\nNO}\\nNitrosyl chloride. Nitrous acid. Nitrogen trioxide.\\nNO 2 n NO 5\\nH u NO 5\\nNitryl chloride. Nitric acid. Nitrogen pentoxide.\\nPHOSPHORUS\\nVapor density compared to air 4.32\\nVapor density compared to hydrogen 61.1\\nAtomic weight P =31.\\nBrand, an alchemist of Hamburg, while attempting to ex-\\ntract the philosopher s stone from urine, discovered phosphorus\\nin 1669. But urine contains only a small quantity of phos-\\nphates and can yield but traces of phosphorus, so that this\\nbody only became generally known to chemists after Gahn\\ndemonstrated its existence in bones, and Scheele discovered the\\nprocess for its extraction.\\nThe process of the latter chemist is still in use it consists\\nin treating bone-ash with dilute sulphuric acid, by which means\\nthe tricalcium phosphate of the bones is converted into mono-\\ncalcium phosphate, ordinarily called acid phosphate of lime.\\nCa 3 (P0 4 2 2H 2 SO CaH*(P0 4 2 2CaS0 4\\nTricalcium Calcium acid Calcium\\nphosphate. phosphate. sulphate.\\nThe latter phosphate being soluble is separated from the\\ncalcium sulphate by nitration, and the solution is evaporated\\nand mixed with powdered charcoal. The mixture is dried and\\ngradually heated to redness in cast-iron vessels. By this means\\nthe calcium acid phosphate is converted into calcium nieta-\\nphosphate by the expulsion of two molecules of water.\\nCaH 4 (PO) 2 2H 2 Ca(P0 3 2\\nCalcium acid phosphate. Calcium metaphosphate.", "height": "4785", "width": "2935", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0175.jp2"}, "176": {"fulltext": "172\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe latter is strongly heated with charcoal in clay retorts\\n(Fig. 66), and is decomposed, yielding carbon monoxide and\\nphosphorus which distils over, and leaving a residue of calcium\\npyrophosphate.\\nP 2\\nThe phosphorus condenses in the water in the receiver A,\\nin which the neck of the retort C is engaged.\\n2Ca(P0 3 2\\n5C\\nCa 2 P 2 7 5CO\\nCalcium\\nCalcium Carbon\\nmetaphosphate.\\npyrophosphate. monoxide.\\nFig. 66.\\nAs it is impossible to expel all of the water from the calcium\\nacid phosphate, this water is decomposed by the charcoal, hy-\\ndrogen and carbon monoxide being formed, together with a\\nsmall quantity of phosphoretted hydrogen.\\n100 kilogrammes of bone yield between 8 and 9 kilo-\\ngrammes of phosphorus. The latter is purified by enclosing\\nit in a chamois-skin sack, and strongly compressing it under\\nwater at 50\u00c2\u00b0 the phosphorus passes through the leather and\\ncollects under the water. It is moulded into sticks by being\\ndrawn up into slightly conical glass tubes, which are then\\nplunged into cold water. The phosphorus solidifies and is\\neasily drawn from the tubes.\\nPhysical Properties. Recently-fused phosphorus is trans-\\nparent, colorless, or having a pale-yellow tint, flexible, and soft", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0176.jp2"}, "177": {"fulltext": "PHOSPHORUS.\\n173\\nenough to be easily scratched by the nail. One-tenth per cent,\\nof sulphur renders it hard and brittle. It has a well-marked\\nodor, slightly resembling that of garlic. Its density at 10\u00c2\u00b0 is\\n1.83. It melts at 44\u00c2\u00b0 and boils at 290\u00c2\u00b0 its vapor is colorless\\nand has a density of 4.32 compared to air, or 61.1 compared\\nto hydrogen.\\nIf one volume of hydrogen weighs 1, one volume of vapor\\nof phosphorus weighs 61.1, and this number should represent\\nthe weight of one atom of phosphorus now it represents the\\nweight of two atoms, and the vapor of phosphorus presents\\nthe singular anomaly that it contains in the same volume\\ntwice as many atoms as the simple gases, such as hydrogen\\nor nitrogen. If one volume of hydrogen contain one atom,\\none volume of phosphorus vapor contains two, and heat cannot\\ndissociate these two atoms in such a manner that they may\\noccupy two volumes instead of one. The vapor of arsenic\\npresents the same anomaly.\\nH\\nN\\nP\\nAs 2\\n1 volume of\\nhydrogen.\\n1 volume of\\nnitrogen.\\n1 volume of\\nphosphorus vapor.\\n1 volume of\\narsenic vapor.\\nPhosphorus volatilizes below its boiling-point and even below\\nits melting-point. At ordinary temperatures it emits vapors in\\na vacuum and even in the air. It is luminous in the dark,\\nfrom which property it derives its name, which signifies light-\\nbearer. The cause of this phenomenon is still obscure, but is\\ngenerally attributad to the slow oxidation which phosphorus\\nundergoes in the air.\\nWhen a stick of transparent phosphorus is kept under water,\\nit gradually becomes opaque and covered with a yellowish-white\\npulverulent powder, while the central parts retain their trans-\\nparence. This white phosphorus is still pure, but the surface\\nof the stick has divided into a multitude of little particles which\\npresent a crystalline appearance. Some of them become de-\\ntached and remain suspended in the water, giving to the latter\\nthe property of being luminous in the dark.\\nPhosphorus is rapidly dissolved by carbon disulphide and is\\ndeposited in rhombic dodecahedra on the slow evaporation of\\nthe solution.\\nThere is an amorphous variety of phosphorus which differs\\nso much from ordinary phosphorus that it presents the prop-\\n15*", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0177.jp2"}, "178": {"fulltext": "174 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nerties of an entirely different substance. It has a dark brown-\\nred color, and is not luminous in the dark. It is insoluble in\\ncarbon disulphide it does not melt and take fire like ordi-\\nnary phosphorus when heated to 50\u00c2\u00b0. It is amorphous, and\\npresents a conchoidal fracture. Its density is 2.14. Ordinary\\nphosphorus is one of the most dangerous poisons, but this red\\nbody exerts no action upon the economy. At 260\u00c2\u00b0 amorphous\\nphosphorus melts and again becomes ordinary phosphorus.\\nAmorphous phosphorus results from a physical change\\nbrought about by the action of light or heat on the ordinary\\nvariety. If a stick of phosphorus be exposed to direct sun-\\nlight, its surface assumes a red color or if it be maintained\\nfor a long time at a temperature of 240\u00c2\u00b0, it is entirely con-\\nverted into the amorphous variety.\\nThis transformation is also accomplished by the influence of\\ncertain chemical agents. If a small stick of ordinary phos-\\nphorus be introduced into a test-tube and a very minute por-\\ntion of iodine be allowed to fall upon it, the iodine unites with\\nthe phosphorus with the production of light and heat. A trace\\nof phosphorus iodide is formed, and the remainder of the phos-\\nphorus is converted into a hard, black mass, which yields a red\\npowder this is amorphous phosphorus (E. Kopp, Brodie).\\nThus prepared, this body volatilizes like arsenic, without\\nmelting, and can be distilled without alteration, condensing in\\na black mass, which contains only traces of iodine.\\nChemical Properties. Ordinary phosphorus possesses a\\nstrong affinity for oxygen. When exposed to the air it slowly\\noxidizes, and the slow combustion, aided by the moisture of the\\nair, produces a mixture of phosphorous and phosphoric acids.\\nSchbnbein has shown that the slow oxidation of phosphorus is\\naccompanied by the formation of small quantities of ozone and\\nhydrogen dioxide.\\nWHen heated in the air to a temperature of 60\u00c2\u00b0, phosphorus\\ntakes fire and burns, producing a bright light and white vapors\\nof phosphorus pentoxide mixed with some phosphorus trioxide.\\nIn oxygen the combustion takes place with great brilliancy. It\\nis remarkable that under ordinary pressures phosphorus will not\\nburn in pure and dry oxygen it can be melted and even dis-\\ntilled in such an atmosphere (Dixon).\\nPhosphorus may be burned under warm water by passing a\\ncurrent of oxygen through the melted element by means of a\\ntube drawn out to a point (Fig. 67) each bubble of oxygen", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0178.jp2"}, "179": {"fulltext": "HYDROGEN PHOSPHIDE.\\n175\\nwhich comes in contact with the phosphorus produces a bright\\nflash.\\nPhosphorus takes fire spontaneously in an atmosphere of dry\\nchlorine, phosphorus pentachloride being produced.\\nUses of Phosphorus. This body is principally employed in\\nthe manufacture of matches. The inflammable tips of friction-\\nmatches contain either ordinary or amorphous phosphorus. In\\nthe first case, the phosphorus is mixed with inert substances,\\nsuch as sand or ochre, held together by strong glue in the\\nFig. 67.\\nsecond case, the ignition of the amorphous phosphorus, which\\nis but slightly combustible, is determined by potassium chlorate,\\nto which is also added antimony sulphide. All of these sub-\\nstances are made into a paste, into which the ends of the\\nmatches are dipped. Sometimes the match-sticks are tipped\\nwith a paste composed of potassium chlorate and antimony\\nsulphide, a mixture which only takes fire by friction upon a\\nprepared surface, composed generally of amorphous phosphorus\\nand antimony sulphide. All of these mixtures are held to-\\ngether by strong glue.\\nHYDROGEN PHOSPHIDE (PHOSPHINE).\\nDensity compared to air 1.134\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 17.\\nMolecular weight PH 3 =34.\\nThis gas was discovered by Gengembre in 1783.\\nWhen phosphorus is heated with a solution of caustic potassa,\\nthere is a gas disengaged, which inflames spontaneously on con-\\ntact with the air this is hydrogen phosphide. It is formed\\naccording to the following equation\\n3KOH 4P 3H 2 3KHT0 2 PH 3\\nPotassium hydrate. Potassium hypophosphite.", "height": "4783", "width": "2926", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0179.jp2"}, "180": {"fulltext": "176\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nPreparation. 1. Hydrogen phosphide may be prepared by\\nheating phosphorus with a strong solution of potassium hydrate,\\nor with thick milk of lime, with which the flask (Fig. 68)\\nFig. 68.\\nshould be almost entirely filled. The gas is conducted under\\nthe surface of water, and as each bubble arrives in contact with\\nthe air it takes fire spontaneously, producing a bright flash and\\na wreath of white smoke, which enlarges as it rises in the air.\\n2. The same spontaneously inflammable gas is evolved when\\ncalcium phosphide is thrown into water (Fig. 69). The phos-\\nphide of calcium is prepared by passing vapor of phosphorus\\nover fragments of incandescent lime it instantly decomposes\\nwater with formation of calcium hypophosphite and sponta-\\nneously inflammable hydrogen phosphide.\\nHowever, when calcium phosphide is treated with hydro-\\nchloric acid, hydrogen phosphide is produced, which does not\\ntake fire without the application of heat (Fig. 70).\\nIn this case, the gas is formed by double decomposition\\nbetween the hydrochloric acid and the calcium phosphide the\\ncalcium combines with the chlorine, forming calcium chloride,\\nand the hydrogen of the acid combines with the phosphorus.\\n3. In the same manner, when phosphorous acid is strongly\\nheated in a small retort, it evolves a hydrogen phosphide which\\nis not spontaneously inflammable.\\n4H 3 P0 3\\nPhosphorous acid.\\nPH 3 3H 3 PO\\nPhosphoric acid.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0180.jp2"}, "181": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF PHOSPHORUS AND CHLORINE.\\n177\\nProperties. The gas thus obtained is colorless, and pos-\\nsesses a garlicky odor. It is but slightly soluble in water, but\\nis soluble in alcohol and in ether. When it is pure it does not\\ntake fire in the air at a temperature below 100\u00c2\u00b0, and then\\nburns with a very luminous white flame. According to Paul\\nThenard, the spontaneous inflammability of the hydrogen phos-\\nphide prepared by the methods first mentioned is due to the\\nFtg. 69.\\nFig. 70.\\npresence of another phosphide, P 2 H 4 this is a very volatile\\nliquid, extremely inflammable, and the least trace of its vapor\\nin hydrogen phosphide gas communicates to the latter the\\nproperty of spontaneous inflammability.\\nHydrogen phosphide liquefies at about 85\u00c2\u00b0, and freezes at\\n132.5\u00c2\u00b0 it is absorbed by a solution of cupric sulphate, with\\nthe formation of black phosphide of copper.\\nThe composition of hydrogen phosphide, PH 3 recalls that of\\nammonia, NH 3 ,and the analogy between the two gases is further\\nrevealed by the property common to both of uniting with hydri-\\nodic acid. There is a compound of hydrogen phosphide with\\nhydriodic acid, a well-defined, solid body, crystallizing in bril-\\nliant cubes. PH 3 .HI or PH*I phosphonium iodide.\\nThe existence of a solid phosphide of hydrogen has been\\ndemonstrated, and the formula P 2 H attributed to it.\\nCOMPOUNDS OF PHOSPHORUS AND CHLORINE.\\nThere are two chlorides of phosphorus\\nPhosphorus trichloride PCI 3\\nPhosphorus pentachloride PCI*\\nm", "height": "4780", "width": "2907", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0181.jp2"}, "182": {"fulltext": "178 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThere are, besides,\\nPhosphorus oxychloride P0C1 3\\nPhosphorus sulphochloride PSC1 3\\nPHOSPHORUS TRICHLORIDE.\\nWhen a current of dry chlorine is passed over phosphorus\\nheated in a small tubulated retort, a liquid compound of chlo-\\nrine and phosphorus is formed and may be condensed in a\\ncooled receiver. This is phosphorus trichloride. It is a\\nfuming, colorless liquid, having a density of 1.45 and boiling\\nat 74\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIf it be poured into water, it at first sinks to the bottom,\\nand then rapidly disappears, evolving white fumes of hydro-\\nchloric acid, and forming phosphorous acid, which remains in\\nsolution.\\nPCP 3H 2 HTO 3 3HC1\\nPHOSPHORUS PENTACHLORIDE.\\nPCI*\\nIn contact with an excess of chlorine, phosphorus trichloride\\nabsorbs two more atoms of that gas, and condenses into a yellow\\ncrystalline solid, phosphorus pentachloride.\\nThis body is volatile, and sublimes without fusion when\\nheated, even below 100\u00c2\u00b0. When heated under pressure, it\\nmelts at 148\u00c2\u00b0 and boils at a slightly higher temperature. Its\\nvapor density, taken at 336\u00c2\u00b0 and reduced to 0\u00c2\u00b0, is equal to\\n3.656. This density should be double, supposing that the\\nmolecule PCI 5 occupies two volumes. The anomaly, however,\\nis only apparent, for there are good reasons for believing that\\nat the temperature 336\u00c2\u00b0 the vapor of phosphorus pentachloride\\nno longer exists, and that the compound is decomposed or dis-\\nsociated into a mixture of phosphorus trichloride and chlorine,\\na mixture which would give four volumes of vapor for one\\nmolecule of PCP.\\nPP15 f PCP 2 volumes.\\nru CP 2 volumes.\\n4 volumes.\\nIndeed, when the vapor density of phosphorus pentachloride\\nis taken by diifusing it in the vapor of the protochloride, which", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0182.jp2"}, "183": {"fulltext": "PHOSPHORUS OXYCHLORIDE. 179\\nprevents the dissociation before mentioned, a figure is found\\nwhich corresponds very nearly with the theoretic density 7.21\\n(A. Wurtz).\\nPhosphorus pentachloride decomposes water with energy,\\nforming hydrochloric and phosphoric acids.\\nPCP 4H 2 H 3 PO 5HC1\\nWhen only a small quantity of water is present, hydrochloric\\nacid is disengaged, by the exchange of two atoms of chlorine\\nfor one atom of oxygen, and a colorless liquid is formed which\\nis called phosphorus oxychloride. When heated in a current\\nof hydrogen sulphide, phosphorus pentachloride is converted\\ninto the sulphochloride, a colorless liquid boiling at 126\u00c2\u00b0.\\nPCI 5 H 2 2HC1 POCP\\nPCI 5 H 2 S 2HC1 PSCP\\nPHOSPHORUS OXYCHLORIDE.\\nPOC1 3\\nThis body is readily obtained by exposing phosphorus penta-\\nchloride to moist air until it becomes liquid, and subsequently\\ndistilling the liquid (A. Wurtz). It is formed in a great num-\\nber of reactions when phosphorus pentachloride is heated with\\nhydrated acids, such as oxalic acid, boric acid, etc., or with\\noxides, such as phosphoric oxide. In these cases, one atom of\\noxygen from the oxidized body is exchanged for two atoms of\\nchlorine from the pentachloride (Gerhardt).\\nPhosphorus oxychloride is a colorless liquid, boiling at 110\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWhen poured into water, it sinks and is at once decomposed,\\nhydrochloric and phosphoric acids being formed.\\nPOCP h^}\u00c2\u00b0 3= ff} 03 3HC1\\nPhosphorus oxychloride. 3 molecules water. Fhosphoric acid.\\nCOMPOUNDS OF PHOSPHORUS WITH BROMINE\\nAND IODINE.\\nTwo bromides of phosphorus are known\\nPhosphorus tribromide, PBr 3 a colorless liquid.\\nPhosphorus pentabromide, PBr 5 a yellow, crystalline mass.\\nTo the trichloride and tribromide of phosphorus there cor-\\nresponds a triiodide, concerning which but little is known.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0183.jp2"}, "184": {"fulltext": "180 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe best defined and most important combination of phos-\\nphorus with iodine is the compound P 2 P.\\nPhosphorus Iodide, P 2 I*. This body is obtained by dis-\\nsolving dry phosphorus in carbon disulphide and gradually\\nadding iodine to the solution. The liquor is distilled on the\\nwater-bath, and leaves a bright-red, crystalline mass. This\\nis the iodide P 2 P.\\nIt crystallizes in long, brilliant, flexible needles, which melt\\nat 110\u00c2\u00b0. On contact with water it is decomposed, forming\\nphosphorous and hydriodic acids.\\nPhosphorus Fluorides. A trifluoride, PFP, and a penta-\\nfluoride, PF1 5 are known. Both are colorless gases at ordi-\\nnary temperatures. The pentafluoride is the only compound\\nof pentavalent phosphorus which can exist as a gas without\\ndissociation. It is stable at high temperatures.\\nCOMPOUNDS OF PHOSPHORUS AND OXYGEN.\\nPhosphorus combines with oxygen, forming two oxides\\nPhosphorus trioxide, or phosphorous oxide P 4 6\\nPhosphorus pentoxide, or phosphoric oxide P 2 5\\nRecent investigations by Thorpe and Tutton seem to phow\\nthat the products of the slow combustion of phosphorus con-\\ntain also an oxide having the composition P 2 4 corresponding\\nto nitrogen tetroxide. Both the trioxide ?nd the pentoxide\\ncan combine with three molecules of water, phosphorous and\\nphosphoric acids being thus formed.\\n2p*o 6 fiH 2 4H 3 P0 3\\nP 2 5 3H 2 2H 3 PO*\\nBesides these two acids there is another containing less oxy-\\ngen it is hypophosphorous acid, whose corresponding oxide is\\nunknown. These three acids form a series containing for three\\natoms of hydrogen and one atom of phosphorus regularly-in-\\ncreasing quantities of oxygen they may be said to constitute\\ndifferent degrees of oxidation of hydrogen phosphide.\\nPH 3 hydrogen phosphide.\\nPH 3 (missing).\\nPH 3 2 hypophosphorous acid.\\nPH 3 3 phosphorous acid.\\nPH 3 4 phosphoric acid.\\nConstitution of the Oxygen Acids of Phosphorus. Phos-\\nphorous and phosphoric acids are related, the first to phos-\\nphorus trichloride, the second to phosphorus oxychloride. In", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0184.jp2"}, "185": {"fulltext": "HYPOPHOSPHOROUS ACID. 181\\nfact, they are derived from these compounds by the action of\\nwater.\\nP C1 3 phosphorus trichloride.\\nP(OH) 3 phosphorous acid (phosphorus trihydrate).\\n(PO) ,/r CP phosphorus oxy chloride (phosphoryl trichloride).\\n(PO) (OH) 3 phosphoric acid (phosphoryl trihydrate).\\nTo phosphorus pentachloride, PCI 5 would correspond a pen-\\ntahydrate, P(OH) 5 which is unknown. Phosphoric acid would\\nbe derived from the latter by the loss of a molecule of water.\\nP(OH) 5 H 2 (PO)(OH) 3\\nIt is seen that in phosphorous acid, as in the trichloride, phos-\\nphorus is regarded as playing the part of a triatomic element,\\nwhile it is pentatomic in the pentachloride.\\nIn hypophosphorous acid, it must be assumed that one atom\\nof hydrogen is united directly to the triatomic phosphorus, and\\nits constitution is expressed by the formula\\nOH\\ntOH\\nHYPOPHOSPHOROUS ACID.\\nH 3 P0 2\\nWhen phosphorus is boiled with milk of lime or with a con-\\ncentrated solution of baryta, a soluble hypophosphite is pro-\\nduced, and on treating the solution of barium hypophosphite\\nwith sulphuric acid, a precipitate of barium sulphate and a\\nsolution of hypophosphorous acid are obtained they may be\\nseparated by nitration. When sufficiently concentrated, the\\nliquor leaves a colorless and syrupy residue, which, when cooled\\nto 0\u00c2\u00b0, deposits white crystals of the acid.\\nThis acid is decomposed at a high temperature, yielding\\nphosphoric acid and hydrogen phosphide. It is gifted with\\nenergetic reducing properties it instantly decomposes the salts\\nof mercury and silver, setting free the metal. An excess of\\nhypophosphorous acid added to a solution of cupric sulphate\\nprecipitates, by the aid of a gentle heat, hydride of copper,\\nCu 2 H 2 which is decomposed at 100\u00c2\u00b0 into copper and hydrogen\\n(A. Wurtz).\\n16", "height": "4771", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0185.jp2"}, "186": {"fulltext": "182 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nHypophosphorous acid contains three atoms of hydrogen,\\nonly one of which is capable of being replaced by an equiva-\\nlent quantity of a metal. The composition of the hypophos-\\nphites is consequently expressed by the following general\\nformula\\nR H 2 P0 2\\nin which R represents a monatomic metal, such as potassium,\\ncapable of replacing hydrogen atom for atom.\\nPHOSPHOROUS ACID.\\nH 3PQ3\\nPreparation. Phosphorous acid results from the action of\\nwater upon phosphorus trichloride, as already seen. It may\\nbe obtained in a state of purity by evaporating the acid liquor\\nresulting from this reaction, and heating the syrupy residue\\nin a platinum capsule until the odor of hydrogen phosphide\\nis perceptible. On cooling, the acid solidifies to a crystalline\\nmass.\\nProperties. These crystals absorb moisture when exposed\\nto the air, and are resolved into an intensely acid liquid they\\nmelt at a gentle heat, and are decomposed by a high tempera-\\nture into hydrogen phosphide and phosphoric acid.\\nLike hypophosphorous acid, phosphorous acid possesses re-\\nducing properties.\\nIts boiling aqueous solution reduces the salts of mercury,\\nsilver, and gold, and this reduction is favored by the presence\\nof ammonia. It converts arsenic acid into arsenious acid.\\nChlorine, bromine, and iodine convert it into phosphoric acid\\nin presence of water.\\nH 3 P0 3 H 2 CI 2 2HC1 H 3 P0 4\\nPhosphorous acid contains three atoms of hydrogen, two of\\nwhich are replaceable by an equivalent quantity of a metal.\\nIt is hence called a dibasic acid.\\nThe composition of the neutral phosphites is expressed by\\nthe general formula\\nR 2 HP0 3\\nin which R represents a monatomic metal like potassium or\\nsodium.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0186.jp2"}, "187": {"fulltext": "PHOSPHORIC OXIDE PHOSPHORIC ACID. 183\\nPHOSPHORIC OXIDE, OR PHOSPHORUS\\nPENTOXIDE.\\n(PHOSPHORIC anhydride.)\\np 2 Q5\\nThis compound may be obtained by burning phosphorus in\\na large globe filled with dry air. A dense white smoke is pro-\\nduced, and condenses upon the walls of the vessel in flakes like\\nsnow. This body is the anhydride of phosphoric acid. When\\nexposed to the air, it absorbs moisture and is converted into\\nmetaphosphoric acid.\\nP 2 5 H 2 _ 2HP0 3\\nWhen thrown into water it dissolves with a hissing noise,\\nsuch as is produced by a red-hot iron.\\nPhosphoric oxide volatilizes at a dull-red heat; it is unde-\\ncomposable by heat. It yields the oxychloride when distilled\\nwith phosphorus pentachloride.\\nFO 5 3PC1 5 5POC1 3\\nPhosphorus pentoxide is much used in the laboratory for\\ndrying gases, and as a dehydrating agent.\\nPHOSPHORIC ACID.\\n(ORTHOPHOSPHORIC ACID.)\\nPreparation. 1. This acid may be prepared by boiling\\nphosphorus with nitric acid. On account of the violence of\\nthe reaction the operation is difficult to regulate, and even\\ndangerous when ordinary phosphorus is employed, but it\\nsucceeds very well with powdered amorphous phosphorus.\\nThis is heated with tolerably concentrated nitric acid in a\\nretort, fitted with a receiver, and, when the whole of the phos-\\nphorus has disappeared, a little nitric acid is added to the\\ncontents of the retort, and the liquid is concentrated in a\\nplatinum capsule. When the last portions of nitric acid have\\nbeen driven out, a small quantity of water is added, and the\\nsyrupy liquid is placed in a bell-jar over a dish containing\\nconcentrated sulphuric acid. At the end of some time, the", "height": "4769", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0187.jp2"}, "188": {"fulltext": "184 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nphosphoric acid is deposited in the form of hard, transparent,\\nprismatic crystals.\\n2. A current of chlorine may be passed through warm water\\nunder which is a layer of melted phosphorus. Phosphoric-\\nacid and hydrochloric acid are formed.\\nPGP 4H 2 H 3 PO 5HC1\\nAs soon as all of the phosphorus has disappeared the solution\\nis evaporated, and the hydrochloric acid is driven out by\\nheating the residue to 200\u00c2\u00b0. The residue is dissolved in water\\nand forms a solution which will deposit the acid in crystals\\nwhen concentrated as indicated above.\\nProperties. When exposed to the air, these crystals attract\\nmoisture and deliquesce. Their solution is very acid. It does\\nnot coagulate white of egg, and it produces no cloud in a solu-\\ntion of barium chloride, but it forms a white precipitate of\\nammonio-magnesium phosphate in a solution of magnesium\\nsulphate on the addition of ammonia. With silver nitrate to\\nwhich ammonia has been added, it gives a yellow precipitate\\nof trisilver phosphate, Ag 3 PO. Orthophosphoric acid contains\\nthree atoms of hydrogen, each of which is replaceable by an\\nequivalent quantity of metal.\\nPYROPHOSPHORIC ACID.\\nH 4 P 2 0*\\nWhen orthophosphoric acid is heated for a long time to\\n213\u00c2\u00b0 it loses water and is converted into a new acid, which is\\ncalled pyrophosphoric. Two molecules of phosphoric acid lose\\none molecule of water, and then unite to form a single mole-\\ncule of pyrophosphoric acid.\\n/OH\\nPO^-OH /OH\\n0|H\\nIOH\\nPOvOH\\nH 2 0 H 4 P 2 7\\nPOA)H\\nPO^OH H\\nx OH\\nThe residue constitutes an opaque, semi-crystalline mass,\\ncomposed almost entirely of pyrophosphoric acid.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0188.jp2"}, "189": {"fulltext": "METAPHOSPHORIC ACID. 185\\nIts aqueous solution forms a white precipitate of silver\\npyrophosphate in solutions of silver nitrate.\\nH*P 2 7 4AgN0 3 Ag*FO T 4HN0 3\\nWhen heated with water, pyrophosphoric acid again com-\\nbines with one molecule of that liquid, and is converted into\\nphosphoric acid by a reaction the inverse of that by which it\\nis formed.\\nMETAPHOSPHORIC ACID.\\nHPO^\\nPreparation. When phosphoric acid is heated to redness\\nin a platinum crucible, a hard, transparent, vitreous mass is\\nobtained on cooling this is metaphosphoric acid.\\nIt is formed by the abstraction of one molecule of water\\nfrom phosphoric acid.\\nH 3 P0 4 H 2 HPO 3\\nIt may also be obtained directly from calcium acid phos-\\nphate, the preparation of which from bone-ash has already been\\ndescribed. A slight excess of dilute sulphuric acid is added\\nto the concentrated solution of this salt, and the insoluble cal-\\ncium sulphate formed is separated by nitration. Since, how-\\never, the calcium sulphate is not entirely insoluble in water,\\nthe solution is concentrated, and alcohol added, which com-\\npletely precipitates the sulphate. The liquid is again filtered,\\nthe alcohol driven off by evaporation, and the residue heated\\nto a temperature near redness to remove the excess of sulphuric\\nacid.\\nOn cooling, a vitreous mass of metaphosphoric acid is ob-\\ntained.\\nAn aqueous solution of metaphosphoric acid instantly pro-\\nduces a precipitate of silver metaphosphate in a solution of\\nsilver nitrate.\\nHPO 3 AgNO 3 AgPO 3 HNO 3\\nA few drops of the acid solution added to white of egg sus-\\npended in water produces an abundant white precipitate.\\nThe same metaphosphoric acid is formed when phosphoric\\noxide is thrown into a large quantity of cold water, or when it\\nis allowed to deliquesce in the air. Under these circumstances,\\n16*", "height": "4784", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0189.jp2"}, "190": {"fulltext": "186 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\none molecule of phosphoric oxide combines with only one\\nmolecule of water.\\nP 2 5 H 2 2HP0 3\\nThe preceding considerations establish the existence of three\\nphosphoric acids, which differ both in composition and proper-\\nties. To these three acids correspond three salts of silver, and\\nit will be seen that the latter differ from the acids only by\\ncontaining silver instead of hydrogen, a substitution which\\ntakes place atom for atom.\\nACIDS. SILVER SALTS.\\nH 3 P0 4 phosphoric acid (orthophos- AgSPO 4 trisilver phosphate (ortho-\\nphoric). phosphate).\\nH 4 P 2 7 pyrophosphoric acid. Ag 4 P 2 7 silver pyrophosphate.\\nHPO 3 metaphosphoric acid. AgPO 3 silver metaphosphate.\\nIt may be added that, independently of the acids and salts\\nof which the composition and nomenclature have just been\\nconsidered, others have been described, the most interesting\\nof which are related to the metaphosphates, of which they con-\\nstitute polymeric modifications. That is, two, three, four, or\\nmore molecules of metaphosphoric acid are condensed in a\\nsingle molecule, forming more complicated acids.\\nCOMPOUNDS OF PHOSPHORUS AND SULPHUR.\\nWhen phosphorus is heated with dry sulphur, or when a\\nmixture of the two bodies is melted under water, they combine\\nwith a vivid combustion which is sometimes accompanied by\\ndangerous explosions. The action is less violent with amor-\\nphous phosphorus. According to the proportions of these\\nbodies which are brought into contact, several combinations of\\nphosphorus and sulphur may be obtained, among which the\\ntrisulphide, P 2 S 3 and the pentasulphide, P 2 S 5 correspond to\\nphosphorous and phosphoric oxides. The pentasulphide may\\nbe obtained in pale yellow crystals.\\nARSENIC.\\nVapor density compared to air 10.37\\nVapor density compared to hydrogen 150.\\nAtomic weight As 74.9\\nArsenic was discovered by A. Schroeder in 1694.\\nNatural State and Extraction. There exists in nature a", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0190.jp2"}, "191": {"fulltext": "ARSENIC.\\n187\\ncommon and abundant mineral which contains iron, sulphur,\\nand arsenic, and which is called mispickel it is a sulphar-\\nsenide of iron. When it is strongly heated, the arsenic is\\nvolatilized and a residue of iron sulphide remains.\\nFeSAs FeS As\\nMispickel. Iron sulphide.\\nThe operation is conducted on the large scale in earthenware\\ncylinders placed horizontally in a furnace. The arsenic sublimes\\ninto sheet-iron pipes fitted to the open extremity of the cylin-\\nders which extend beyond the furnace. The volatilization of\\nthe arsenic is facilitated by the addition of a certain quantity\\nof metallic iron.\\nThe arsenic of commerce may be purified by distilling it with\\ncharcoal in a stoneware retort.\\nProperties. Recently-sublimed arsenic presents the appear-\\nance of a steel-gray, crystalline mass, having a metallic lustre.\\nIts crystalline form is an acute rhombohedron. Its density is\\nabout 5.7.\\nArsenic volatilizes without melting at a temperature below\\ndull redness. Its vapor is yellow. When it is heated under\\nstrong pressure it melts to a transparent liquid. On exposure\\nto the air it loses its lustre and assumes a black-gray color in\\nthis case its surface becomes covered with a thin layer of a\\nbrown-black pulverulent substance, regarded by some chemists\\nas a suboxide of arsenic.\\nArsenic oxidizes when it is\\nheated in the air or in oxygen.\\nIf a small quantity of arsenic\\nbe thrown upon a red-hot coal,\\nwhite vapors are produced, and\\nan alliaceous odor is percep-\\ntible.\\nA fragment of arsenic may\\nbe strongly heated in the hori-\\nzontal branch of a tube con-\\ntaining oxygen (Fig. 71) the\\nmetal takes fire and burns with\\nbluish flame, producing white vapors of arsenious oxide.\\nIf arsenic be preserved from the air under a layer of water,\\nin which it is insoluble, it oxidizes slowly, in such a manner as\\nto form a small quantity of arsenious acid, which dissolves in\\nFig. 71.", "height": "4792", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0191.jp2"}, "192": {"fulltext": "188 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nthe water. This property explains the efficacy of powdered\\narsenic (commercial cobalt) for poisoning flies.\\nPowdered arsenic sprinkled into dry chlorine burns with\\nbright scintillations into the trichloride AsCl 3 Arsenic also\\ncombines directly with bromine, with iodine, and with sulphur.\\nArsenic is used to alloy the lead used for the manufacture\\nof shot, which are thereby rendered more spherical in form,\\nand so hardened that they will not foul the gun.\\nHYDROGEN ARSENIDE (ARSINE).\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 39\\nMolecular weight AsH 3 =78\\nPreparation. This gas may be prepared by the action of\\nhydrochloric acid upon zinc arsenide.\\nZn 3 As 2 6HC1 2AsH 3 3ZnCP\\nZinc arsenide. Zinc chloride.\\nIt must be handled with prudence, as it is extremely poisonous.\\nProperties. Hydrogen arsenide is colorless; its odor is\\npenetrating and garlicky. At a red heat it is decomposed\\ninto arsenic and hydrogen. On the application of flame, it\\nburns in the air with a bluish light, producing fumes of\\narsenious oxide. If the supply of air be insufficient, arsenic\\nis deposited. With one and a half times its volume of oxygen,\\nhydrogen arsenide forms an explosive mixture, the products of\\nthe combination being water and arsenious oxide.\\n4AsH 3 60 2 As 4 6 6H 2\\nChlorine decomposes hydrogen arsenide with a flash of light\\nand formation of hydrochloric acid. An excess of chlorine\\nyields arsenic trichloride, but in the presence of water, arsenious\\noxide is formed.\\n4AsH 3 12C1 2 6H 2 As 4 6 24HC1\\nWater dissolves about one-fifth of its volume of hydrogen\\narsenide. When this gas is agitated with a solution of cupric\\nsulphate, it disappears entirely if the gas be pure, and leaves\\na residue of hydrogen should that gas have been present in\\nthe free state in the mixture (Dumas).\\n3CuS0 4 2AsH 3 Cu 3 As 2 3H 2 SO\u00c2\u00ab\\nCupric sulphate. Copper arsenide.\\nSilver nitrate solution decomposes hydrogen arsenide silver\\nis precipitated, and arsenious acid formed.\\nAsH 3 6AgN0 3 +3H 2 H 3 As0 3 6HN0 3 Ag 6", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0192.jp2"}, "193": {"fulltext": "ARSENIC CHLORIDE ARSENIOUS OXIDE. 189\\nARSENIC CHLORIDE.\\nAsCP\\nPreparation. 1. When dry chlorine is passed over pow-\\ndered arsenic, arsenic chloride distils and condenses as a yellow\\nliquid, containing an excess of chlorine, from which it may be\\nfreed by distillation over arsenic (Dumas).\\n2. A mixture of arsenious oxide and sulphuric acid is gently\\nheated in a retort, and fragments of fused sodium chloride gradu-\\nally added arsenic chloride distils and condenses in the receiver.\\n6H 2 S0 4 12NaCl As 4 6 6Na 2 SO* 4AsCl 3 6H 2\\nSodium chloride. Sodium sulphate.\\nProperties. Arsenic chloride is a colorless, oily, and very\\ndense liquid. It boils at 134\u00c2\u00b0. Its density at 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 2.05. It\\ngives off white fumes in the air, and is very poisonous.\\nAn excess of water instantly decomposes it into hydrochloric\\nacid and arsenious oxide, which, being but slightly soluble, is\\nprecipitated.\\n4AsCl 3 6H 2 As 4 6 12HC1\\nArsenic bromide and iodide are formed in an analogous\\nmanner. A fluoride, AsFl 3 is also known, and may be pre-\\npared by distilling a mixture of arsenious oxide, fluor spar, and\\nsulphuric acid in a lead retort. It is a colorless liquid.\\nARSENIOUS OXIDE.\\nAs*0 6\\nPreparation. This dangerous poison is obtained in the\\narts by roasting arseniferous minerals, particularly mispickel.\\nRoasting is an operation which consists in heating a mineral\\nin contact with air, by which the oxidizable elements present\\nare oxidized. When arseniferous minerals are roasted, arsen-\\nious oxide is formed among other products, and volatilizes, and\\nis condensed either in wide horizontal chimneys or in a large\\nbuilding divided into numerous communicating compartments,\\nthrough which the vapor is led consecutively. It is collected\\nin the form of a powder, and is resublimed in cast-iron pots\\nsurmounted by sheet-iron cylinders, in which it condenses.\\nProperties. Recently-sublimed arsenious oxide occurs as\\nvitreous masses but it soon loses its transparency and becomes\\nmilk-white, presenting the appearance of porcelain. When a\\nlarge piece of the opaque oxide is broken, the interior is usually\\nfound to be still transparent and vitreous.", "height": "4792", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0193.jp2"}, "194": {"fulltext": "190 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nArsenious oxide then exists in two forms the vitreous\\nvariety is amorphous the opaque is crystalline. The former\\nvariety changes into the latter by a molecular transformation\\nwhich takes place in the midst of the amorphous vitreous mass.\\nArsenious oxide crystallizes in regular octahedra or in tetra-\\nhedra sometimes, but more rarely, in right-rhombic prisms.\\nIt is dimorphous.\\nIt dissolves slowly in cold water, in which it is but slightly\\nsoluble, and in this respect there is a curious difference between\\nthe opaque and the vitreous varieties. The latter is three times\\nmore soluble than the former while one part of the vitreous\\noxide dissolves in 25 parts of water at 13\u00c2\u00b0, one part of the\\nopaque variety requires 80 parts of water for its solution at the\\nsame temperature.\\nThe aqueous solution of arsenious oxide feebly reddens blue\\nlitmus. It is almost tasteless. It may be regarded as contain-\\ning normal arsenious acid, H 3 As0 3 corresponding to normal\\nphosphorous acid, H 3 P0 3 but this hydrate cannot be separated\\nfrom the solution. On evaporation, the oxide A^ 4 6 is always\\ndeposited.\\n4H 3 As0 3 As 4 6 6H 2\\nThe aqueous solution of arsenious oxide, neutralized with\\nammonia, gives a green precipitate with solution of cupric sul-\\nphate this is copper arsenite, or Scheele s green. With silver\\nnitrate it gives a canary-yellow precipitate of silver arsenite.\\nArsenious oxide is more soluble in hydrochloric acid than in\\nwater. If a slip of clean copper be introduced into this solu-\\ntion, it becomes covered with a steel-gray or black coating of\\narsenic.\\nReinsch s test for arsenic consists in boiling the suspected\\nsubstance with dilute hydrochloric acid and bright metallic\\ncopper. The arsenic is deposited upon the copper, and by\\ncarefully heating the latter in a small tube the arsenic vola-\\ntilizes and is converted into arsenious oxide, which condenses\\nin the crystalline form, easily recognizable by aid of a micro-\\nscope.\\nBy the action of zinc the solution of As 4 6 in hydrochloric\\nacid disengages hydrogen arsenide the zinc displaces the hy-\\ndrogen of the hydrochloric acid, and, by the action of this\\nnascent hydrogen upon the arsenious oxide, water and hydro-\\ngen arsenide are formed.\\nAs 4 6 12H 2 6H 2 4AsH 3", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0194.jp2"}, "195": {"fulltext": "ARSENIOUS OXIDE.\\n191\\nMarsh s Apparatus. The reducing action of nascent hy-\\ndrogen upon arsenious oxide is used for the detection of this\\nsubstance by the aid of Marsh s apparatus.\\nThis consists of an apparatus for the generation of hydrogen\\n(Fig. 72) it contains pure zinc and dilute sulphuric acid, and the\\nhydrogen burns at the\\ndrawn-out jet with an\\nalmost colorless flame.\\nIf, however, a few\\ndrops of a solution of\\narsenious oxide be in-\\ntroduced by the fun-\\nnel-tube, the character\\nof the flame is at once\\nchanged it becomes\\nbluish, elongated, and\\ndiffuses a white smoke,\\nand if a white porce-\\nlain surface be de-\\npressed into it, large\\nspots of a brownish\\ncolor are produced.\\nThese are composed\\nof arsenic, which is set free in the interior of the flame by\\nthe decomposition of the hydrogen arsenide by the heat.\\nFig. 73 represents a more perfect form of Marsh s appa-\\nratus. The hydrogen, mixed with the hydrogen arsenide^ first", "height": "4776", "width": "2932", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0195.jp2"}, "196": {"fulltext": "192 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ntraverses a tube filled with cotton, to arrest small drops of liquid\\nwhich are carried with the gas it then passes through a hard\\nglass tube constricted at several points and heated near one of\\nthe constrictions. The hydrogen arsenide is decomposed and\\nthe arsenic deposited in the narrow and cooled portion of the\\ntube. Lastly, the gas is passed through a solution of silver\\nnitrate, which retains as arsenious acid any arsenic that might\\nescape as undecomposed hydrogen arsenide (see page 188).\\nMarsh s apparatus permits the detection of the least trace\\nof arsenious or arsenic acid in a liquid. It is of great value\\nin medico-legal researches in cases of suspected poisoning by\\narsenic.\\nAKSENIC ACID\\nH3AsO*\\nPreparation. When arsenious oxide is heated with nitric\\nacid having a specific gravity of 1.35, red vapors are disen-\\ngaged and the oxide is oxidized into arsenic acid, which may\\nbe obtained as a syrupy liquid by sufficient concentration.\\nWhen left for a long time in a cool place it deposits colorless\\ncrystals, which constitute a hydrate 2H 3 AsO H 2 (E.\\nKopp). These crystals are very deliquescent, and dissolve in\\nwater with the production of cold. They melt at 100\u00c2\u00b0, losing\\ntheir water of crystallization, and there remains a mass com-\\nposed of fine needles of the normal acid H 3 AsO\\\\\\nWhen heated for some time to a temperature between 140\\nand 180\u00c2\u00b0, this acid loses water, and is converted into pyro-\\narsenic acid, H 4 As 2 7\\n2H 3 As0 4 H 2 H 4 As 2 7\\nBetween 200 and 206\u00c2\u00b0 another quantity of w T ater is driven\\nout, and on cooling there remains a pasty, pearly mass, which\\nis metarsenic acid, HAsO 3\\nH 3 AsO H 2 HAsO 3\\nIt will be noticed that in their modes of formation and in\\ntheir constitution, arsenic, pyro-arsenic and metarsenic acids are\\nanalogous to the corresponding acids of phosphorus.\\nWhen metarsenic acid is heated to dull redness, it loses all\\nof its hydrogen in the form of water, and is converted intt\\narsenic oxide, As 2 5\\n2HAs0 3 H 2 As 2 5", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0196.jp2"}, "197": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF SULPHUR AND ARSENIC. 193\\nAt this temperature the oxide melts, and at a bright-red\\nheat it is decomposed into arsenious oxide and oxygen.\\n2As 2 5 As*0 6 20 2\\nWhen exposed to the air it absorbs moisture, but very slowly,\\nand even when treated with water it requires a certain time for\\nsolution.\\nOrdinary arsenic acid, which may be called ortharsenic, is\\nvery soluble in water its solution strongly reddens blue litmus\\nand possesses a very acid taste. It is reduced by nascent hydro-\\ngen, like the solution of arsenious oxide. When neutralized\\nwith ammonia, it forms a bluish-white precipitate with solution\\nof cupric sulphate, and a red-brown precipitate with silver\\nnitrate. Hydrogen sulphide produces no immediate precipitate.\\nA solution of sulphurous acid reduces arsenic acid to arse-\\nnious oxide, and then on the addition of hydrogen sulphide, a\\nyellow precipitate of arsenic sulphide, As 2 S 3 is formed.\\nCOMPOUNDS OF SULPHUR AND ARSENIC.\\nThree sulphides of arsenic are known:\\nArsenic disulphide, or realgar As 2 S 2\\nArsenic trisulphide, or orpinient As 3 S 3\\nArsenic pentasulphide As 2 S 5\\nArsenic Disulphide, As 2 S 2 This body occurs in nature in\\nthe form of transparent red crystals, which belong to the type\\nof the oblique rhombic prism.\\nIt is obtained as a red mass having a conchoidal fracture by\\nmelting 75 parts of arsenic with 32 parts of sulphur. It is\\nfusible, and may be crystallized by slow cooling. When strongly\\nheated in closed vessels, it boils and distils without alteration,\\nbut when heated in the air, it burns into arsenious and sulphur-\\nous oxides. The alkaline sulphides and ammonium sulphide\\ndissolve realgar, leaving a brown powder which has been con-\\nsidered as a subsulphide of arsenic. Boiling solution of potas-\\nsium hydrate also dissolves realgar, forming a mixture of\\npotassium arsenite and sulpharsenite the latter is a soluble\\ncompound of arsenic trisulphide and potassium sulphide; a\\nbrown powder remains undissolved.\\nArsenic Trisulphide, or Orpiment, As 2 S 3 When a solu-\\ntion of arsenious oxide is submitted to the action of hydrogen\\nI n 17", "height": "4795", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0197.jp2"}, "198": {"fulltext": "194 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nsulphide, the liquid assumes a yellow color without the forma-\\ntion of any precipitate, but if a drop of hydrochloric acid be\\nadded, a yellow, flocculent precipitate of arsenic trisulphide is\\nformed at once.\\nAs 4 6 6H 2 3 2As 2 S 3 6H 2\\nThe composition of arsenic trisulphide corresponds to that\\nof arsenious oxide, and is the same as that of the orpiment\\nfound in nature.\\nIt may also be obtained by fusing together arsenic and sul-\\nphur in the proper proportions, or even arsenious oxide and\\nsulphur in the latter case, sulphurous oxide is disengaged,\\nand arsenic trisulphide sublimes. Thus prepared, orpiment\\noccurs as crystalline masses of a yellow color, bordering upon\\norange, and a pearly aspect. Its density is 3.459. It is fusible\\nand volatile.\\nArsenic trisulphide obtained by precipitation is insoluble in\\ncold water, and but slightly soluble in boiling water, but it is\\nvery soluble in ammonia. By continued boiling with water, it\\nyields hydrogen sulphide and arsenious acid (de Clermont\\nand Frommel). It is also dissolved by solutions of the alka-\\nline sulphides with the formation of sulpharsenites, compounds\\nof two sulphides, in which the alkaline sulphide plays the part\\nof a base and the arsenic trisulphide the part of an acid\\nOrpiment also dissolves in solutions of the caustic alkalies with\\nthe formation of an arsenite and a sulpharsenite.\\nArsenic Pentasulphide, As 2 S 5 When an excess of hydro-\\ngen sulphide is passed into solution of arsenic acid heated to\\n70\u00c2\u00b0, arsenic pentasulphide is precipitated (Bunsen). Also\\nwhen a sulpharsenate of an alkali is decomposed by a mineral\\nacid.\\n2Na 3 AsS* 3H 2 S0 4 3Na 2 SO* As 2 S 5 3H 2 S\\nIt is a lemon-yellow powder, may be fused and distilled with-\\nout alteration, and is insoluble in wate*\\\\\\nThe alkaline sulphides dissolve it with the formation of\\nsulpharsenates. Among the latter there is one having the\\ncomposition K 3 AsS*, and which corresponds to the arsenate\\nK 3 AsO*. It is formed by the following reaction\\nAs 2 S 5 3K 2 S 2(K 3 AsS 4", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0198.jp2"}, "199": {"fulltext": "ANTIMONY. 195\\nANTIMONY.\\nSb 120\\nAntimony is generally classed with the metals. It indeed\\npossesses the lustre of a metal, and it conducts heat and elec-\\ntricity but in a true chemical classification these physical\\nproperties cannot overbalance the most striking chemical anal-\\nogies. By its affinities, and by the nature and constitution of\\nits compounds, antimony must find a place by the side of\\narsenic, which must itself be classed with phosphorus and\\nnitrogen.\\nMetallurgy of Antimony. The most common ore of anti-\\nmony is stibnite, Sb 2 S 3 and was known to the ancients. The\\nmetal is extracted from it by a very simple process. The sul-\\nphide is first separated by fusion from the earthy materials,\\ncalled gangue, with which it is associated it is then roasted\\nor heated in contact with air. The sulphur is in great part\\nexpelled in the form of sulphurous oxide gas, and the antimony\\nis converted into oxide, which still contains some undecom-\\nposed sulphide. The whole is then pulverized, and the pow-\\nder mixed with pulverized charcoal impregnated with sodium\\nhydrate. This mixture is calcined in crucibles, and the anti-\\nmony oxide and a portion of the sulphide are reduced by the\\ncharcoal sodium sulphide is also formed, and this dissolves a\\nportion of the antimony sulphide, forming a flux which floats\\nupon the molten antimony after cooling, the latter is found\\nat the bottom of the crucible as a button, easy to separate from\\nthe scoriae.\\nBy another process the antimony sulphide is fused with\\nmetallic iron. Iron sulphide and antimony are formed, and\\nthe latter collects at the bottom by reason of its greater\\ndensity.\\nPerfectly pure antimony is prepared in the laboratory by\\nreducing antimonous or antimonic oxide by charcoal.\\nProperties. Antimony is a brilliant white metal, having a\\nslightly bluish lustre it is brittle, and has a laminated frac-\\nture. Its density is 6.715. It melts at about 450\u00c2\u00b0, and\\nsensibly vaporizes at a white heat.\\nAntimony may be crystallized by allowing large masses of\\nthe fused metal to cool slowly, and decanting the liquid por-\\ntion. Small acute rhombohedra may be obtained in this\\nmanner.", "height": "4801", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0199.jp2"}, "200": {"fulltext": "196 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nWhen heated in contact with air, antimuny is converted into\\nantimonous oxide, Sb 2 5 If the flame of a blow-pipe be\\ndirected upon a fragment of antimony in a cavity scraped in\\na piece of charcoal, the metal melts, becomes red-hot, and gives\\noff white fumes. If now the molten globule be allowed to fall\\nto the floor, it breaks up into a multitude of smaller globules,\\nand each particle rebounds as a brilliant spark, leaving behiud\\nit a train of smoke.\\nPowdered antimony burns brilliantly in dry chlorine.\\nType metal contains 20 per cent, antimony and 80 per cent,\\nlead the alloy is hard, and takes a sharp impression of the\\nmould. Other useful alloys of antimony are Britannia metal\\nand various antifriction metals.\\nHYDROGEN ANTIMONIDE (STIBINE).\\nThere is a compound of hydrogen and antimony which cannot\\nbe obtained in the pure state at ordinary temperatures, but which\\nis the body SbH 3 It is decomposed by heat, and the decom-\\nposition of the pure compound begins between 65 and 56\u00c2\u00b0\\nit can be prepared largely diluted with hydrogen by the action\\nof nascent hydrogen upon a solution containing antimony when\\ndecomposed by heat it forms metallic rings and mirrors, which\\nit is of importance to distinguish from those formed by arsenic.\\nThe following differences are sufficient for this purpose\\nThe antimony rings are not displaced when heated in a\\ncurrent of hydrogen the arsenic rings are volatilized, and\\ncondense in a cooler portion of the tube.\\nThe spots and rings of antimony are not dissolved by a solu-\\ntion of sodium hypochlorite (Labarraque s solution), which at\\nonce dissolves those of arsenic.\\nThe antimony spots are readily dissolved by a drop of nitric\\nacid, and the liquid leaves on evaporation a white residue,\\nwhich is not colored by the addition of a drop of silver nitrate\\nsolution. Under the same circumstances, the arsenical spots\\nleave a white residue, which assumes a brick-red color when\\nmoistened with a solution of silver nitrate, owing to the for-\\nmation of silver arsenate.\\nCOMPOUNDS OF ANTIMONY AND CHLORINE.\\nAntimony trichloride SbCl 3\\nAntimony pentachloride SbCl 5\\nAntimony Trichloride, SbCl 3 This compound, formerly", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0200.jp2"}, "201": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF OXYGEN AND ANTIMONY. 197\\nknown as butter of antimony, is formed by the action of hy-\\ndrochloric acid upon antimony sulphide. It is generally pre-\\npared in the laboratory from the residue from the preparation\\nof hydrogen sulphide. This acid liquid is distilled in a retort\\nprovided with a receiver, which is changed as soon as the anti-\\nmony chloride which distils over begins to crystallize in the\\nneck of the retort.\\nThis chloride is solid, transparent, and colorless. It melts\\nat 73.2\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at 230\u00c2\u00b0. It dissolves in water charged\\nwith hydrochloric acid, forming a colorless solution, but when\\nthis liquid is diluted with water there is formed an abundant\\nwhite precipitate, long known as powder of Algaroth. It is\\nan oxychloride of which the composition does not appear con-\\nstant. There is one which contains SbOCl, and which can be\\nregarded as antimony trichloride, in which two atoms of chlo-\\nrine have been replaced by one atom of oxygen.\\nAntimony Pentachloride, SbCl 5 This is formed by the\\naction of an excess of chlorine upon antimony or upon the\\ntrichloride. It is a yellow liquid, giving off white fumes in the\\nair. It is volatile, but cannot be distilled without undergoing\\na partial decomposition into chlorine and antimony trichloride.\\nWhen exposed to the air. it absorbs moisture and is converted\\ninto a crystalline mass, which is a hydrate of the pentachloride.\\nWhen treated with a large excess of water, it is decomposed\\nwith production of heat, and formation of pyrantimonic and\\nhydrochloric acids.\\nAn antimonous bromide, SbBr 3 and an iodide. SbF, are\\nknown, and the fluorides, SbF 3 and SbF 5 have also been\\nobtained.\\nCOMPOUNDS OF OXYGEN AND ANTIMONY.\\nTwo oxides of antimony are known, corresponding to those\\nof phosphorus and arsenic\\nAntimonous oxide Sb 4 6\\nAntimonic oxide Sb 2 5\\nNormal antimonic acid. H 3 SbO*. corresponding to phosphoric\\nand arsenic acids, is not known in the free state, but a derivative\\nof this acid exists and may be regarded as antimony antimonate.\\nIts composition is Sb 2 4 and it is derived from antimonic acid\\n17*", "height": "4788", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0201.jp2"}, "202": {"fulltext": "198 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nby the substitution of an atom of antimony for three atoms of\\nhydrogen.\\nH 3 Sb0 4 antimonic acid.\\nSbSbO 4 antimony antimonate.\\nThere is a pyrantimonic and also a metantimonic acid,\\nanalogous to the corresponding phosphorus acids\\nH 4 Sb 2 7 pyrantimonic acid.\\nHSbO 3 metantimonic acid.\\nANTIMONOUS OXIDE.\\nSb 4 06\\nThis is obtained by oxidizing the metal in the air. The\\noperation may be conducted in two crucibles placed one above\\nthe other, an opening being pierced in the upper one for the\\naccess of air. They are heated to redness in a furnace, and on\\ncooling, the antimony is found to be partially converted into\\nbrilliant needles that the ancients called silver flowers of anti-\\nmony. The crystals are right rhombic prisms, mixed with\\nregular octahedra, for antimonous oxide crystallizes in two\\nforms, presenting the same character of dimorphism as arsenious\\noxide. The two compounds are hence said to be isodimorphous.\\nWhen solution of sodium hydrate, or better, sodium carbon-\\nate, is poured into solution of antimony trichloride, a white\\nprecipitate of antimonous hydrate is formed, and, in the latter\\ncase, carbonic acid gas is disengaged.\\nSbCP 3NaOH H 3 Sb0 3 3NaCl\\nSodium hydrate. Antimonous hydrate. Sodium chloride.\\nThis hydrate readily parts with a molecule of water, being\\nconverted into another hydrate, HSbO 2\\nH 3 Sb0 3 H 2 HSbO 2\\nANTIMONY ANTIMONATE.\\nSb 2 4\\nThis compound is formed when antimonous oxide is heated\\nfor a long time in the air, oxygen being absorbed, or when\\nantimonic oxide is strongly calcined, oxygen being then disen-\\ngaged.\\nIt is a white, infusible powder, undecomposable by heat and\\ninsoluble in water.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0202.jp2"}, "203": {"fulltext": "ANTIMONIC OXIDE AND ACIDS. 199\\nANTIMONIC OXIDE AND ACIDS.\\nWhen powdered antimony is heated with concentrated nitric\\nacid, a white powder is obtained, which is metantimonic acid.\\nIt contains one atom of hydrogen capable of being replaced by\\nan equivalent quantity of metal, and thus corresponds to nieta-\\nphosphoric acid.\\nHPO 3 HSbO 3 KSbO 3\\nMetaphosphoric acid. Metantimonic acid. Potassium metantimonate.\\nWhen it is heated to dull redness, it loses water and is con-\\nverted into antimonic oxide.\\n2HSb0 3 H 2 Sb 2 5\\nIf antimony pentachloride be poured into an excess of\\nwater, a white precipitate of pyrantimonic acid is formed.\\nIt is the analogue of pyrophosphoric acid, and, like the latter,\\ncontains four atoms of hydrogen.\\nH 4 P 2 7 H 4 Sb 2 7 K*Sb 2 7\\nPyrophosphoric acid. Pyrantimonic acid. Potassium pyrantimonate.\\nAccording to Fremy, potassium pyrantimonate may be\\nobtained by heating metantimonic acid or potassium metanti-\\nmonate with potassium hydrate, in a silver crucible.\\n2KSb0 3 2KOH K*Sb 2 7 H 2\\nPotassium Potassium Potassium\\nmetantimonate. hydrate. pyrantimonate.\\nThe metantimonate may be extracted by water, in which it\\nis soluble, from the white mass, called by the ancients dia-\\nphoretic antimony which is obtained by deflagrating in a red-\\nhot crucible a mixture of 2 parts of nitre (potassium nitrate)\\nand 1 part of powdered antimony. Cold water first dissolves\\npotassium nitrate from this mass, and then potassium metanti-\\nmonate. The solution of the latter salt produces with hydro-\\nchloric acid a white precipitate of metantimonic acid.\\nSULPHIDES OF ANTIMONY.\\nTwo sulphides of antimony are known\\nAntimony trisulphide, or antimonous sulphide Sb 2 S 3\\nAntimony pentasulphide, or antimonic sulphide Sb 2 S 5\\nAntimonous Sulphide, Sb 2 S 3 This compound, ordinarily\\ncalled sulphide of antimony, occurs both in the crystalline", "height": "4792", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0203.jp2"}, "204": {"fulltext": "200 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nform and amorphous. Crystallized, it exists in nature and is\\nthe mineral commonly known as stibnite. It is separated from\\nits gangue by fusion, and is thus obtained in gray masses com-\\nposed of brilliant needles having a metallic lustre.\\nAmorphous, it constitutes the orange-colored precipitate\\nformed by the action of hydrogen sulphide upon a solution of\\nantimony chloride. The precipitate is insoluble in ammonia, but\\ndissolves in ammonium sulphide and in the alkaline sulphides.\\nAntimony trisulphide is reduced by hydrogen at a high tem-\\nperature hydrogeu sulphide is formed, and antimony remains.\\nWhen heated in the air, antimony sulphide is oxidized with\\nformation of sulphurous oxide and antimonous oxide. The\\nincompletely roasted residue melts at a red heat, and on cool-\\ning assumes the form of a brown vitreous mass called glass\\nof antimony. It is an impure oxysulphide which appears to\\ncontain the compound Sb 2 S 2 n, q 0.\\nAntimony trisulphide is used in pyrotechny, adding to the\\nbrilliancy of colored fires.\\nAntimony Pentasulphide, Sb 2 S 5 is obtained as an orange-\\nred powder by passing hydrogen sulphide through a solution\\nof the pentachloride in hydrochloric acid. It is more generally\\nprepared as follows Finely-pulverized antimony trisulphide is\\ndigested with sulphur and a solution of sodium hydrate, or a\\nmixture of sulphur, sodium carbonate, and lime; the antimony\\nsulphide gradually dissolves in the liquid, and the product of\\nthe reaction is a sulphantimonate of sodium, which is deposited\\nin fine crystals from the concentrated liquid.\\nSb 2 S 5 3Na a S 2Na 3 SbS 4\\nSodium sulphide. Sodium sulphantimonate.\\nIt is soluble in water, and on the addition of hydrochloric\\nacid to its solution, hydrogen sulphide is disengaged and anti-\\nmony pentasulphide is precipitated.\\n2Na 3 SbS* 6HC1 6NaCl Sb 2 S 5 3H 2 S\\nGeneral Considerations upon the Elements of the Nitro-\\ngen Group. Nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony,\\nand bismuth might be added, form a group of elements allied\\nby the most striking analogies. This is made manifest by the\\natomic composition of their compounds, as will be seen in the\\nfollowing synopsis", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0204.jp2"}, "205": {"fulltext": "BORON.\\n201\\nHYDROGEN COMPOUNDS.\\nNH 3 PH 3 AsH 3 SbH 3\\nAmmuuia. Hydrogen phosphide. Hydrogen arsenide. Hydrogen antimonide\\nCHLORINE COMPOUNDS.\\nNOP\\nPCP\\nAsCP\\nSbCP\\nNitrogen Phosphorus Arsenic\\ntrichloride. trichloride. trichloride.\\nAntimony\\ntrichloride.\\nPCP\\nSbCP\\nPhosphorus pentachloride.\\nAntimony pentachloride\\nOXYGEN COMPOUNDS.\\nN 4 6 P 4 6 As 4 0\u00c2\u00ab Sb*0 6\\nNitrogen trioxide. Phosphorous oxide. Arsenious oxide. Antimonous oxide.\\nN*0\u00c2\u00bb P 2 5 As 2 5 Sb 2 5\\nNitrogen pentoxide. Phosphoric oxide. Arsenic oxide. Antimonic oxide.\\nH 3 P0 3\\nPhosphorous acid.\\nH 3 As0 3\\nArsenious acid.\\nHNO 2\\nNitrous acid.\\nH 3 AsO\\nArsenic acid.\\nH 4 As 2 7\\nH 3 Sb0 3\\nAntimonous acid.\\nHSbO 2\\nAntimonyl hydrate.\\nH 4 Sb 2 7\\nPyro-antimonic acid.\\nHSbO 3\\nMetantimonic acid.\\nH 3 PO*\\nPhosphoric acid.\\nH 4 P 2 0\\nPyrophosphoric acid. Pyro-arsenic acid.\\nHNO 3 HPO 3 HAsO 3\\nNitric acid. Metaphosphoric acid. Metarsenic acid.\\nIf the analogy between nitrogen and phosphorus were com-\\nplete, there should be an orthonitric acid, H 3 XO HNO 3\\nH 2 0, corresponding to ordinary or orthophosphoric acid. This\\nacid is not known as a definite hydrate, but compounds exist\\nwhich are derived from it. Thus, bismuth subnitrate, BiNO*,\\ncan be regarded as a salt of orthonitric acid, in which three\\natoms of hydrogen are replaced by one atom of triatomic\\nbismuth.\\nBORON.\\nB ll\\nBoron is found in boric acid and in borates. Among the\\nmore important of the latter are sodium borate or borax,\\ncalcium borates or borocalcite and colemanite, and calcium\\nsodium borate, known as boronatrocalcite. The element was", "height": "4778", "width": "2928", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0205.jp2"}, "206": {"fulltext": "202 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nfirst isolated by Gay-Lussac and Thenard in 1808, by fusing\\nboric oxide with potassium. It occurs in several modifications.\\nPreparation. Amorphous boron is obtained by reducing\\nboric oxide with sodium in an iron crucible.\\n2B 2 3 Na 3 3NaB0 2 B\\nBoric oxide. Sodium metaborate.\\nA more convenient method consists in heating an intimate\\nmixture of 100 parts anhydrous borax with 50 parts magne-\\nsium powder to redness in a well-covered crucible. The pow-\\ndered mass is thoroughly washed, first with water then with\\nhydrochloric acid, and dried at 100\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAdamantine boron is prepared by fusing boric oxide with\\nan excess of aluminium. The boron set free is dissolved by\\nthe aluminium, and on slow cooling separates in crystals, whose\\ncolor varies from yellow to dark brown, according to the nature\\nof the impurities, aluminium and carbon, one or both of which\\nthey invariably contain. These crystals may be isolated by\\ntreating the cold mass with hydrochloric acid.\\nProperties. Amorphous boron is infusible heated to 300\u00c2\u00b0\\nin the air, it burns into boric oxide. When heated in a current\\nof hydrogen, it becomes brown and inalterable in the air. Its\\ncombustion in pure oxygen is very brilliant, and it possesses a\\nsingular affinity for nitrogen, with which it combines directly\\nat a red heat, forming a nitride, BN. In an atmosphere of\\nnitrogen dioxide, it burns into a mixture of boric oxide and\\nboron nitride (Wbhler and Deville).\\nBoron decomposes water at a n d heat, and otherwise behaves\\nas an energetic reducing agent.\\nAdamantine boron crystallizes in quadratic octahedra, having\\na density of 2.6, and a hardness and brilliancy next to diamond.\\nIt is infusible, and strongly resists the action of oxidizing\\nagents and alkaline solutions. Hampe and Joly consider the\\ncrystals to be definite compounds of boron with aluminium and\\ncarbon.\\nBORON CHLORIDE.\\nBCP\\nPreparation. This body may be prepared by heating crude\\namorphous boron in a current of chlorine, or by the action of\\nchlorine on an incandescent mixture of boric oxide and charcoal.\\nB 2 3 3C 3C1 2 2BC1 3 3CO\\nBoric oxide. Born chloride. Carbon monoxide.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0206.jp2"}, "207": {"fulltext": "BORON FLUORIDE. BORIC ACID. 203\\nProperties. In a state of purity, boron chloride is a color-\\nless, mobile, and highly-refractive liquid, boiling at 17\u00c2\u00b0. It\\nfumes in the air, and is readily decomposed by water into boric\\nand hydrochloric acids.\\nBC1 3 3H 2 3HC1 -f B(OH) 3\\nBORON FLUORIDE.\\nBF1 3\\nDensity compared to air 2.31\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 34.\\nPreparation. Boron fluoride was discovered by Gay-Lussac\\nand Thenard in 1810. It is prepared by heating in a glass\\nretort an intimate mixture of one part of boric oxide and two\\nparts of powdered calcium fluoride with twelve parts of sul-\\nphuric acid. The gas disengaged is collected over mercury.\\n3CaFP B 2 3 3H 2 S0 4 3CaS0 4 3HH) 2BF1 3\\nCalcium Boric oxide. Calcium sulphate,\\nfluoride.\\nProperties. Boron fluoride is a colorless gas, having a suf-\\nfocating odor. It produces abundant fumes in the air, and is\\nvery soluble in water, which dissolves about 800 times its\\nvolume of this gas. Its affinity for water is so great that it\\ncarbonizes paper and analogous organic substances, from which\\nit removes the elements of water.\\nThe solution of boron fluoride in water is accompanied by a\\nchemical reaction when the aqueous solution of this gas, satu-\\nrated at the ordinary temperature, is cooled to 0\u00c2\u00b0, crystals of\\nboric acid are deposited, and a very acid liquid is obtained,\\nknown as hydrofluoboric acid its composition is expressed by\\nthe formula\\nBF1*H BFP.HF1\\nBORIC ACID.\\nH 3 B0 3\\nPreparation. Boric acid was discovered by Homberg in\\n1702. It is found in the free state in the craters of certain\\nvolcanoes, and exists in solution in the lagoni of Monte-\\nBotondo, in Tuscany. These are muddy little lakes, through\\nwhich arise the gaseous emanations from the fissures of a vol-\\ncanic soil. The gases (suffionf) contain sensible traces of boric", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0207.jp2"}, "208": {"fulltext": "204 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nacid, which is dissolved by the water of the lagoni. On evap-\\noration, this water furnishes the crude boric acid.\\nLarge quantities of borax (sodium borate) are obtained from\\nBorax Lake and from Lake Clear, about two hundred and fifty\\nmiles north of San Francisco, California. Calcium borate and\\nthe principal compounds of boric acid are abundant on the\\nPacific slope in the United States and in Chili.\\nIn the laboratory, boric acid is prepared by decomposing a\\nboiling saturated solution of borax or sodium borate with dilute\\nsulphuric acid. The latter is added in small portions until\\nthe liquid strongly reddens litmus-paper; the solution is then\\nallowed to cool, and the boric acid separates in the crystalline\\nform.\\nProperties. Pure boric acid crystallizes in pearly scales,\\nsomewhat greasy to the touch. It dissolves in 25 parts of\\nwater at 18\u00c2\u00b0, and is much more soluble in boiling water. The\\nsolution is feebly acid, and changes blue litmus solution to a\\nwine color. Boric acid dissolves in alcohol, and the solution\\nburns with a green flame.\\nWhen heated to 100\u00c2\u00b0 it loses one molecule of water, and is\\nconverted into metaboric acid, HBO 2 If the latter be main-\\ntained for a time at a temperature of 140\u00c2\u00b0, it is converted into\\ntetraboric acid, H 2 B 4 7\\n4HB0 2 H 2 B 4 7 H 2\\nWhen boric acid is heated in a platinum crucible to a tem-\\nperature near redness, it loses all of its water, melts, and solidi-\\nfies to a transparent glass on cooling. This is boric oxide.\\n2H 3 B0 3 B 2 3 3H 2\\nAt a red heat this body dissolves a great number of solid sub-\\nstances, particularly the metallic oxides it then yields variously\\ncolored glasses on cooling.\\nBoric oxide is not decomposed by charcoal at a red heat, but\\nis converted into boron chloride by the simultaneous action of\\nchlorine and charcoal.\\nSILICON.\\nSi 28\\nLike boron, silicon exists amorphous and in the crystalline\\nform. It was discovered by Berzelius in 1825.\\nPreparation. 1. Amorphous Silicon. Dry sodio-silicon", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0208.jp2"}, "209": {"fulltext": "SILICON. 205\\nfluoride is heated with half its weight of metallic sodium\\nsodium fluoride is formed and silicon is set free.\\nNa 2 Fl 2 .SiFl* 2Na s 6NaFl Si\\nSodio-silicon fluoride. Sodium fluoride.\\nOn cooling, the mass is exhausted, first with cold, and then\\nwith hot, water a brown powder of amorphous silicon remains.\\nImpure silicon is readily prepared by heating to redness a\\nmixture of fine quartz sand and magnesium powder in a test-tube.\\nSiO 2 2Mg 2MgO Si\\n2. Crystallized Silicon. Deville and Caron obtained crys-\\ntallized silicon by projecting a mixture of 3 parts of potassium\\nand silicon double fluoride, 4 parts of zinc, and 1 part of\\nsodium into a red-hot crucible. Fluoride of sodium is formed,\\nand the silicon set free dissolves in the zinc and separates in\\nthe crystalline form on cooling; it is isolated from the zinc\\nby dissolving the button in hydrochloric acid the silicon\\nremains in the form of brilliant laminae or needles. These\\ncrystals are of a dark steel-gray color, and possess a metallic\\nlustre; they are composed of chaplets of regular octahedra.\\nProperties. Amorphous silicon is a brown powder, more\\ndense than water, in which it is insoluble, and producing dark\\nstains on the fingers. When heated in the air. it takes fire and\\nburns with a bright light into silicic oxide, SiO 2\\nCrystallized silicon has a density of 2.49. It may be heated\\nto redness in oxygen without taking fire, but when it is calcined\\nwith potassium carbonate the latter is decomposed with a vivid\\nemission of light, potassium silicate being formed and carbon\\nbeing set free. Crystallized silicon resists the oxidizing action\\nof both potassium nitrate and potassium chlorate, but it dis-\\nsolves slowly in a boiling solution of potassium hydrate, hydro-\\ngen being disengaged and potassium silicate being formed. It\\nburns when heated to redness in an atmosphere of chlorine,\\nsilicon chloride being formed.\\nHYDROGEN SILICIDE.\\nProbable formula SiH 4\\nPreparation. This compound was discovered by Wohler\\nand Buff in 1857. Magnesium silicide* is introduced into a\\nThis is most readily prepared by heating one part finely pulverized\\nquartz sand with one and a half parts magnesium powder.\\n18", "height": "4790", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0209.jp2"}, "210": {"fulltext": "206 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ntwo-necked bottle, which is then entirely filled with water that\\nhas been recently boiled. To one of the necks of the bottle is\\nfitted a funnel-tube which passes to the bottom of the bottle\\nto the other, a delivery-tube leading to the pneumatic trough\\nthis tube also is completely filled with water so that there is\\nno air in the whole apparatus. Concentrated hydrochloric acid\\nis then introduced by the funnel-tube, and immediately reacts\\nwith the magnesium silicide, forming magnesium chloride,\\nwhich dissolves, and gaseous hydrogen silicide, which must\\nbe collected in jars filled with recently boiled water.\\nProperties. The gas thus obtained is not pure hydrogen\\nsilicide it contains an excess of hydrogen. It is colorless and\\ninsoluble in water water containing air in solution oxidizes it.\\nIf bubbles of the gas be allowed to escape through the water\\nof the trough, each bubble takes fire on coming to the surface,\\nproducing a bright light and a smoke of silicic oxide, which forms\\nrings like those produced by hydrogen phosphide under similar\\ncircumstances, but often colored brown by a portion of silicon\\nset free.\\nSILICON CHLORIDE.\\nSiCl*\\nThis compound is formed when silicon is heated to dull red-\\nness in a current of chlorine, or when the latter gas is passed\\nover an incandescent mixture of charcoal and silica.\\nSiO 2 -f C 2 CI 4 SiCl 4 2CO\\nPreparation. Precipitated silica, lamp-black, and oil are\\nintimately mixed into a stiff paste. This paste is made into\\nlittle balls, which are put into a crucible, the cover of which is\\nthen luted on, and the whole is heated to redness in a furnace.\\nWhen cool, the balls are introduced into a porcelain tube or a\\nclay retort (Fig. 74), which is then heated to bright redness,\\nwhile a current of carefully-dried chlorine is passed through.\\nThe silicon chloride and the carbon monoxide formed are\\npassed through two U tubes surrounded by a mixture of ice\\nand salt. The silicon chloride is thus condensed.\\nAn easier method of preparation consists in gently heating\\nin a current of chlorine the crude product obtained by reducing\\nsilica with magnesium. Silicon chloride distils, and is condensed\\nin a freezing mixture (Gattermann).\\nProperties. Silicon chloride is a volatile, colorless liquid,\\nof an irritating odor. It fumes in the air. Its density is 1.52,\\nand it boils at 59\u00c2\u00b0.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0210.jp2"}, "211": {"fulltext": "SILICON FLUORIDE.\\n207\\nIt is instantly decomposed by water, silicic and hydrochloric\\nacids being formed. A part of the silicic acid is precipitated\\nFig. 74.\\nin the form of a jelly, while another part remains in solution.\\nThe latter is perhaps a hydrate corresponding to the chloride.\\nSiCl 4 4H 2 4HC1 Si(OH)*\\nThere exist a tetrabromide of silicon, Si Br 4 and a tetraiodide,\\nSil 4 both corresponding to the chloride just described.\\nBesides these compounds there are also known the tri-halides,\\n8i 2 Cl 6 Si 2 Bi 6 and Si 2 F, which belong to an entirely different\\nseries.\\nSILICON FLUORIDE.\\nSiFl*\\nDensity compared to air 3.6\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 52.\\nPreparation. An intimate mixture of silicious sand and\\nfinely-powdered calcium fluoride, or fluor spar, is introduced\\ninto a glass flask (Fig. 75), and a sufficient quantity of sul-\\nphuric acid is added to reduce the whole to a creamy consistence.\\nA gentle heat is applied, and the gas disengaged may be col-\\nlected over mercury.", "height": "4788", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0211.jp2"}, "212": {"fulltext": "208\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nFig. 75.\\n2CaFl 2 2H 2 SO* SiO 2 2CaSO* SiFl* 2H 2\\nCalcium fluoride. Silicic oxide. Calcium sulphate.\\nProperties. S i 1 i c o n\\nfluoride is a colorless, suf-\\nfocating gas, producing\\nwhite fumes when allow-\\ned to escape into the air.\\nIt may be liquefied by a\\nlow temperature and a\\nstrong pressure. On con-\\ntact with water it is de-\\njj composed, silicic hydrate\\nseparating in gelatinous\\nflakes, and hydrofluosili-\\ncic acid being formed.\\n3SiFl* 3H a O\\n2(H2FRSiFl 4 H ^SiO 3\\nHydrofluosilicic acid.\\nHydrofluosilicic Acid. A saturated, aqueous solution of\\nthis acid is a highly acid liquid, fuming in the air, and evapor-\\nating slowly at 40\u00c2\u00b0 from a platinum-dish, leaving no residue.\\nIt is prepared by passing gaseous silicon fluoride into water\\nunder which is a layer of mercury. The delivery-tube must\\ndip beneath the surface of the mercury, so that the silicon flu-\\noride can only come in contact with the water after passing\\nthrough the metal; otherwise the delivery-tube would become\\nobstructed by the deposit of gelatinous silica.\\nHydrofluosilicic acid is employed as a reagent in the labora-\\ntory. It precipitates the salts of potassium and sodium, form-\\ning insoluble fluosilicates, R 2 FP.SiFl 4\\nSILICA.\\nSiO 2\\nNative State. Silicic oxide is widely diffused in nature.\\nIt occurs crystallized in the various quartzes, and as tridymite\\ncryptocrystalline, as agate, chalcedony, cornelian, flint, etc.\\ngranulated, it is found in sandstones and the sand produced by\\ntheir disaggregation in this case it is often mixed with variable\\nquantities of alumina and oxide of iron.\\nRock-crystal is pure silicic oxide. It occurs as six-sided\\nprisms, terminated by pyramids of six faces (Fig. 76).\\nAmorphous silica exists in various minerals, such as opal\\nand hydrophane. It is also found in the form of pulverulent", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0212.jp2"}, "213": {"fulltext": "SILICA.\\n209\\nFig. 76.\\ndeposits and in solution in many running waters, in large pro-\\nportion in the hot waters of the geysers in Iceland.\\nProperties. Quartz is colorless when pure its density is\\n2.69, and it is No. 7 in the scale of hardness (page 789). It\\nis infusible at the highest furnace heats,\\nbut undergoes a viscous fusion when intro-\\nduced into the flame of the oxyhydrogen\\nblow-pipe. It is reduced by carbon only at\\nthe high temperature of the electrical fur-\\nnace (page 380). It is not attacked by\\nacids, with the exception of hydrofluoric\\nacid. Boiling alkaline solutions scarcely\\naffect it, but the amorphous varieties of\\nsilica, such as flint, as well as opal and the\\nother hydrates, dissolve more readily in boil-\\ning solutions of the alkaline hydrates.\\nAll of the varieties of silica, when heated\\nto redness with the alkalies or alkaline car-\\nbonates, combine with the bases, forming\\nsilicates which enter into fusion at a high temperature and\\nsolidify to a vitreous mass on cooling. Potassium silicate,\\nor soluble glass, is a transparent mass, soluble in water. When\\nhydrochloric acid is added to this solution, potassium chloride\\nis formed and silicic acid is precipitated as a gelatinous mass,\\nwhich is not insoluble in water. An aqueous solution of silicic\\nacid may be obtained.\\nIf hydrochloric acid be added to a dilute solution of potas-\\nsium silicate, the liquid remains transparent although it contains\\nsilicic acid. It may be poured into a dialyser, composed of a\\npiece of parchment-paper stretched over a wooden or glass ring,\\nand floated on the surface of pure water contained in another\\nvessel. The potassium chloride gradually passes through the\\nmembrane, as would any crystallizable body, and the silicic\\nacid remains alone dissolved in the water in the dialyser, as\\nall other amorphous bodies which are soluble in water would\\ndo. Graham gave the name dialysis to this separation of crys-\\ntallizable bodies, which he named crystalloids, from uncrystal-\\nlizable bodies, which he named colloids, by means of certain\\nmembranes. The former bodies pass through the membranes,\\nwhich are, however, impermeable to the colloids.\\nThe silicic acid which remains in solution probably consti-\\ntutes normal or ortho-silicic acid, Si(Ollr*. By the loss of a\\no 18*", "height": "4778", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0213.jp2"}, "214": {"fulltext": "210 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nmolecule of water, this tetrabasic acid would be converted into\\ndibasic metasilicic acid, SiO(OH) 2 Many of the natural sili-\\ncates represent salts of these acids olivine, M^SiO 4 and\\ngarnet, Al 2 Ca 3 (Si0 4 3 are orthosilicates, while Wollastonite,\\nCaSiO 3 and enstatite, MgSiO 3 are metasilicates. A numerous\\nclass of minerals correspond to more complex acids resulting\\nfrom the condensation of two or more molecules of on ho- and\\nmeta- silicic acids. Fehpar, lor example, has the composition\\nAlKSi 3 8 and must be regarded as a salt of the polysilicic\\nacid, H 4 Si 3 8\\nGlass is a mixture of potassium or sodium silicate with cal-\\ncium silicate, and generally contains aluminium silicate. It is\\nmade by the prolonged fusion of potassium or sodium carbon-\\nate with pure quartz sand and lime. Flint glass contains lead,\\nintroduced in the form of red lead. Colored glasses are ob-\\ntained by adding metallic oxides to the above ingredients.\\nCuprous oxide gives red glass; cupric oxide, green; cobalt\\noxide, blue, etc. Soda glass is more fusible than potash glass.\\nUses. Silica is largely employed in all of its various forms.\\nCrystallized quartz, or rock crystal, is used for the manufacture\\nof ornaments, spectacle-glasses, and lenses. Chalcedony, onyx,\\nand opal are sought for by the lapidary and engraver. Agate,\\nwhich is very hard, is used for the manufacture of mortars, etc.\\nSandstones serve for building purposes and for grindstones;\\nsand, for mortars and the manufacture of glass and pottery.\\nCARBON.\\nC 12\\nNatural State and Varieties. The carbon of chemists is\\npure charcoal. This substance is known to all black, friable,\\nlight, absolutely fixed, inalterable by the air at ordinary tem-\\nperatures, but combustible when heated in the air, it results\\nfrom the calcination of organic matters, and particularly wood,\\nin closed vessels. But carbon by no means always reveals\\nthese same properties. It occurs in nature under forms so\\ndifferent that it is impossible to apply a general description to\\nall of its known varieties. What could be more different, as\\nfar as physical properties are concerned, from the soot deposited\\nby a smoky flame, or the light, porous, and opaque charcoal,\\nthan the hard, dense, and transparent substance found in nature", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0214.jp2"}, "215": {"fulltext": "CARBON. 211\\nin the form of diamond Nevertheless, these bodies are com-\\nposed of one and the same substance, carbon; alike, they all\\nburn in oxygen at a high temperature, producing carbonic acid\\ngas.\\nAmong the various forms which carbon assumes, and which\\nconstitute one of the most curious examples of dimorphism, the\\nfollowing may be described\\nDiamond. This is the hardest of all bodies it scratches all\\nothers, and can only be trimmed by grinding with its own dust.\\nIt is found crystallized in the form of the regular octahe-\\ndron and the modifications thereof, among which must be men-\\ntioned the polyhedra of twenty-four and forty-\\neight faces. The faces are generally convexly\\ncurved (Fig. 77).\\nMoissan has succeeded in obtaining the\\ndiamond artificially. He dissolved carbon in\\nmolten iron, the temperature being raised to\\n3000\u00c2\u00b0. Upon chilling the mass, a portion of\\nthe carbon crystallized out, and though ex-\\nceedingly small, the crystals showed all the Fig. 77.\\ncharacteristics of the diamond.\\nThe density of the diamond is between 3.50 and 3.55. It is\\na bad conductor of heat and electricity it strongly refracts and\\ndisperses light. From this latter fact Newton first divined its\\ncombustible nature, which was proved, in 1694, by the Floren-\\ntine academicians of del Cimento, who burned a diamond in the\\nfocus of a concave mirror. Lavoisier and Davy repeated this\\ncelebrated experiment, and proved that the sole product of the\\ncombustion is carbon dioxide. At the temperature of the\\nvoltaic arc in a vacuum the diamond swells up, blackens, and\\nis converted into a substance analogous to coke (Jacquelain).\\nLike the other forms of carbon, the diamond resists the action\\nof solvents. Certain molten metals, like iron, dissolve a limited\\nquantity, of which they deposit a portion on solidifying.\\nGraphite, or Plumbago. This is a crystalline variety of\\ncarbon, which is found in primitive rocks in brilliant steel-gray\\nfoliated masses. It sometimes occurs in hexagonal laminae.\\nIt can be scratched with the finger-nail, and leaves a black\\ntrace when drawn over paper. Its density is 2.2, and it con-\\nducts heat and electricity. It burns only at very high tem-\\nperatures; ordinarily, it contains from one to two per cent, of\\nforeign matters,", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0215.jp2"}, "216": {"fulltext": "212 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIt has been obtained artificially. Molten iron possesses the\\nproperty of dissolving carbon at a very high temperature, and\\ndepositing it on solidifying in hexagonal scales of graphite.\\nPlumbago is used for the manufacture of lead-pencils and\\ncrucibles, and as a lubricant, and is sometimes called black lead.\\nThere are other natural substances popularly regarded as\\nvarieties of carbon, but they are very impure. Their carbon is\\ncombined with more or less hydrogen, and they are in fact\\nmixtures of complex hydrocarbons. They are\\nAnthracite, a hard and compact variety of carbon containing\\nfrom 8 to 10 per cent, of earthy matters.\\nBituminous coal, a brilliant, black variety, strongly impreg-\\nnated with bituminous and earthy matters. It has been pro-\\nduced by the slow decomposition of vegetable matters buried\\nin the earth in the early geological ages. This origin is indi-\\ncated by the impressions of leaves, stems, and fruits, which are\\nevident in certain specimens of this coal. It contains only\\nfrom 75 to 88 per cent, of carbon. When it is calcined in\\nclosed vessels, it disengages combustible gases and products\\nwhich may be condensed in the liquid form and then separate\\ninto two layers. One is aqueous and ammoniacal, while the\\nother is composed of tar. The residue of the distillation of\\nbituminous coal is coke. The interior walls of the cast-iron\\nvessels in which coal is distilled become covered with a com-\\npact layer of a gray, dense, hard and sonorous carbon, which\\nis a good conductor of heat and electricity. This is the carbon\\nof gas-retorts, and is produced by the igneous decomposition\\nof hydrocarbons rich in carbon, which are disengaged during\\nthe calcination of the coal.\\nFat coals are those which burn with a long flame, softening\\nin burning; dry coals burn with a short flame which produces\\nless heat than the preceding.\\nLignite is a combustible mineral containing less carbon, and\\nmore impure than bituminous coal it is found in the lower\\ntertiary formations. Natural jet, which is employed for the\\nmanufacture of ornaments, is a variety of lignite.\\nAmong the artificial carbons, independently of coke, may\\nbe mentioned wood charcoal, lamp-black, and animal char-\\ncoal.\\nWood Charcoal. When wood is calcined in closed vessels\\nit leaves a residue which is ordinary charcoal. It is prepared\\non the large scale by two processes, carbonization in stacks,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0216.jp2"}, "217": {"fulltext": "CARBON.\\n213\\nwhich is carried on in the forests, and distillation in closed\\nvessels. Charcoal is amorphous, brittle, and sonorous, a bad\\nconductor of heat and electricity. Its density does not exceed\\n1.57. The lighter varieties are the more combustible. Its\\ncombustion leaves a residue of one or two per cent, of ash,\\nformed principally of mineral salts, among which the most\\nabundant are the carbonates of calcium and potassium.\\nFig. 78.\\nLamp-black is produced by the incomplete combustion of\\norganic substances rich in carbon. When rosin or tallow is\\nburned, a dense smoke is produced which is composed of par-", "height": "4777", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0217.jp2"}, "218": {"fulltext": "214 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ntides of carbon that have escaped combustion. In the arts,\\nlamp-black is procured by burning rosin in cast-iron pots, C\\n(Fig. 78), heated by a fire, F. The vapors given off are ig-\\nnited, and the smoke is conducted into a chamber, A, the walls\\nof which are hung with canvas. On this the lamp-black is de-\\nposited, and is detached by lowering the cone B, which acts as\\na scraper. Lamp-black is not pure carbon. It contains tarry\\nand oily matters, from which it may be freed by calcination in\\na covered crucible. It is used for the manufacture of printing-\\ninks.\\nAnimal charcoal is produced by calcining animal matters,\\nsuch as blood, the debris of skin, horn, bone, etc., in closed\\nvessels. Bone-black or ivory-black contains the calcareous\\nsalts, calcium phosphate and carbonate, which form the base\\nof the osseous tissue. The carbon is consequently disseminated\\nthrough a porous mass. These salts may be extracted by\\ntreating the bone-black with dilute hydrochloric acid, by which\\nthey are dissolved. The residue, washed with water and dried,\\nis known as washed or purified animal charcoal.\\nAbsorbent Properties of Charcoal. The amorphous and\\nporous varieties of carbon, of which several forms have been\\ndescribed, possess the property of absorbing and retaining in\\ntheir pores, gases, liquid and solid bodies. It is to this absorp-\\ntive faculty that are due the decolorizing and disinfecting\\nproperties of charcoal, which are made use of to a large extent\\nin the arts.\\nIf a piece of incandescent charcoal be plunged into mercury\\nthat it may cool out of contact with the air, and then be intro-\\nduced into a small jar filled with ammonia or hydrochloric acid\\nover the mercury-trough, the gas is at once absorbed and the\\nmercury rises in the jar.\\nThe following table, by Th. de Saussure, indicates the quan-\\ntities of several gases which are absorbed by one volume of\\ncharcoal\\n1 volume of charcoal absorbs 90 volumes of ammonia.\\nu\\nu\\n85\\nhydrochloric acid.\\nft\\na\\n65\\nft\\nsulphurous oxide.\\nft\\nft\\n55\\nft\\nhydrogen sulphide.\\nft\\nft\\n40\\nft\\nnitrogen monoxide.\\nft\\nft\\n35\\nft\\ncarbon dioxide.\\nft\\nft\\n9.42\\ncarbon monoxide.\\nft\\nft\\n9.25\\noxygen.\\nft\\n7.50\\nnitrogen.\\nft\\nft\\n1.75\\nhydrogen.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0218.jp2"}, "219": {"fulltext": "CARBON.\\n215\\nCharcoal increases in weight when exposed to the air, for\\nit absorbs and condenses the atmospheric moisture. When\\nplunged into water charged with a small quantity of hydrogen\\nsulphide, it absorbs that gas and removes the odor of the water.\\nThe disinfecting properties of charcoal are thus easily explained.\\nIt is well known that charcoal will remove the unpleasant odor\\nof corrupted waters, of meats slightly spoiled, and in general\\nof organic matters in a state of putrefaction. A layer of char-\\ncoal between two layers of sand is an excellent filter for the\\nclarification of drinking waters.\\nThe decolorizing properties of charcoal are another mani-\\nfestation of this general faculty of absorption, which is pos-\\nsessed in the highest degree by animal charcoal. If litmus\\nsolution or red wine be agitated with a sufficient quantity of\\nanimal charcoal and subsequently filtered, the liquids pass\\nthrough colorless.\\nThis property of animal charcoal is largely applied in the\\narts, particularly for decolorizing sugars and syrups.\\nChemical Properties Carbon is distinguished by its pow-\\nerful affinity for oxygen,\\nan affinity which is not,\\nhowever, exercised ex-\\ncept at high tempera-\\ntures. It only combines\\nwith oxygen at a red\\nheat, and remains incan-\\ndescent as long as com-\\nbination\\non.\\nthe\\na\\nheat produced by the\\ncombination being suffi-\\ncient to maintain the\\nincandescence. In pure\\noxygen it burns with\\na brilliant light. The\\nproduct of the combus-\\ntion is carbonic acid gas. p\\nBy the aid of heat,\\ncarbon decomposes\\ngreat number of oxy\\ngenized compounds, re-\\nmoving and combining with the whole or a part of their oxygen.\\nThis decomposition takes place at comparatively low tempera-\\nFig. 79.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0219.jp2"}, "220": {"fulltext": "216\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ntures when the oxygenized body does not strongly retain its\\noxygen in this case, carbon dioxide is formed, and the reduc-\\ntion of cupric oxide by charcoal furnishes an example. In the\\ncontrary case, the reduction, that is, the decomposition of the\\noxidized body, requires a very high temperature carbon mo-\\nnoxide is then formed. The reduction of zinc oxide by charcoal\\nis an example.\\nIf an incandescent charcoal be rapidly plunged under a bell-\\njar filled with water on the pneumatic trough, bubbles of gas\\narise and collect in the jar (Fig. 79). They are formed of a\\nmixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and a small quantity\\nof carbon dioxide. These gases are produced by the decom-\\nposition of the water by the charcoal, which was red-hot at the\\nmoment of contact with the liquid.\\nC H 2 H 2 CO carbon monoxide.\\nWater gas, a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, is\\nmade, according to this reaction, by passing steam over highly-\\nheated coal, coke, or other form of carbon.\\nCarbon combines directly with sulphur at a high tempera-\\nture, forming carbon disulphide.\\nCarborundum, CSi. At the high temperature of the elec-\\ntric furnace and under the influence of the current, carbon\\nreduces silica; the product of the reaction is a transparent green-\\nish or yellowish mass of crystals having a hardness but little\\nbelow that of the diamond, and used as a substitute for diamond\\nfor cutting and polishing uuder the name carborundum. It is\\nunaffected by acids, even by hydrofluoric acid, but is decom-\\nposed by fusion with alkalies. This substance is a definite\\ncompound of carbon and silicon, as indicated by the formula.\\nCOMPOUNDS OF CARBON AND OXYGEN.\\nTwo compounds of carbon and oxygen are known\\nCarbon monoxide CO\\nCarbon dioxide, or carbonic acid gas CO 2\\nThe latter body, which has long been known as carbonic\\nacid, is the oxide corresponding to the true carbonic acid,\\nwhich would be\\nCO 2 H 2 H 2 C0 3\\nThis normal carbonic acid is as yet unknown it is doubtless\\ntoo unstable to exist in the free state. However, its existence", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0220.jp2"}, "221": {"fulltext": "CARBON MONOXIDE.\\n217\\nmay be admitted, for a corresponding compound is known in\\nsulphocarbonic acid H 2 CS 3\\nCAKBON MONOXIDE.\\nDensity compared to air 0.967\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 14.\\nMolecular weight CO =28.\\nPreparation. 1. An intimate mixture of zinc oxide and\\ncharcoal may be calcined in a clay retort.\\nZnO C CO Zn\\n2. A convenient method of preparing carbon monoxide con-\\nsists in heating oxalic acid with an excess of sulphuric acid in\\na glass flask. The oxalic acid loses the elements of water,\\nwhich it yields to the sulphuric acid, and breaks up into carbon\\ndioxide and carbon monoxide.\\nC 2 H 2 4 CO CO 2 H 2\\nOxalic acid. Carbon monoxide. Carbon dioxide.\\nFig. 80.\\nThe mixture of the two gases is passed through a wash-bottle,\\nB (Fig. 80), containing a solution of potassium hydrate, by\\nk 19", "height": "4786", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0221.jp2"}, "222": {"fulltext": "218 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nwhich the carbon dioxide is absorbed, potassium carbonate being\\nformed. The carbon monoxide may then be collected over water.\\nAnother excellent method consists in heating a mixture of\\none part of powdered potassium ferrocyanide with ten parts\\nof concentrated sulphuric acid. The carbon monoxide evolved\\nis practically pure.\\nK Fe(CN) 6 6H 2 S0 4 6H 2 2K 2 S0 4 FeSO* 3(NH*) 2 SO* 6CO\\nPotassium Ferrous\\nferrocyauide. sulphate.\\nProperties. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas.\\nIt is neutral, aod does not cloud lime-water, which distin-\\nguishes it from carbon dioxide. It extinguishes burning bodies,\\nbut is combustible itself, burning in the air with a blue flame,\\nand forming carbon dioxide. It is not only unfit for respira-\\ntion, but is very poisonous, combining with and profoundly\\naltering the red corpuscles of the blood.\\nComposition. If two volumes of carbon monoxide be\\nmixed with one volume of oxygen in an eudiometer, and a\\nspark be passed, complete combustion takes place, and the\\nthree volumes of the primitive mixture are reduced to two\\nvolumes of carbon dioxide. This can be verified by passing\\ninto the eudiometer a solution of potassium hydrate, which will\\ncompletely absorb the new gas.\\nIt hence follows that two volumes of carbon monoxide con-\\ntain the same quantity of carbon as two volumes of carbon\\ndioxide. Knowing from other circumstances that two volumes\\nof carbon dioxide contain two volumes of oxygen, it follows\\nthat two volumes of carbon monoxide contain one volume of\\noxygen. Its composition is then expressed by the formula\\nCO 2 volumes.\\nCarbon monoxide undergoes dissociation at a very high tem-\\nperature. Under special conditions, H. Sainte-Claire Deville\\nsucceeded in resolving it into carbon and oxygen.\\nIt is almost insoluble in water, but is absorbed by a solution\\nof cuprous chloride in hydrochloric acid (Doyere and F. Le\\nBlanc). Advantage is taken of this property in volumetric\\nanalysis to separate carbon monoxide from certain other gases.\\nWhen heated for a long time to 100\u00c2\u00b0, in sealed tubes with\\npotassium hydrate, it combines with the alkali, forming potas-\\nsium formate (Berthelot).\\nCO KOH KCHO 2\\nPotassium hydrate. Potassium formate.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0222.jp2"}, "223": {"fulltext": "CARBON DIOXIDE. 219\\nAction of Chlorine upon Carbon Monoxide. Under the\\ninfluence of sunlight, carbon monoxide combines directly with\\nan equal volume of chlorine, forming a gas which is known as\\ncarbonyl chloride, or phosgene. The volume of the carbonyl\\nchloride is one-half that of the sum of the combining gases,\\nso that its formula is COC1 2\\nCarbonyl chloride may be easily condensed to a colorless\\nliquid, boiling at 8.2\u00c2\u00b0. Its vapor is colorless, produces a suffo-\\ncating sensation, and provokes tears. It is instantly decomposed\\nby water, with the formation of carbon dioxide and hydro-\\nchloric acid.\\nCOC1 2 H 2 2HC1 CO 2\\nIts mode of formation, its composition, and its properties\\nindicate its relations to carbon dioxide.\\n2 volumes CO absorb 2 volumes of chlorine to form 2 volumes CO. CI 2\\n2 volumes CO absorb 1 volume of oxygen to form 2 volumes CO.O\\nCarbon monoxide thus plays the part of a radical it com-\\nbines directly with oxygen or with chlorine to form either\\noxide or chloride of carbonyl.\\nL. Mond has discovered a remarkable class of compounds\\nof carbon monoxide with certain metals. Nickel carbonyl,\\nNi(CO)*, may be considered as the type of these compounds\\nit is formed by passing carbon monoxide over finely divided\\nnickel at a temperature of 100\u00c2\u00b0. It condenses at low tempera-\\ntures to a colorless, highly refracting liquid having a density\\nof 1 .35, and boiling at 43\u00c2\u00b0. At a temperature below 200\u00c2\u00b0, it\\ndecomposes into carbon monoxide and metallic nickel.\\nCARBOX DIOXIDE.\\nDensity compared to air 1.529\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 22.\\nMolecular weight CO 2 44.\\nThis gas was discovered by Black in 1757. and its composi-\\ntion was recognized by Lavoisier in 1776. It is one of the\\nconstituents of the atmosphere, and is the product of a great\\nnumber of reactions which take place on the earth s surface,\\nsuch as the combustion of carbon and organic matters, respira-\\ntion, and the phenomena of putrefaction and fermentation. It\\nissues from the soil of volcanic countries.", "height": "4788", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0223.jp2"}, "224": {"fulltext": "220\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nPreparation. Fragments of marble, which is calcium car-\\nbonate, are intro-\\nduced into a two-\\nnecked bottle fitted\\nwith a delivery-\\ntube and a safety-\\ntube (Fig. 81).\\nThe bottle is half-\\nfilled with water,\\nand hydrochloric\\nacid is gradually\\nadded by the fun-\\nnel-tube. An ef-\\nfervescence imme-\\ndiately takes place,\\ndue to the disen-\\ngagement of car-\\nbon dioxide.\\nFig. 81.\\nCaCO 3 2HC1 CO 2 CaCP H 2\\nCalcium carbonate. Calcium chloride.\\nThe gas is most conveniently collected by dry downward\\ndisplacement, like chlorine.\\nComposition. 1. If carbon be burned in oxygen, the latter\\nis converted into carbon dioxide without changing its volume.\\nHence two volumes of carbon dioxide contain two volumes of\\noxygen. These two volumes of oxygen, which represent two\\natoms, are combined with one atom of carbon, and the compo-\\nsition of a molecule of carbon dioxide is hence expressed by\\nthe formula\\nCO 2 2 volumes.\\n2. Dumas and Stas determined the centesimal composition\\nof carbon dioxide by burning a known weight of diamond in\\noxygen, and carefully weighing the carbon dioxide produced.\\nBy subtracting the weight of the diamond burned from that of\\nthe carbon dioxide, the weight of the oxygen was determined.\\nThe apparatus employed is represented in Fig. 82.\\nThe increase in weight of the tubes L, M, N, 0, P indicates\\nthe quantity of carbon dioxide formed.\\nDumas and Stas thus found that 100 parts of carbon dioxide\\ncontain\\nCarbon _, 27.27\\nOxygen 72.73\\n100.00", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0224.jp2"}, "225": {"fulltext": "CARBON DIOXIDE.\\n221\\n^o op e g.\u00c2\u00a3\\ns o _. p*\\ndrills\\nUS\\noS^^J.\\n3 osag\\nps 3 P 3- o* -s M\\n00 3 S\\nP ej-3\\nm 3 D C\\n28 p er\\n8 3 2 w\\np SS-S\u00c2\u00ae\\ns s 1-5 si\u00c2\u00ae\\nS\u00c2\u00a3h 9 3. 3\\no c S 3*\\ns ff g3?\\n-L 3 S- a\\nS 22. s*S _\\n3 o o 2.\\n3 y^\\no o o* S-\\no\\n\u00c2\u00abi 3 O\\n3cc S i o*\\no =r\\nS-B S\\n5 3 2\\nP fiD C O _ 3?\\nii. rh i-t-\\n3 CT\\n2 cc\\nP.\\n3 5-1 HI\\nr+ i P- X. 3* CO\\nST o\\na a 3 nj. g- 3\\n3? 5\\n3 o o S S\\nM C^\\n,CR\\n19*", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0225.jp2"}, "226": {"fulltext": "222\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\na centesimal relation which is expressed more simply by the\\nnumbers\\nCarbon 12\\nOxygen 32\\n44\\n12 being the weight of one atom of carbon, and 32 the weight\\nof two atoms of oxygen.\\nPhysical Properties. Carbon dioxide is colorless it has a\\nfeeble, somewhat pungent odor. A litre of this gas at 0\u00c2\u00b0, and\\nunder the pressure of 760 millimetres, weighs 1.966 grammes.\\nFig. 83.\\nIt is not permanent. Faraday succeeded in liquefying it at\\na temperature of 0\u00c2\u00b0, under a pressure of 36 atmospheres. The\\napparatus which is now used for its liquefaction is represented\\nin Fig. 83. It is composed of two reservoirs, A and B, com-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0226.jp2"}, "227": {"fulltext": "CARBON DIOXIDE.\\n223\\nmunicating by the metallic tube a, furnished with a stop-cock\\nat each end. The cylinders are made of heavy cast-iron, and\\nare further strengthened by forged iron bands forced over\\ntheir circumference. Each cylinder is movable on a horizon-\\ntal axis, h. B is the generator; into it are introduced 1800\\ngrammes of sodium dicarbonate, and a cylindrical copper tube,\\nD, containing 1000 grammes of ordinary sulphuric acid. The\\ncylinder is then closed by a strong screw plug, and a few oscil-\\nlating movements are given to it in order that the sulphuric\\nacid may gradually run out upon the sodium dicarbonate.\\nCarbon dioxide is disengaged and is liquefied by its own press-\\nure as it accumulates in the apparatus. By the effect of the\\nchemical action the temperature is raised to 30 or 40\u00c2\u00b0, and,\\ncommunication being established between the two cylinders,\\nthe carbon dioxide distils rapidly into the receiver, the tem-\\nperature of which is about 15\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe operation is repeated several times, that one or two kilo-\\ngrammes of the liquid may accumulate in the receiver. A\\ntube passes to the bottom of this vessel, and on opening the\\nstop-cock which closes the superior extremity of this tube, a\\njet of the liquid is thrown out with\\nforce it is received tangentially in a\\nmetallic box, A, A I Fig. 84), having\\nvery thin sides. In this a portion\\nof the oxide solidifies by reason of\\nthe great depression of temperature\\nproduced by the change of another\\nportion into the gaseous state. A\\nglittering- white, flaky mass collects\\nin the receiver, having the appear-\\nance of snow. This is solid carbon\\ndioxide. It is a bad conductor of\\nheat and electricity, and can be ex-\\nposed to the air for a few minutes\\nbefore it disappears. In reassuming the gaseous form, it pro-\\nduces an intense cold. If it be mixed with ether, the mixture,\\nwhich is less porous and a better conductor of heat, can produce\\na lowering of temperature as great as 90\u00c2\u00b0. By pouring it\\nupon mercury, large masses of that metal may be frozen.\\nLiquid carbon dioxide is now manufactured on a commercial\\nscale, and sold in strong steel cylinders. It is colorless and\\nmobile; has a density of 0.72 at +27\u00c2\u00b0, and 0.98 at 8\u00c2\u00b0,\\n3-\\nFig. 84.", "height": "4798", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0227.jp2"}, "228": {"fulltext": "224\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThis considerable difference between the densities is due to the\\nenormous dilatation which the liquid undergoes between these\\nlimits of temperature. Indeed, ten volumes of liquid carbon\\ndioxide at 0\u00c2\u00b0 occupy fourteen volumes at 30\u00c2\u00b0. Hence the coeffi-\\ncient of expansion of the liquid is superior to that of the gas.\\nCarbon dioxide is incombustible, and extinguishes burning\\nbodies.\\nIf carbon dioxide be poured from one vessel into another\\ncontaining a lighted candle, it falls upon the flame like water,\\nextinguishing it at once (Fig. 85).\\nLime-water poured into a jar\\nof carbon dioxide becomes clouded,\\nowing to the formation of insolu-\\nble calcium carbonate.\\nThese experiments permit the\\neasy recognition of carbon dioxide\\nfrom carbon monoxide.\\nCarbon dioxide dissolves in its\\nown volume of water at 15\u00c2\u00b0 under\\nthe normal pressure. If the press-\\nure be increased, the solubility of\\nthe gas is increased in the same\\nproportion. Thus, under a press-\\nure of ten atmospheres one litre\\nof water will dissolve ten litres of\\ncarbon dioxide but it must be remembered that under a press-\\nure of ten atmospheres these ten litres are reduced to one litre.\\nThus, one litre of water, which dissolves one litre of carbon\\ndioxide at the ordinary pressure, dissolves also one litre under\\na pressure of ten atmospheres, and it may be said that water\\nalways dissolves its own volume of carbon dioxide, whatever\\nmay be the pressure. Water saturated with carbon dioxide\\nunder strong pressure, disengages a portion of the gas as soon\\nas the pressure is removed. Such water is universally known\\nand consumed in large quantities under the name of aerated\\nwater or soda water.\\nThe solution of carbon dioxide exercises a much more ener-\\ngetic solvent action upon certain substances than pure water.\\nIt dissolves calcium carbonate, forming a soluble dicarbonate\\nit is even capable of dissolving calcium phosphate, transform-\\ning it into acid phosphate, which is soluble.\\nCarbon dioxide is more soluble in alcohol than in water.\\n.Fig. 85.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0228.jp2"}, "229": {"fulltext": "CARBON DISULPHIDE. 225\\nIt is undecomposable by heat alone, but may be decomposed\\nor reduced at high temperatures by contact with bodies avid\\nof oxygen. It is not reduced by hydrogen. With carbon the\\nreduction takes place at a red heat, giving rise to the formation\\nof carbon monoxide, the volume of which is double that of\\nthe carbon dioxide employed.\\nCO 2 C 2CO\\nCarbon dioxide (2 vols.). Carbon monoxide (4 vols.).\\nCARBON DISULPHIDE.\\nCS 2\\nThis body is prepared by passing sulphur vapor over incan-\\ndescent charcoal. In the arts, the operation is conducted in\\ncylindrical, cast-iron vessels, filled with charcoal and heated to\\nredness, into which sulphur is introduced. The carbon disul-\\nphide distils, and is condensed in a suitable cooling apparatus.\\nCarbon disulphide is a colorless, very mobile, and highly-re-\\nfracting liquid. Its odor is usually strong and unpleasant, but\\nis rather agreeable when the compound is perfectly pure. Its\\ndensity at 15\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.271, and it boils at 46\u00c2\u00b0. It is very inflam-\\nmable, and burns with a blue flame, produciug sulphurous oxide\\nand carbon dioxide.\\nCS 2 O 6 2S0 2 CO 2\\nIts vapor, mixed with oxygen, explodes when heated.\\nCarbon disulphide corresponds in composition to carbon\\ndioxide.\\nCO 2 carbon dioxide.\\nCS 2 carbon disulphide.\\nIt is also analogous to the latter body in its chemical func-\\ntions. While carbon dioxide combines with metallic oxides,\\nforming carbonates, carbon disulphide combines with metallic\\nsulphides, forming sulphocarbonates.\\nCO 2 Na 2 Na 2 C0 3 corresponding to H 2 C0 3\\nSodium oxide. Sodium carbonate. Carbonic acid\\n(hypothetical).\\nCS 2 Na 2 S Na 2 CS 3 corresponding to H 2 CS 3\\nSodium sulphide. Sodium sulphocarbonate. Sulphocarbonic acid.\\nSodium carbonate and sulphocarbonate possess the same con-\\nstitution. By the action of strong acids they should give anal-\\nogous products the one, carbonic acid, H 2 C0 3 the other,\\nP", "height": "4791", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0229.jp2"}, "230": {"fulltext": "226 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nsulphocarbonic acid, H 2 CS 3 The latter body is indeed formed\\nunder such circumstances, but normal carbonic acid, if it exist,\\npossesses no stability, and at once decomposes into carbon diox-\\nide and water.\\nCarbon disulphide is employed in the arts in the manufac-\\nture of vulcanized caoutchouc, and as a solvent for caoutchouc\\nin the fabrication of goods impermeable to water by the deposit\\nof a thin layer of that substance. It is also employed as a\\nsolvent for, and in the extraction of, fats and oils. In the\\nlaboratory it is useful as a solvent for sulphur, phosphorus,\\niodine, oils, fats, etc.\\nCARBON OXYSULPHIDE.\\nDensity compared to air 2.1046\\nDensity compared to hydrogen 30.4\\nMolecular weight CSO =60.\\nThis body was discovered by von Than in 1867. It is inter-\\nmediate between carbon dioxide and carbon disulphide.\\nCOO carbon dioxide.\\nCSO carbon oxysulphide.\\nCSS carbon disulphide.\\nPreparation. It is prepared by decomposing potassium sul-\\nphocyanate by dilute sulphuric acid. Potassium sulphate and\\nsulphocyanic acid are formed, and the latter, in the presence\\nof an excess of sulphuric acid and water, decomposes into am-\\nmonia and the gas carbon oxysulphide, which may be collected\\nover mercury the ammonia remains combined with the sul-\\nphuric acid in the form of sulphate.\\nCSNH H 2 NH 3 CSO\\nSulphocyanic acid. Carbon oxysulphide.\\nProperties. Carbon oxysulphide is a colorless gas, having\\nan odor like that of carbon disulphide, but also recalling that\\nof hydrogen sulphide.\\nOn contact with an incandescent body, even a match pre-\\nsenting a spark of fire, it takes fire, burning with a blue flame,\\nand depositing sulphur if the supply of air be insufficient.\\nWith one and a half times its volume of oxygen it constitutes\\nan explosive mixture.\\n2 volumes of carbon oxysulphide CSO mixed with\\n3 volumes of oxygen O 3 yield\\n2 volumes of carbon dioxide CO 2 and\\n2 volumes of sulphur dioxide SO 2", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0230.jp2"}, "231": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF CARBON AND HYDROGEN. 227\\nWater dissolves about its own volume of carbon oxysulphide,\\nbut the solution decomposes in a few hours, with the formation\\nof hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide.\\nCSO H 2 CO 2 H 2 S\\nCarbon oxysulphide is absorbed completely, but more slowly\\nthan carbon dioxide, by solutions of the alkaline hydrates by\\na reaction analogous to the preceding, a sulphide and a carbonate\\nare formed.\\nCOMPOUNDS OF CARBON AND HYDROGEN.\\nThese compounds are numerous and important. Carbon\\nunites with hydrogen in different proportions, and the atoms of\\ncarbon and hydrogen may accumulate in considerable numbers\\nin the molecules of their compounds. These combinations are\\ncalled hydrocarbons or carbides of hydrogen. Hydrogen mono-\\ncarbide, or marsh gas, contains only one atom of carbon com-\\nbined with four atoms of hydrogen its molecule is therefore\\nrepresented by the formula CH 4 In olefiant gas, or ethylene,\\ntwo atoms of carbon are united with four atoms of hydrogen;\\nin the volatile liquid known as benzene or benzol, which is ob-\\ntained in large quantities from coal-tar, six atoms of carbon are\\ncombined with six atoms of hydrogen. Lastly, the molecule\\nof oil of turpentine contains ten atoms of carbon and sixteen\\nof hydrogen.\\nHence these substances give us the following formulas\\nCH 4 methane, or marsh gas.\\nC 2 H 4 ethylene, or olefiant gas.\\nC 6 H 6 benzene.\\nC 10 H 16 turpentine.\\nThese examples, which might be indefinitely multiplied, show\\n1st. That the atoms of carbon unite in various proportions with\\nthe atoms of hydrogen to constitute the molecules of the hydro-\\ncarbons. 2d. That they accumulate in greater or less numbers\\nto form molecules more and more complex, that is, containing\\nan increasing number of atoms of carbon and hydrogen.\\nAll of these bodies must be considered among the organic\\ncompounds indeed, the latter are nothing more than the com-\\npounds of carbon, and carbon monoxide and dioxide may also\\nbe properly considered as the most simple organic combinations.", "height": "4787", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0231.jp2"}, "232": {"fulltext": "228\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nHence if the most strictly rigorous method were adhered to,\\nthe description of the compounds of carbon and oxygen would\\nbe followed by that of all the other compounds of this element,\\nthat is, of all the organic compounds. However, for the pur-\\nposes of study it is advantageous to treat the latter bodies\\nseparately, and they will be so considered in this work. The\\nfollowing experiments will expose some of the general proper-\\nties of the hydrocarbons which have been mentioned\\n1. If a lighted taper be applied to a jar of methane, which\\nis also called marsh gas, because it is disengaged from the muddy\\nbottoms of marshes, the gas takes fire and burns with a lumi-\\nnous flame.\\n2. If the same experiment be repeated with ethylene gas,\\nwhich contains for the same proportion of hydrogen twice as\\nmuch carbon as marsh gas, a still more luminous flame results.\\n3. It is well known that benzine and turpentine take fire\\nwhen lighted, and burn with bright flames but it is also known\\nthat their flames are smoky.\\nThe hydrocarbons are then\\ncombustible; and how could\\nthey be otherwise, since they\\ncontain only two combustible\\nelements, carbon and hydro-\\ngen? The products of the\\ncombustion are water and\\ncarbon dioxide, and the forma-\\ntion of the latter gas may be\\nproved by agitating the con-\\ntents of the jars in which the\\ncombustion has taken place\\nwith lime-water; the latter\\nimmediately becomes milky\\nby the precipitation of calcium\\ncarbonate.\\nThis combustion is more or\\nless complete when the gas or\\nvapor which burns contains a\\nlarge amount of combustible elements, the oxygen of the air\\nmay not be present in sufficient quantity to burn them all, that\\nis, to oxidize them completely. Under these conditions it is\\nthe hydrogen which is burned by preference, and the carbon\\npartly escapes combustion.\\nFig. 86.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0232.jp2"}, "233": {"fulltext": "STRUCTURE OF FLAME.\\n229\\nA flame is a gas or vapor in combustion. This combustion\\nis an oxidation, and it is the oxygen of the air which is the\\nagent. In order that it may take place, it is generally neces-\\nsary that the combustible gas shall be brought to a high tem-\\nperature; but once commenced, the combustion continues of\\nitself, because the heat disengaged by\\nthe oxidation is sufficient to maintain the\\nphenomenon. But if a flame be suddenly\\ncooled, the combustion is at once arrested.\\nA flame may be cooled by depressing\\ninto it a piece of fine wire gauze. The\\nincandescent gases cannot pass through\\nthe meshes of the gauze without being\\ncooled by contact with the metal, which\\nis a good conductor of heat. For this\\nreason, no combustion takes place above\\nthe gauze (Fig. 86).\\nIf a piece of wire gauze be held over\\nan escaping jet of gas, the latter may be\\nignited above the gauze, and will burn\\nwithout the combustion being propagated\\nto the gas below the gauze acts as a\\nscreen, separating the jet into two portions,\\nthe lower cold and invisible, the upper in\\ncombustion and luminous.\\nSir Humphry Davy made a happy ap-\\nplication of these facts in the construction\\nof the miner s safety-lamp. This is an\\nordinary lamp surrounded by a cylinder\\nof wire gauze (Fig. 87).\\nSuch a lamp gives less light than one\\nnot protected by an envelope, but it re-\\nmoves the danger of explosions of fire-\\ndamp, for when an explosive mixture is\\nformed in the galleries of a mine, the gas\\nmay penetrate to the interior of the lamp and take fire there,\\nbut the flame cannot pass through the cooling envelope of wire\\ngauze. The safety-lamps are now constructed with the lower\\npart of the cylinder of glass, so that there is no diminution in\\nthe amount of light siven.\\nAs the oxidation of combustible elements is the source of\\nheat, it is evident that the different parts of a flame cannot be\\n20", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0233.jp2"}, "234": {"fulltext": "230\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nuniformly hot, for the oxygen of the surrounding air cannot\\nequally attain all portions. The exterior borders are the most\\nintensely heated; they are surrounded by air, and constitute\\nthe seat of combustion. From them the heat is radiated not\\nonly externally, but also to the interior of the\\nflame, where it produces interesting phenomena.\\nThese may be studied by analyzing a flame,\\nthat is, considering separately the different parts\\nof which it is composed. If the flame of a can-\\ndle be examined, it will be found to present three\\ndistinct layers, or cones (Fig. 88).\\n1. A dark central part, a, which surrounds\\ni Mmo\\\\ tne w i c k- This is known as the obscure cone,\\nor cone of generation; its temperature is not\\nhigh.\\n2. A luminous part, bb\\\\ surrounding the ob-\\nscure cone. This is the centre from which the\\nlight is emitted. It is known as the luminous\\ncone, or cone of decomposition.\\n3. An exterior envelope, cc\\\\ thin, and pro-\\nducing but little light, yellow towards the sum-\\nmit, e, and bluish towards the base, dd! It is the\\ncone of complete combustion, and its temperature\\nis the highest.\\nIt is easy to account for these phenomena.\\nThe material of the candle is melted by the heat\\nFig. 88. \u00c2\u00b0f tne flame, the liquid is drawn up into the\\nwick by capillarity, and arrives at the incan-\\ndescent summit. There it is decomposed, producing gases and\\nvapors rich in carbon and hydrogen, and which rise around the\\nwick, forming an irregular cone. The gaseous products consti-\\ntuting this cone do not present the same composition through-\\nout. They have been analyzed by H. Sainte-Claire Doville,\\nby the aid of very ingenious processes.\\nThe obscure cone is formed of gaseous products holding in\\nsuspension finely-divided carbon, which has not yet arrived at\\nincandescence.\\nThese products become heated on reaching the more central\\nportions of the flame. Then the carbon, which is set free by\\nthe decomposition of gases rich in carbon, is brought to bright\\nincandescence, but it is completely burned only when it reaches\\nthe exterior envelope, where the oxygen is in excess. A simple", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0234.jp2"}, "235": {"fulltext": "STRUCTURE OF FLAME.\\n231\\nexperiment will demonstrate that the most luminous portion\\nof the flame holds in suspension finely-divided and incandes-\\ncent carbon. If a porcelain saucer be depressed into this\\nportion, the carbon will be deposited on the vessel in the form\\nof soot.\\nIt is this solid and incandescent carbon which causes the\\nluminosity of the flame. The flame of hydrogen, which con-\\ntains only gaseous products, is pale. In the calcium or Drum-\\nmond light it produces great brilliancy because a solid body,\\nlime, is heated to bright incandescence. When the carbon\\nsuspended in a flame is in excess in proportion to the supply\\nof oxygen, it is incompletely burned, and is carried into the\\nair. The flame then smokes.\\nAt the base of the cone, carbon monoxide and methane, the\\nfirst products of the decomposition of the candle, burn on con-\\ntact with the air at dd! with a bluish flame.\\nAccording to recent experiments, the density of a burning\\ngas is not without influence upon the lustre of the flame. The\\nflame of hydrogen is luminous when that gas is burned under\\nstrong pressure (Frankland).\\nIlluminating gas is a mixture of hydrogen with various gas-\\neous hydrocarbons and a small proportion of carbon monoxide.\\nIt is manufactured by the destructive dis-\\ntillation of bituminous coal. The aqueous\\nproducts containing ammonia, and the\\ntarry matters formed during the distilla-\\ntion are condensed, and the gas is purified\\nby washing with water and passage over\\nslaked lime to remove sulphur and other\\nimpurities.\\nIlluminating gas forms an explosive\\nmixture with air, but if the mixture be\\nburned as it is formed, the resulting flame\\nwill be almost colorless and will deposit\\nno soot, the whole of the carbon coming\\nin contact with sufficient oxygen for its\\ncomplete combustion. These conditions\\nare fulfilled in the Bunsen burner (Fig.\\n89). In this burner, the force of the\\nescaping gas-jet draws in air through holes immediately oppo-\\nsite the jet in a wider tube, at the end of which the mixture is\\nburned.\\nFig. 89.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0235.jp2"}, "236": {"fulltext": "232\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nGENERAL NOTIONS UPON THE METALLOIDS.\\nTHEORY OF ATOMICITY.\\nFrom a consideration of the facts acquired in the study of\\nthe elements known as metalloids, we may deduce certain gen-\\neral consequences, and while looking back on the field over\\nwhich we have passed, we may at the same time fix certain\\nlandmarks for the remainder of our course.\\nThe elements which we have studied are not alike in their\\naptitude to enter into combination, nor in the general characters\\nof their compounds. In this respect, analogies and differ-\\nences have been established between them, and these have\\nbecome the basis of a rational classification. Following the\\nexample of Dumas, we have arranged these elements in groups\\nor families, uniting in the same group those which are related\\nby their chemical functions. For this reason boron has been\\nseparated from silicon and carbon, since it differs from them\\nso far as concerns the composition of their compounds. The\\ngroups thus formed are as follows\\nHYDROGEN.\\nOXYGEN.\\nNITROGEN.\\nSULPHUR.\\nSELENIUM.\\nPHOSPHORUS,\\nARSENIC.\\nFLUORINE.\\nCHLORINE.\\nTELLURIUM.\\nANTIMONY.\\nBROMINE.\\nIODINE.\\nBORON.\\nSILICON,\\nCARBON.\\nIn order to account for the chemical functions of all these\\nbodies, that is, for the parts which they play in their combina-\\ntions, we must first consider their hydrogen compounds. They\\nconstitute the following series\\nHH\\nH 2\\nH 3 N\\nH Si\\nHydrogen.\\nWater.\\nAmmonia. Hydrogen silicide.\\nHCl\\nH 2 S\\nH 3 P\\nH 4 C\\nHydrochloric\\nacid.\\nHydrogen\\nsulphide.\\nHydrogen\\nphosphide.\\nHydrogen\\ncarbide.\\nHBr\\nH 2 Se\\nH 3 As\\nHydrobromic\\nacid.\\nHydrogen\\nselenide.\\nHydrogen arsenide.\\nHI\\nH 2 Te\\nH 3 Sb\\nHydriodic acid.\\nHydrogen\\ntelluride.\\nHydrogen antimouide.\\nHFl\\nHydrofluoric acid.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0236.jp2"}, "237": {"fulltext": "THEORY OF ATOMICITY. 233\\nIt is seen that the preceding groups are characterized by the\\ncomposition of their hydrogen compounds. While the bodies\\nof the first group combine with hydrogen atom for atom, those\\nof the second group require two atoms of hydrogen, those of\\nthe third three, and those of the fourth four, to form hydrogen\\ncompounds. Hence we may draw the conclusion that the atoms\\nof these metalloids are far from being equivalent in their power\\nof combination with hydrogen.\\nThe atoms of chlorine, bromine, and iodine are equivalent\\nto each other in this respect, for each requires but one atom\\nof hydrogen.\\nThe atoms of oxygen, sulphur, etc., are equivalent to each\\nother, for each combines with two atoms of hydrogen.\\nThe atoms of nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony\\nare equivalent to each other, for each of them unites with three\\natoms of hydrogen.\\nLastly, the atoms of carbon and silicon are equivalent, for\\neach can unite with four atoms of hydrogen.\\nBut, on the other hand, it is evident that the atoms of chlo-\\nrine, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon are not equivalent to each\\nother, as regards their power of combination with hydrogen,\\nsince each of them unites with a different number of atoms of\\nthat body.\\nIn this respect it may be said that\\n1 atom of chlorine is equivalent to 1 atom of hydrogen.\\n1 atom of oxygen 2 atoms\\n1 atom of nitrogen 3 atoms\\n1 atom of carbon 4 atoms\\nIt is evident that the capacity of combination which resides\\nin the atoms of simple bodies and by which they attract the\\natoms of hydrogen, is unequal. Leaving aside its intensity,\\nthis force is exerted in different degrees, for it determines the\\nunion of 1 atom of chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen, or carbon, with\\n1, 2, 3, or 4 atoms of hydrogen.\\nThis number of hydrogen atoms is the measure of the degree\\nof force which resides in the atoms, of the capacity of combi-\\nnation which they possess for each other.\\nHence we conclude that\\nThe atoms of chlorine and its associates are monatomic or univalent.\\nThe atoms of oxygen diatomic or bivalent.\\nThe atoms of nitrogen triatomic or trivalent.\\nThe atoms of carbon tetratomic or quadrivalent.\\n20*", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0237.jp2"}, "238": {"fulltext": "234 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe capacity of combination which resides in the atoms, and\\nwhich is exerted in such different manners according to the\\nnature of the atoms, is called atomicity. Atomicity is the\\nrelative equivalence of the atoms; it is simple or multiple, and\\nif we consider it in its first degree, we may say that the atoms\\nof chlorine and the atoms of hydrogen are so constituted that\\na single atom of one attracts a single atom of the other. When\\nthey combine, they exchange in some manner a unit of satura-\\ntion, and in the combination of chlorine and hydrogen two of\\nthese units of force are neutralized two units of saturation or\\ntwo atomicities are exchanged: the atoms of chlorine and of\\nhydrogen are univalent.\\nThe force which resides in an atom of oxygen is more com-\\nplex. It attracts two atoms of hydrogen, and represents the\\nsecond degree of capacity of combination, and we may say that\\nin each atom of oxygen reside two atomicities, which are satis-\\nfied and exchanged when this atom combines with two atoms of\\nhydrogen. Hence, four atomicities are satisfied by the com-\\nbination.\\nFollowing the same reasoning, we consider that a triple capa-\\ncity of combination is active in an atom of nitrogen when this\\natom unites with three atoms of hydrogen and that six atom-\\nicities are satisfied by the combination.\\nLastly, tetratomic carbon is provided with four atomicities,\\nwhich are satisfied by the four atomicities which reside in four\\natoms of hydrogen.\\nIf this neutralization or exchange of two units of saturation\\nbe represented by a hyphen, we will have the following formulae\\nH-Cl\\nH-O-H\\nH\\nH\\nHydrochloric .acid.\\nWater.\\n1\\ni\\nN\\nH-C-H\\ni\\nH H\\nH\\nAmmonia.\\nHydrogen monocarbide.\\nIt is seen that in the formulae for water, ammonia and hydro-\\ngen monocarbide, the polyatomic elements, oxygen, nitrogen\\nand carbon, constitute, as it were, the nuclei around which the\\nother atoms are symmetrically grouped.\\nA great many other bodies present the same constitutions as\\nthe preceding it is evident that a given element in any com-\\npound may be replaced by another element having the same\\natomicity, without disturbing the equilibrium of the atomicities.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0238.jp2"}, "239": {"fulltext": "THEORY OF ATOMICITY.\\n235\\nIndeed, if we suppose the chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen, and\\ncarbon to be replaced by elements of corresponding atomicities,\\nwe will have the series of hydrogen compounds already con-\\nsidered. All of the bodies which are classed together in the\\nseries belong to the same type. Each contains an equal num-\\nber of atomicities for the same number of atoms.\\nAccording to the principle of substitution announced above,\\nit is evident that the hydrogen in each of the hydrogen com-\\npounds under consideration may be replaced by another mon-\\natomic element, and the compounds thus formed will still belong\\nto the primitive types.\\nSo considered, a great number of compounds possess the\\nsame constitution, that is, the same molecular structure,\\nas hydrochloric acid, water, ammonia, and methane or hydro-\\ngen monocarbide. Such are those arranged in vertical columns\\nin the following table\\nType HC1\\nci-ci\\nFree chlorine.\\nK-Cl\\nPotassium chloride.\\nK-I\\nPotassium iodide.\\nAg-I\\nSilver iodide.\\nType H20\\nH-O-H\\nWater.\\nType NH3\\nK\\ni\\nN\\nH H\\nPotassium amide.\\nCl-O-Cl\\nHypochlorou8 oxide.\\nci\\ni\\np\\nCl CI\\nType CH*\\nCl\\nCl-C-Cl\\nI\\nCl\\nCarbon tetrachloride.\\nci\\nCl-Si-Cl\\ni\\nCl\\nPhosphorus trichloride. Silicon tetrachloride.\\nH-O-K\\nPotassium hydrate.\\nAg-O-Ag\\nCl\\ni\\nSb\\ny\\\\\\nCl Cl\\nH\\nH-Si-H\\nI\\nH\\nSilver oxide. Antimony trichloride. Hydrogen silicide.\\nAll of these bodies belong to the respective types HC1, H 2 0,\\nNH 3 CH*, the first three of which were established by Ger-\\nhardt, and have their existence explained by the atomicity of\\nthe elements that is, by the varying equivalence of their atoms,\\nmeasured, in the present examples, by the number of hydrogen\\natoms with which they combine.\\nOne atom of oxygen is equivalent to two atoms of hydrogen", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0239.jp2"}, "240": {"fulltext": "236 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nor two atoms of chlorine. Hence, in the preceding combina-\\ntions, two atoms of chlorine may be replaced by one atom of\\noxygen without changing the equilibrium of the atomicities.\\nThus, the oxides Si0 2 ,C0 2 correspond to the chlorides SiCl 4\\nCC1 4 and belong to the same type. The four atomicities of\\nan atom of silicon or carbon are saturated by the four atomici-\\nties of two atoms of oxygen.\\nThe trichlorides of phosphorus and antimony, PCI 3 and SbCP,\\nwhich will be found in the preceding table, require an impor-\\ntant remark. They are not saturated with chlorine, and each\\nmay combine with two more atoms of that element, producing\\nthe compounds PCI 5 and SbCl 5\\nThus, while phosphorus exhausts its power of combination\\nwith hydrogen in uniting with three atoms of that element in\\nPH 3 its capacity of combination with chlorine is only exhausted\\nwhen it has combined with five atoms while it plays the part\\nof a triatomic element in hydrogen phosphide, it is pentatomic\\nin phosphorus pentachloride.\\nFrom these facts it follows that it is often difficult to meas-\\nure in an absolute manner the capacity of combination which\\nresides in an atom for that capacity varies according to the\\nnature of the elements upon which it is exerted. Affinity is\\nan elective force. A given element does not attract all of the\\nother elements with equal facility it selects certain ones by\\npreference, and neglects the others. With one, it may form\\nbut a single compound; with another, it may form several.\\nNitrogen forms with hydrogen but one combination, ammo-\\nnia, NH 3 which cannot fix any more atoms of hydrogen. Sat-\\nurated with hydrogen in ammonia, nitrogen manifests in con-\\ntact with that element but three atomicities. But let ammonia\\nbe brought in contact with a body other than hydrogen, hydro-\\nchloric acid, for example, and it will combine with it, forming\\nammonia hydrochloride, or ammonium chloride. If its ca-\\npacity of combination is exhausted for hydrogen, HH, it is\\nnot exhausted for hydrogen combined with chlorine, HC1.\\nThus, an atom of nitrogen possesses other affinities than those\\nwhich it manifests for hydrogen in ammonia. While nitrogen\\nis triatomic in ammonia because it is united with three mon-\\natomic atoms, it behaves as a pentatomic element in ammonium\\nchloride.\\nThe parts which polyatomic elements play in their compounds\\nmay be expressed by accents marking the number of atomici-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0240.jp2"}, "241": {"fulltext": "THEORY OF ATOMICITY. 237\\nties or the quantivalence of the element, as shown in the\\nfollowing formulae\\n0 H 2 N H 3 N V H 4 C1 P CP P V C1 5 C iv O 2\\nWater. Ammonia. Ammonium Phosphorus Phosphorus Carbon\\nchloride. trichloride, pentachloride. dioxide.\\nIn these compounds, as has been remarked before, the poly-\\natomic elements form, as it were, the nuclei around which the\\nother elements are grouped. This is an important idea, since\\nit leads to the determination of the constitution of the mole-\\ncules, that is, the arrangement of their atoms. The considera-\\ntions just presented concerning the functions of the elements\\nin compounds alone permit the resolution of this question\\nthey alone lead to the discovery of the relations existing be-\\ntween the atoms in their combinations, and to the determina-\\ntion of their relative positions, in a word, to the revelation of\\nthe molecular structure.\\nThe following developments will demonstrate this fact.\\nWe will reconsider certain of the combinations above men-\\ntioned, which have been taken as types.\\nIn water, an atom of diatomic oxygen fixes two atoms of\\nhydrogen. One atom of oxygen can fix two atoms of any\\nmonatomic element, forming compounds belonging to the same\\ntype as water; but it cannot at the same time fix a monatomic\\nelement and a diatomic element. In other words, an atom of\\nhydrogen in water may be replaced by an atom of chlorine,\\nbromine, iodine, or potassium, but not by an atom of oxygen\\nand if a second atom of the latter element be joined to the\\noxygen of water, it will be seen that there remains a free affin-\\nity which may be satisfied by hydrogen. Hydrogen dioxide\\nwould result.\\nH-0 -H H-0 -0 -H\\nWater. Hydrogen dioxide.\\nHence, we draw the conclusion that in hydrogen peroxide,\\nthe two atoms of oxygen are combined with each other, and\\nthat in uniting together each atom loses one atomicity, the two\\nothers being satisfied by hydrogen.\\nThe same considerations are applicable to the compounds of\\nchlorine and oxygen.\\nHypochlorous acid may be regarded as composed of an atom\\nof chlorine united to the group hydroxyl.\\nCl-0 -H Cl(OH)\\nHypochlorous acid.", "height": "4785", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0241.jp2"}, "242": {"fulltext": "238 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIn this compound the chlorine exchanges one unit of satu-\\nration with the oxygen of the group OH, just as it exchanges\\none with hydrogen in hydrochloric acid: it is monatomic or\\nunivalent. In chloric acid it is combined with two atoms of\\noxygen and one group, OH. It exchanges 4 atomicities with\\noxygen, and one with the group OH\\nCl v O 2 (OH)\\nChloric acid.\\nChlorine thus manifests 5 atomicities in chloric acid but it\\nhas 7 in perchloric acid.\\nCl vii 3 (OH)\\nPerchloric acid.\\nWithout dwelling on these considerations, we will take one\\nmore example.\\nIn hydrogen phosphide, one atom of phosphorus is combined\\nwith three atoms of hydrogen it manifests but three atomici-\\nties, and these could not neutralize those which reside in three\\natoms of oxygen, since the latter possess six atomicities. If,\\nthen, three atoms of diatomic oxygen were united with one\\natom of triatomic phosphorus, it is clear that three affinities\\nwould remain free, one in each of the three atoms of oxygen.\\nIn phosphorous acid, these three affinities of the oxygen atoms\\nare satisfied by three atoms of hydrogen. We may suppose\\nthat in the molecule of this compound, the phosphorus is the\\nnucleus around which are grouped three atoms of oxygen, each\\nof which is joined also to one atom of hydrogen.\\nThis atomic grouping is indicated in the following formulae\\nH OH\\nI i\\nP P\\neTh HO^OH\\nHydrogen phosphide. Phosphorous acid.\\nThis hydrogen, combined with the oxygen in all of the oxy-\\ngen acids, plays invariably the same part: it saturates the one\\natomicity which remains free in one atom of oxygen. The\\noxygen thus combined with an atom of hydrogen, has lost one\\nof its atomicities by the fact of this combination it still retains\\none in the group OH, which represents, as it were, water less\\none atom of hydrogen.\\nHOH H (OH)", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0242.jp2"}, "243": {"fulltext": "THEORY OF ATOMICITY. 239\\nThis group is named hydroxyl, and it is evident that,\\nalthough it cannot exist by itself, it may play the part of a\\nmonatomic element, for it retains one free atomicity. It may\\nthen replace a monatomic element, such as hydrogen or chlo-\\nrine. Indeed, it plays an important part in the constitution of\\nacids.\\nIf we consider the examples which have already been dis-\\ncussed, we will notice that it is this hydroxyl which, by com-\\nbining with an element or group of elements capable of forming\\nacids, confers upon them the characters of acids. So consid-\\nered, hypochlorous acid is formed by the union of hydroxyl\\nwith an atom of chlorine.\\nCl(OH)\\nHypochlorous acid.\\nSulphuric acid is formed by the union of two hydroxyl groups\\nwith sulphurous oxide, and represents in a manner sulphury 1\\nchloride in which the two atoms of chlorine are replaced by\\ntwo hydroxyl groups.\\n802 {c!\\nSulphuryl chloride. Sulphuric acid.\\nPhosphorous acid is formed by the union of three hydroxyl\\ngroups with one atom of phosphorus.\\nf Cl f (OH)\\nICl F -|(OH)\\n(OH)\\nPhosphorus trichloride. Phosphorous acid.\\nci y\\n(ci\\nLastly, phosphoric acid results from the union of three hy-\\ndroxyl groups with one atom of phosphorus already combined\\nwith one atom of oxygen (phosphoryl).\\na r (OH)\\n0 P Cl 0 P (OH)\\n(Cl ((OH)\\nPhosphoryl trichloride. Phosphoric acid.\\nSuch, according to the theory of atomicity, are the relations\\nexisting between the atoms of certain acids such, in other words,\\nis the constitution of these acids. It would be easy to extend\\nthese considerations to other bodies, but the examples we have\\nchosen are sufficient to indicate the importance of the idea of\\natomicity, when it is applied to the discovery and definition of", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0243.jp2"}, "244": {"fulltext": "240 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nthe part played by each element in a given compound. By\\nsupposing the capacities of combination of chlorine, oxygen,\\nsulphur, and phosphorus to be known, we have been able to\\nfollow these bodies in their most important combinations, we\\nhave seen how they attract and group around themselves other\\nelements. We have thus been able to penetrate the atomic\\nstructure of the molecules, and have built up as it were the\\nmolecular edifice. It must be remembered, however, that the\\npreceding formulae do not in any manner represent the real\\npositions of the atoms in space. Their sole object is to indi-\\ncate the points of attachment of the affinities, and consequently\\nthe mutual relations between the atoms.\\nCHEMICAL ENERGY\u00e2\u0080\u0094 THERMOCHEMISTRY.\\nThe study of the elements and compounds already described\\nhas shown that combination is usually accompanied by a more\\nor less intense development of energy, while in some cases\\nenergy is developed by decomposition. We have seen that\\nmany compounds are dissociated or separated into their elements\\nby temperatures more or less elevated, and it is not difficult to\\nunderstand that the amount of energy developed or absorbed\\nin the formation of a compound, is the exact measure of the\\nenergy required or developed in its decomposition.\\nThe determination of the precise amount of energy developed\\nor absorbed in any chemical reaction is the object of thermo-\\nchemistry. In order to simplify and harmonize results for com-\\nparison, the kilogramme degree is selected as the unit of energy,\\nrepresenting the quantity of heat necessary to raise the tem-\\nperature of one kilogramme of water through one degree centi-\\ngrade. This unit is termed a calorie, and the heat of formation\\nor decomposition of a compound is expressed by the number\\nof calories produced by the formation or decomposition of one\\nmolecule of the substance, the atom of hydrogen being supposed\\nto weigh one gramme. Thus the heat of formation of carbon\\ndioxide will be the number of calories produced by the perfect\\ncombustion of twelve grammes of carbon. When practicable,\\nthe heat of formation is determined by the energy of combus-\\ntion. As a general formula, we may consider that the combining\\natoms possess a quantity of energy in some fonu 7 chemical or", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0244.jp2"}, "245": {"fulltext": "CHEMICAL ENERGY THERMOCHEMISTRY. 241\\nphysical, which quantity we may call ra. The product of the\\nreaction will possess m\u00c2\u00b1n energy, n being the quantity\\nof energy disengaged by the reaction.\\nIt has been found that the amount of energy developed by\\nthe formation of any compound from its elements is precisely\\nthe same whether the body is formed at once or by several\\nstages (Hess). Thus, the heat of formation of CO 2 is the\\nsame whether it be formed by\\nC O 2 CO 2 or by C CO and CO CO 2\\nIn the oxidation of a combustible compound which has been\\nformed with disengagement of energy, less heat should be pro-\\nduced than by the direct oxidation of the constituent elements,\\nsince part of their atomic energy has already been disengaged\\nby their combination. Thus, the energy of formation of CH 4\\nshould be represented by the difference between the heat pro-\\nduced by the combustion of CH*, and that produced by the\\ncombustion of C plus that of H* (H 1 gramme). The\\nenergy of formation of CO will be the difference between the\\nenergy of combustion of C and that of CO.\\nDirect and indirect methods of reasoning of this kind have\\nenabled the calculation of the energy of formation of a large\\nnumber of compounds.\\nThe physical state of the reacting bodies and of the product\\nis necessarily an important factor in thermo-chemical consider\\nations. If the product be gaseous while the reacting bodies\\nbe liquid or solid, a certain amount of energy will be required\\nto maintain the matter in the gaseous form, and this quantity\\nmust be calculated and added to that actually resulting from\\nthe reaction. If, on the contrary, the bodies entering into\\ncombination be liquid or gaseous while the result is solid, the\\ndirect energy of combination will be lower than the heat de-\\nveloped by the reaction.\\nWhile the laws governing chemical energy are as yet unde-\\nveloped, it is not difficult to understand the cause of the phe-\\nnomena in which heat is disengaged or absorbed. We must\\nbelieve that the atoms of any element are endowed with motion,\\nand chemical energy then becomes atomic motion. If the\\natomic motion be arrested, the energy appears as heat, molecu-\\nlar motion, or in some other form. When two elements\\nmanifest energetic affinities for each other, it is because their\\natoms are moving in such a manner that a portion of the\\nL q 21", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0245.jp2"}, "246": {"fulltext": "242 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\natomic motion may be mutually arrested this atomic energy\\nis then transformed into heat energy or molecular motion.\\nWhile all chemical action must be referred to atomic motion,\\nthe manner of that motion cannot at present be fully under-\\nstood. Atomic energy, that is, affinity, must be a function of\\ntemperature, since the atomic vibrations of the elements may\\nbe so varied by an absorption of energy from external sources\\nthat, on one hand, the motions of atoms manifesting little\\naffinity for each other may be so harmonized that combination\\nmust take place, and, on the other, the harmonious movements\\nof unlike atoms may be rendered so incompatible that those\\natoms will separate, finding conditions of more stable equilib-\\nrium in molecules of the elementary substances.\\nIn this manner we can readily interpret those cases in which\\ndecomposition is attended by a development of energy, as with\\nhydrogen dioxide, nitrogen iodide, and many other compounds.\\nIn the formation of nitrogen iodide by the action of ammonia\\non iodine (page 155), ammonium iodide also is formed.\\n4NH 3 3I 2 NP 3NH*I\\nx\\\\mmonium iodide is formed with disengagement of energy,\\nbut in the above reaction that energy does not become apparent\\nthe liquid does not become warm the energy which disappears\\nfrom the atoms in the ammonium iodide is transferred to the\\natoms of nitrogen and iodine, and enables them to combine,\\nforming nitrogen iodide. These atoms then possess greater\\nenergy than when in molecules of nitrogen and iodine, and on\\nthe least disturbance of the unstable equilibrium the nitrogen\\niodide is decomposed the atoms of nitrogen combine, forming\\nmolecules of nitrogen, and the atoms of iodine form molecules\\nof iodine. The energy furnished by the formation of ammo-\\nnium iodide then becomes external explosively.\\nA compound which is formed from its elements with libera-\\ntion of energy is called an exothermic compound, while one\\nwhich is similarly formed with absorption or disappearance of\\nenergy is called an endothermic compound. All explosive com-\\npounds are endothermic.\\nAs a general rule, in any chemical equation the sum of the\\nenergies developed in the formation of the compounds pro-\\nduced must be greater than the sum of the energies developed\\nin the formation of the substances reacting. Unless energy\\nbe supplied the reaction is otherwise impossible (Berthelot).", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0246.jp2"}, "247": {"fulltext": "METALS.\\nThe metals are elements which are good conductors of heat\\nand electricity, and are endowed with a peculiar lustre, which\\nis called the metallic lustre. This definition, it will be ob-\\nserved, is founded upon certaia physical characters rather than\\nupon chemical properties. It is unsatisfactory and wanting in\\nexactness, for it is applicable to bodies which are properly con-\\nsidered as metalloids. Such is antimony, which has already\\nbeen described, and bismuth, which should be placed beside\\nantimony. Indeed, the distinction between the metals and\\nmetalloids is not so well marked that a line which shall sepa-\\nrate these two classes of simple bodies may be sharply drawn.\\nPhysical Properties of the Metals. These will be found\\nin the table on page 244, but the indications there given may\\nbe completed by certain other developments.\\nThe metals are opaque, but their opacity is not absolute.\\nA sheet of gold-leaf pressed out between two plates of glass\\nallows the passage of a green light.\\nGold possesses a brilliant lustre and a yellow color, but it\\nloses this lustre when it is reduced to very fine powder. When,\\nhowever, this powder is rubbed with a hard body, when, for\\nexample, it is triturated in an agate mortar, or passed under\\nthe burnisher, it acquires a certain degree of cohesion, and\\nagain assumes its lustre.\\nIt is thus with all the metals. They lose their metallic lustre\\nwhen finely divided and reassume it on burnishing.\\nThe yellow color of gold is not its true color the rays which\\nreach the eye are the result of but one reflection, but if light\\nbe successively reflected from ten surfaces of gold, the metal\\nwill appear of a bright-red color. Under the same circum-\\nstances, copper will appear scarlet, zinc indigo, iron violet, and\\nsilver pure yellow (B. Prevost).\\nMost of the metals may be crystallized. Bismuth is the\\nmost striking example. If a few kilogrammes of pure bismuth\\nbe fused, and the liquid mass be allowed to cool slowly, the\\n243", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0247.jp2"}, "248": {"fulltext": "244\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nSZ %a23\\nc-3 Z\\na e Z 2 a\\ns c\\n\u00c2\u00abmJO\\n2 a\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a25 \u00c2\u00b0*r 2 a\\n2 g.aSs\\n34\\nU\\n2 u\\na\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0s s a\\n.2 g a .3\\n55 O S3\\na a t- 3 *S\\na, q o \u00c2\u00ab2 a o h\\n*J\\nSi B.\\n-a\\nol\\nrt\\nfl\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2tf\\nA\\n3\\nH\\nn\\na\\n3 _.\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0a a\\nu\\nOT 3\\n2 T3\\na\\nO O\\nSu 03\\nCti O\\n8 3\\nas 5 q\\n5 E\\nOS OS O *J CO CO\\nQ 3S OS CO OS I-\\nCO sc CO T CO\\no t\u00e2\u0080\u0094 1 io oo os t\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nM f 00\\na a u a\\ng- -3 g o 5 2\\n.5 o .2 .2 .2 2\\n3 a\\na\\na\\n2 a\\n\u00c2\u00abSsS,iSgd -2\\nc 3 5 .2 o .2 .2\\nOo30h j\u00c2\u00a3:z;onh.j\\nfc\\na\\nS-\\nM U\\ng j a\\na 3 d\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a22 a\\na u s\\ni- *2 a\\n-2 2 .2 S .2 P 2\\ngs\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0o os cc cc\\n2322\u00c2\u00a7SSS\u00c2\u00a7\\nooo o cjooo o\\na a a\\n.2 fe 1 1\\ns^Hrtoft^a\\n5 g^\u00c2\u00a7 ft=fl fl\\no P o a a\\ni? S 3 2\\n88883\u00c2\u00a7\\ni- S 3 a\\n3 S u O J\\n02 53 O Oh h4\\nte fi m io\\n2SS\\nu\\n2 2 a\\n.\u00e2\u0080\u00a2s o .s .2\\n02 u O tsa h\\na a\\na *g a\\ng .2\\nJ Oh M\\ncc\\no\\nan\\ncr\\ncr\\nCO\\n35\\nr~\\ncc\\na\\n3\\n4\\na\\nt\\na.\\na\\no\\n2\\no\\no\\na\\na\\nB\\ne\\n0)\\n3\\n00\\nU\\nC\\nN\\nE-\\nN\\na-\\nin co\\n8s\\nCO CO\\nI\\no o o o\\n5 3\\nII\\nW M\\no o o o\\nS 2 5 8\\n1 .2 .2\\nOh 02 H Oh\\nbl\\nJON\\no w o a o n n !\u00c2\u00abosooso5 ooso -i\\nM *ifl 0O M it) 30 0O h; ic t- N m_ n r; q\\nHa-iMHHOffloo ooiBNi-N^^^\\nc\u00c2\u00bb o o\\n8\\n3 es\\nt- a u g a\\n00 O\\nS3 a\\nO N", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0248.jp2"}, "249": {"fulltext": "GENERAL PROPERTIES OF METALS.\\n245\\nmetal will solidify first next to the walls of the vessel and on\\nthe surface, where it is most cooled. If, in a little while, the\\ncrust which covers the still liquid metal be pierced, and the\\nlatter be poured out, the whole of the interior of the vessel\\nwill be found covered with magnificent crystals, arranged in\\nhopper-like pyramids, and presenting brilliant, rainbow-like\\ncolors.\\nOther metals, such as copper, lead, antimony, tin, silver, and\\ngold, may be crystallized under certain conditions. Some of\\nthe metals are found crystallized in nature.\\nThose metals which may be beaten or rolled into thin laminae\\nare said to be malleable. AA (Fig. 90) represent two steel\\nFig. 90.\\nrollers capable of moving on their axes in opposite directions.\\nA plate of metal engaged between them will be drawn in, and\\nthe rolled sheet will pass out on the other side with a uniform\\nthickness equal to the distance between the two rollers. By\\ndiminishing this distance more and more by means of the\\nscrews BB, the sheet may gradually be reduced in thickness.\\nMetals which may be drawn out into wires are said to be\\nductile. The wire-drawing machine is represented in Fig.\\n91. It consists of a steel plate, ff. firmly fixed in the up-\\nrights CC, which are themselves solidly attached to a bench.\\nThe plate is pierced with a series of holes regularly decreasing\\nin diameter. The wire is drawn from the bobbin A, through\\nthe holes and around the cylinder B, which is moved by power.\\nThat a metal may be drawn into fine wires, it is necessary\\nthat it shall offer a certain resistance to rupture. This is called\\nthe tenacity of the metal. It is measured by suspending weights\\n21*", "height": "4800", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0249.jp2"}, "250": {"fulltext": "246\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nat the extremities of wires of the same diameter. The metals\\nexhibit every degree of fusibility. Mercury is liquid at ordi-\\nnary temperatures, while osmium cannot be melted in the\\noxyhydrogen flame. Some metals, such as mercury, potassium,\\nzinc, are readily distilled others are scarcely volatilized at the\\nhighest attainable temperatures.\\nChemical Properties of the Metals. The metals combine\\nwith each other and with the metalloids, the energy with which\\nthese combinations take place being very variable. In general,\\nFig. 91.\\nthe metals having the strongest affinities are those known as the\\nalkaline metals, because they are obtained from the alkalies.\\nSuch are potassium and sodium.\\nAll the metals combine directly with chlorine. The chlorides\\nthus formed do not all possess analogous compositions they con-\\ntain for one atom of metal a varying number of chlorine atoms.\\nA similar remark applies to the oxides and sulphides formed\\nby the union of oxygen and sulphur with the metals. The\\npower of combination of the latter with chlorine, sulphur, oxy-\\ngen, etc., is far from being the same. In other words, the atoms\\nof the metals combine unequally with the atoms of chlorine,\\noxygen, etc. hence it follows that the atomic composition of\\nthe bodies thus formed is different. If the metals be compared\\ntogether in this respect, analogies and differences will be estab-\\nlished between them, which become the basis for a rational\\nclassification. Those metals which form compounds having", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0250.jp2"}, "251": {"fulltext": "EXTRACTION OF METALS. 247\\nanalogous atomic constitutions are put into the same group.\\nSuch principles as these have guided us in the classification of\\nthe metalloids, and we will apply them to the metals as soon as\\nwe have acquired a general knowledge of their compounds.\\nNatural State and Extraction of the Metals. Certain\\nmetals are found in nature free from all combination. It is\\nthus that gold, silver, copper, bismuth, etc., are met with in\\nthe native state.\\nMore often the metals are found combined with oxygen, sul-\\nphur, or other metalloids. The natural sulphides are numerous\\nand abundant those of silver, copper, mercury, lead, and zinc\\nconstitute the minerals from which these metals are ordinarily\\nextracted.\\nIron and tin are obtained from their oxides, which are found\\nin nature.\\nThe metals are often found in saline combinations, in the form\\nof chlorides, carbonates, sulphates, phosphates, and silicates.\\nWe can only indicate here in a very general manner the\\nmethods by the aid of which the metals are extracted from\\ntheir combinations.\\nIf a metal is to be obtained from its oxide, the latter is\\nreduced by carbon at a high temperature. Those oxides which\\nresist the action of carbon at the highest temperatures attain-\\nable in ordinary furnaces may be reduced in the electrical\\nfurnace, which is simply the electric arc enclosed between\\nhighly refractory walls, usually made of quicklime. It is an\\nundecided question whether such reductions are effected by\\nthe carbon alone at the exceedingly high temperature, or\\nwhether the reduction is partly due to electrolysis.\\nCertain oxides reducible by carbon do not yield pure metal by\\nsuch reduction, as the metal combines with part of the carbon,\\nforming a carbide from which removal of the carbon is difficult\\nor even impossible. In such cases reduction of the oxide may be\\naccomplished by a more oxidizable metal thus manganese and\\nchromium oxides may be reduced by aluminium or magnesium.\\nIf the ore be a sulphide, it is first roasted, that is, heated in\\ncontact with the air. The oxygen of the air then acts upon\\nthe sulphur, which is disengaged in the form of sulphurous\\noxide, and upon the metal, which remains in the form of oxide\\nthe latter is afterwards reduced by carbon.\\nThe metals are sometimes obtained from their chlorides by\\nheating the latter with sodium, magnesium, aluminium, or other", "height": "4797", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0251.jp2"}, "252": {"fulltext": "248 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nmetal which will combine with the chlorine, forming the cor-\\nresponding chloride.\\nElectrolysis of salts, either in aqueous solution or in a state\\nof fusion, is now advantageously employed for the extraction\\nof a number of metals, notably aluminium and magnesium.\\nALLOYS.\\nThe combinations of the metals with each other are called\\nalloys amalgams are the alloys formed by mercury.\\nIf a small quantity of mercury be heated in a crucible or a\\ncapsule, and a morsel of sodium be thrown into it, the latter\\ndissolves instantly and by employing the proper proportions\\nof mercury and sodium, the alloy may be obtained in crystals\\npossessing a definite composition.\\nCrystalline combinations of zinc and antimony are known.\\nThe most interesting has the composition Sb 2 Zn 3\\nIt is necessary to state that more generally the alloys do not\\npresent the characters of definite compounds. Many metals\\nseem to alloy with each other in all proportions, forming mix-\\ntures which are more or less homogeneous but this is only in\\nappearance, and it must be admitted that one or more com-\\npounds exist in such a mixture, remaining dissolved in each\\nother, or mixed with the excess of one of the metals. Such a\\nmixture would form a sensibly homogeneous mass, especially\\nwhen the molten mixture had been suddenly cooled. But if\\nthe cooling be slow, it may happen that the less fusible definite\\ncompounds separate from the mixture in the crystalline form,\\nleaving the more fusible compounds which still remain liquid.\\nSuch a separation often takes place in large masses of melted\\nalloys which are allowed to cool slowly. The process is called\\nliquation, and it may be readily conceived that the alloys so\\ncooled are far from homogeneous in composition after their\\nsolidification.\\nConversely, when a mass composed of a mixture of metals\\nand alloys is slowly heated, the more fusible assume the liquid\\nstate first, and separate from the others.\\nThis difference between the fusing-points of the various defi-\\nnite compounds which may exist in an alloy is taken advantage\\nof in the arts for their separation.\\nAlloys are generally more fusible than their component\\nmetals. Thus, there is an alloy which melts at about 66\u00c2\u00b0,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0252.jp2"}, "253": {"fulltext": "ALLOYS.\\n249\\nand contains bismuth, 4 parts lead, 2 parts tin and cadmium,\\neach 1 part. It is known as Wood s fusible metal.\\nThe following table gives the composition of some of the\\nmore important alloys\\nGold coin (United States, France,\\nGermany)\\nGold coin (Great Britain)\\nGold jewelry x\\nSilver coin (United States)\\nSilver coin (Great Britain)\\nSilverware (sterling silver)\\nBronze medals t\\nGun-metal\\nBell-metal\\nSpeculum-metal\\nAluminium bronze\\nManganese bronze\\nRed brass\\nWhite brass\\nGerman silver\\nType-metal\\nBritannia-metal\\nGold 900\\nCopper 100\\nGold 916.6\\nCopper 83.4\\nGold 750-920\\nCopper 250-80\\nSilver 900\\nCopper 100\\nSilver 925\\nCopper 75\\nSilver 925\\nCopper 75\\nCopper 93.5-95\\nTin 6-4\\nZinc 0.5-1\\nCopper 100\\nTin 10\\nCopper 78\\nTin 22\\nCopper 67\\nTin 33\\nCopper 90-95\\nAluminium 10-5\\nCopper 90\\nManganese 10\\nCopper 90\\nZinc 10\\nCopper 65\\nZinc 35\\nCopper 50\\nHard pewter\\nSoft pewter\\nPlumbers* solder\\nZinc\\nNickel\\nLead\\nAntimony\\nTin\\nAntimony\\nBismuth\\nCopper\\nTin\\nLead\\nTin\\nLead\\nTin\\nLead\\n25\\n25\\n80\\n20\\n100\\n8\\n1\\n4\\n92\\n8\\n82\\n18\\n66\\n33\\n1 The proportion of gold in jewelry is expressed in carats, which signifies\\ntwenty-fourths. Thus, pure gold is twenty-four carats fine, while eighteen-\\ncarat gold contains eighteen twenty-fourths gold and six twenty-fourths\\nof baser alloy.", "height": "4800", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0253.jp2"}, "254": {"fulltext": "250 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nMETALLIC OXIDES AND HYDRATES.\\nFormation of Metallic Oxides. The metals absorb oxygen\\nwith very unequal energy. Many of them become oxidized\\nwhen exposed to the air at temperatures more or less elevated.\\nIn this respect it is important to distinguish the action of dry\\nair from that of moist air.\\nPotassium is the only metal that absorbs dry oxygen at ordi-\\nnary temperatures. All of the other metals, with the excep-\\ntion of silver, gold, and platinum, only become oxidized in the\\nair at very high temperatures. Melted lead absorbs oxygen.\\nMercury becomes oxidized at about 350\u00c2\u00b0 copper at a dull-red\\nheat.\\nThe combination often takes place with the production of\\nluminous heat. Iron burns in oxygen, but it is necessary that\\nthe metal be first heated to bright redness that the combustion\\nmay take place.\\nHowever, the finely-divided iron that is obtained by reducing\\noxide of iron in a current of hydrogen at a comparatively low\\ntemperature, will take fire when exposed to the air at ordi-\\nnary temperatures. It is pyrophoric, and the fine state of\\ndivision of the metal favors the oxidation. If the powder be\\nprojected into the air, each particle takes fire and burns with a\\nbright flash.\\nA bright sheet of iron will indefinitely preserve its brilliant\\nsurface in dry air, but if a drop of water be placed upon it, or\\nif it be exposed to the action of a moist atmosphere, rust makes\\nits appearance in a short time. This rust is ferric hydrate,\\nfor the metal has at the same time absorbed oxygen and\\nwater.\\nIt is generally admitted that it is the oxygen of the air dis-\\nsolved in the water that first fixes upon the metal, and that\\nthe combination is favored by the presence of carbon dioxide.\\nHowever it may be, the spot of rust once formed constitutes a\\nVoltaic couple with the iron itself, and the current so estab-\\nlished decomposes the water. The oxidation then proceeds\\nrapidly, the oxygen of the decomposed water combining with\\nthe metal.\\nIt is possible that hydrogen dioxide may play a part in oxi-\\ndations it may be formed as a secondary product during the", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0254.jp2"}, "255": {"fulltext": "METALLIC OXIDES AND HYDRATES. 251\\ndecomposition of the water, and fix directly upon the metals,\\nconverting them into hydrates (Weltzien).\\nFe 2 3H 2 2 Fe 2 6 H 6\\nIron. Hydrogen dioxide. Ferric hydrate.\\nMg H 2 2 Mg0 2 H 2\\nMagnesium. Magnesium hydrate.\\nIndeed, the oxidation of metals in moist air always produces\\nhydrates and not oxides.\\nComposition and Classification of the Oxides. It has\\nalready been remarked that the metals differ as to the number\\nof oxygen atoms with which they combine besides this, the\\nsame metal may form several compounds with oxygen, con-\\nstituting different degrees of oxidation. Hence the oxides\\npresent different compositions, and the differences exercise a\\nmarked influence upon the properties of the compounds.\\n1. Certain oxides present the same atomic constitution as\\nwater. Two atoms of metal are combined with one atom of\\noxygen.\\nK 2 potassium oxide.\\nNa 2 sodium oxide.\\nLi 2 lithium oxide.\\nT1 2 thallium oxide.\\nAg 2 silver oxide.\\n2. One atom of certain metals can combine with one atom\\nof oxygen the oxides of the general formula MO result.\\nBaO barium oxide.\\nSrO strontium oxide.\\nCaO calcium oxide.\\nMgO magnesium oxide.\\nMnO manganous oxide.\\nFeO ferrous oxide.\\nZnO zinc oxide.\\nPbO lead oxide.\\nCuO cupric oxide.\\nHgO mercuric oxide.\\nSnO stannous oxide.\\nThe metallic oxides containing but one atom of oxygen are\\ngenerally energetic bases that is, they react energetically with\\nthe acids, forming salts.\\n3. The sesquioxides are those which contain two atoms of\\nmetal and three atoms of oxygen. Such is antimony oxide,\\nthat has already been studied the oxides of bismuth, gold, etc.,\\npresent an analogous composition.", "height": "4798", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0255.jp2"}, "256": {"fulltext": "252 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nSb 2 3 antimony sesquioxide.\\nBi 2 3 bismuth sesquioxide.\\nAu 2 3 gold sesquioxide.\\nFe 2 3 ferric oxide.\\nMn 2 3 manganic oxide.\\nCr 2 3 chromic oxide.\\nA1 2 3 aluminium oxide.\\n4. A large number of oxides contain two atoms of oxygen.\\nBaO 2 barium dioxide.\\nSrO 2 strontium dioxide.\\nMnO 2 manganese dioxide.\\nPbO 2 lead dioxide.\\nSnO 2 stannic oxide.\\nThe first four are incapable of uniting with acids to form\\ncorresponding salts. With hydrochloric acid, they yield either\\nhydrogeu peroxide or chlorine.\\nBaO 2 2HC1 Bad 2 H 2 2\\nMnO 2 4HC1 MnCl 2 2H 2 CI 2\\nWhen manganese dioxide is heated with sulphuric acid oxygen\\nis disengaged, and manganous sulphate is formed.\\nH 2 S0 4 MnO 2 MnSO 4 H 2\\nSulphuric acid. Manganese dioxide. Manganous sulphate.\\nAs to stannic oxide, it is the anhydride of a metallic acid.\\nSnO 2 -f- H 2 H 2 Sn0 3\\nStannic acid.\\n5. The oxides which contain three atoms of oxygen possess\\nacid characters still more marked than stannic oxide. Chro-\\nmium trioxide, OO 3 is well known, and manganic and ferric\\nanhydrides would present analogous compositions.\\n6. There is a class of oxides still more complex than the\\npreceding they can be regarded as formed by the union of\\ntwo oxides, and they have been named saline oxides. Such are\\nFerroso-ferric oxide Fe 3 4 FeO -f Fe 2 3 or magnetic oxide of iron.\\nManganoso-manganic oxide Mn 3 0* Mn 2 3 MnO, or red oxide of\\nmanganese.\\nDiplumboso-plumbic oxide Pb 3 0* PbO 2 2PbO, or red oxide of lead.\\nThe first two contain one molecule of a sesquioxide, combined\\nwith one molecule of a monoxide the last, one molecule of a\\ndioxide and two molecules of a monoxide.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0256.jp2"}, "257": {"fulltext": "METALLIC OXIDES.\\n253\\nChemical Properties of the Oxides. Some of the oxides\\nare fixed, that is, undecomposable by heat; others lose the\\nwhole or a part of their oxygen at temperatures more or less\\nelevated. The oxides of the noble metals, such as silver, gold,\\nand platinum, are decomposed by heat alone into metal and\\noxygen. We have seen that mercuric oxide is decomposed by\\na dull-red heat. Many of the oxides that contain two or three\\natoms of oxygen lose a part of the latter element when heated\\nto redness. Such are the dioxides of manganese, lead, and\\nbarium.\\nThe oxides containing but one atom of oxygen are among\\nthe most stable. Some of them absorb oxygen when they are\\nheated in contact with air, forming higher oxides. Among\\nthese are the monoxides of manganese, iron, lead, and tin.\\nHydrogen reduces the greater number of the oxides at tem-\\nperatures more or less elevated water is formed, and the metal\\nis set at liberty.\\nIf a current of dry hydrogen be passed over ferric oxide\\nheated in a glass bulb (Fig. 92), the oxide is reduced, and a\\nFig. 92.\\nblack powder is obtained which is finely divided and pyropho-\\nric iron. Vapor of water escapes at the same time by the\\ndrawn-out point of the bulb.\\nFe 2 3 3H 2 3H 2 2Fe\\nFerric oxide. Iron.\\n22", "height": "4790", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0257.jp2"}, "258": {"fulltext": "254\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe ferric oxide may be replaced by cupric oxide, CuO. If\\nthis oxide be heated in a current of hydrogen, it is reduced,\\nand the action is so energetic that it gives rise to the produc-\\ntion of luminous heat.\\nCarbon reduces the greater number of the oxides with for-\\nmation of either carbon dioxide or monoxide. It is even more\\nenergetic in its action than hydrogen, for it decomposes oxides\\nwhich are irreducible by the latter element, such as those of\\npotassium and sodium. The oxides of calcium, barium, stron-\\ntium, magnesium, and aluminium are not reducible by carbon,\\nexcept at the high temperature attainable in the electrical fur-\\nnace. The other oxides require for reduction a temperature\\nmore or less elevated, according to the force with which they\\nretain their oxygen. If the reduction be difficult, a high tem-\\nperature is required, and carbon monoxide is formed otherwise\\ncarbon dioxide is the product.\\nA small quantity of cupric oxide may be reduced by char-\\nFig. 93.\\ncoal by heating the mixture in a glass tube by the aid of a\\nspirit-lamp (Fig. 93). Carbon dioxide is disengaged.\\n2CuO C 2Cu CO 2\\nCupric oxide. Copper.\\nBut to reduce zinc oxide by charcoal, the mixture must be", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0258.jp2"}, "259": {"fulltext": "METALLIC OXIDES.\\n255\\nheated to bright redness in a clay or iron retort, and in this\\ncase carbon monoxide is evolved.\\nZnO\\nZinc oxide.\\nC\\nZn CO\\nZinc.\\nChlorine decomposes nearly all of the oxides at a high tem-\\nperature. It drives out the oxygen and combines with the\\nmetal, forming a chloride. Some of the oxides are irreducible\\nby carbon, and resist also the action of chlorine. Such an\\noxide is aluminium oxide, or alumina. But if these oxides\\nbe submitted to the simultaneous action of chlorine and carbon\\nat a high temperature, they are converted into chlorides, and\\ncarbon monoxide is disengaged.\\nAn intimate mixture of alumina and charcoal may be intro-\\nduced into a porcelain tube, BB (Fig. 94), which is heated to\\nFig. 94.\\nbright redness, and a current of dry chlorine then passed\\nthrough. In this case, carbon monoxide is disengaged, while\\naluminium chloride is formed and volatilizes and may be con-\\ndensed in a cooled receiver.\\nSulphur decomposes all of the oxides except alumina and its\\nanalogues. The reaction takes place at a high temperature,\\nand gives rise to the formation of a sulphide and sulphurous\\noxide, or a sulphide and a sulphate if the latter be not decom-\\nposable by heat.", "height": "4789", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0259.jp2"}, "260": {"fulltext": "256 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIf sulphur be heated with cupric oxide, eupric sulphide is\\nformed and sulphurous oxide is evolved.\\n2CuO 3S 2CuS SO 2\\nCupric oxide. Cupric sulphide.\\nHowever, if calcium oxide (lime) or lead oxide, PbO, be\\nheated with sulphur, a sulphate and a sulphide are formed.\\n4CaO 2S 2 3CaS CaSO*\\nCalcium oxide. Calcium sulphide. Calcium sulphate.\\nAction of Water upon the Oxides Metallic Hydrates\\nand Acids. If some fragments of barium oxide (baryta) be\\nsprinkled with cold water, an energetic reaction immediately\\ntakes place. The water unites with the metallic oxide with so\\nmuch energy that the heat disengaged is sufficient to convert\\na portion of the water into vapor. The barium oxide is con-\\nverted into hydrate.\\nBaO H 2 Ba(OH) 2\\nBarium oxide. Barium hydrate.\\nIn the same manner, the oxides of potassium and sodium\\nenergetically absorb the elements of water, being converted\\ninto hydrates.\\nK 2 H 2 2KOH\\nPotassium oxide. Potassium hydrate.\\nThe hydrates of potassium and sodium are soluble in water\\nand their solutions are caustic, changing tincture of violet to\\na green color and restoring the blue color to reddened litmus\\nsolution. These hydrates constitute the alkalies.\\nThe hydrates of barium, strontium, and calcium are likewise\\nsoluble in water to a certain extent, and their solutions are also\\nsomewhat caustic.\\nOther hydrates are insoluble they may be obtained by double\\ndecomposition by precipitating the corresponding salts with an\\nalkali.\\nIf a solution of potassium hydrate be poured into a solution\\nof cupric sulphate, a light-blue precipitate of cupric hydrate is\\nformed.\\nCuSO 4 2KOH K 2 SO Cu(OH) 2\\nCupric sulphate. Potassium hydrate. Potassium sulphate. Cupric hydrate.\\nBut if this precipitate be heated, even in the liquid in\\nwhich it was formed, it changes brown, and is converted into\\noxide by losing its water.\\nCu(OH) 2 H 2 CuO", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0260.jp2"}, "261": {"fulltext": "SULPHIDES. 257\\nA great number of metallic hydrates undergo the same\\ndecomposition when they are heated.\\nThere are true metallic acids which contain the elements of\\nan oxide plus the elements of water. Such are\\nH 2 Cr0 4 CrO 3 H 2\\nChromic acid. Chromium trioxide.\\nH 2 Mn0 4 MnO 3 H 2\\nManganic acid. Manganese trioxide.\\nAs far as their constitution is concerned, these metallic acids\\nmay be compared to sulphuric acid.\\nH 2 S0 4 SO 3 H 2\\nThey also resemble sulphuric acid in their chemical func-\\ntions each contains two atoms of basic hydrogen, that is, two\\natoms of hydrogen which arc replaceable by a metal.\\nSULPHIDES.\\nSulphur has a great tendency to unite with the metals, and\\nthe union often takes place with a vivid evolution of heat.\\nCopper-turnings and iron-filings burn in the vapor of sulphur.\\nThe phenomena which favor or determine, and those which\\naccompany this combination, have already been indicated, and\\nwe have seen that the presence of a small quantity of water\\nfavors chemical union in a mixture of sulphur and iron-filings.\\nIn composition the sulphides are analogous to the oxides.\\nThe more important of the transformations which they may\\nundergo are the following:\\nOxygen decomposes all of the sulphides at a temperature\\nmore or less elevated.\\nFinely-divided potassium sulphide, obtained by calcining the\\nsulphate with an excess of charcoal, is a black powder, but it\\nbecomes incandescent on contact with oxygen, and if thrown\\ninto the air it produces a shower of sparks. It is known as\\nG-ay-Lussac s pyrophorus. Its fine state of division favors the\\nabsorption of oxygen, and the latter converts it into sulphate.\\nK 2 S O 4 K 2 SO\\nPotassium sulphide. Potassium sulphate.\\nDry oxygen acts in the same manner upon all the sulphides\\nwhen the corresponding sulphates are stable at high tempera-\\ntures. In the contrary case, sulphurous oxide is formed, and\\nr 22*", "height": "4780", "width": "2927", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0261.jp2"}, "262": {"fulltext": "258 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\na residue of oxide or even of metal is obtained, if the oxide be\\ndecomposable by heat.\\nIf zinc sulphide be roasted, it is converted into zinc oxide,\\nand sulphurous oxide is evolved but if sulphide of mercury\\nbe heated in a current of air, metallic mercury is obtained.\\nHgS O 2 Hg SO 2\\nMercuric sulphide. Mercury.\\nMoist oxygen acts upon the sulphides more readily than the\\ndry gas. It unites with them at ordinary temperatures, form-\\ning sulphates.\\nFeS O 4 FeSO*\\nSulphide of iron. Ferrous sulphate.\\nChlorine attacks all of the sulphides, forming metallic chlo-\\nrides and sulphur chloride, if the dry method be employed, or\\nwith deposition of sulphur if the reaction take place in presence\\nof water.\\nWater dissolves the alkaline sulphides as well as those of cal-\\ncium, barium, and strontium the sulphides of the other metals\\nare insoluble in water.\\nHydrogen sulphide combines with certain sulphides, convert-\\ning them into sulphydrates. The analogy will be noticed be-\\ntween this reaction and that of water upon the oxides.\\nK 2 S IPS 2KSH\\nPotassium sulphide. Potassium sulphydrate.\\nK 2 H 2 2KOH\\nPotassium oxide. Potassium hydrate.\\nCHLORIDES.\\nChlorine, bromine, and iodine form with the metals com-\\npounds which possess the appearance and certain properties of\\nsalts. Indeed, common salt, or sodium chloride, has given the\\nname to the entire class of saline compounds. Hence Berze-\\nlius named chlorine, bromine, and iodine the halogen bodies,\\nand called their combinations with the metals the haloid salts.\\nThus he admitted the relation between these compounds and\\nthe true salts, while at the same time distinguishing them by a\\nparticular name, for while they resemble the salts in their prop-\\nerties, they differ from them in composition. This subject will\\nbe more fully considered farther on.\\nComposition. All of the metals, with the exception of plat-\\ninum, combine directly with free chlorine, but all do not com-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0262.jp2"}, "263": {"fulltext": "CHLORIDES.\\n259\\nbine with it in the same atomic proportions, and often the same\\nmetal forms several distinct combinations with this element.\\nHence the differences in the composition of the chlorides.\\nThey are formed by the union of an atom of metal with one,\\ntwo, three, four, five, or six atoms of chlorine.\\nKC1\\nPotassium\\nchloride.\\nNaCl\\nSodium\\nchloride.\\nAgCl\\nSilver\\nchloride.\\nCaCl 2\\nCalcium\\nchloride.\\nFeCP\\nFerrous\\nchloride.\\nZnCP\\nZinc\\nchloride.\\nSbCP\\nAntimony\\ntrichloride.\\nBid 3\\nBismuth\\ntrichloride.\\nAuCP\\nGold\\ntrichloride.\\nSnCl 4\\nTin\\ntetrachloride.\\nTiCP\\nTitanium\\ntetrachloride.\\nPtCP\\nPlatinum\\ntetrachloride.\\nSbCl 5\\nAntimony\\npentachloride.\\nMoCl 6\\nMolybdenum\\nhexachloride.\\nTo these chlorides must be added those formed by the union\\nof two atoms of metal with two or six atoms of chlorine.\\nCu 2 CP\\nCuprous chloride.\\nHg 2 CP\\nMcrcurous chloride.\\nAPCP\\nAluminium chloride.\\nCr 2 Cl 6\\nChromic chloride.\\nFe 2 CP\\nFerric chloride.\\nCuprous chloride and mercurous chloride contain for the\\nsame quantity of chlorine twice as much metal as cupric chlo-\\nride, CuCP, and mercuric chloride, HgCl 2\\nIn the first, two atoms of copper or mercury are combined\\ntogether to fix two atoms of chlorine, and these two atoms of\\nmetal remain thus associated in all the cuprous and mercurous\\ncompounds. It is the same in the chloride of aluminium, and\\nin chromic and ferric chlorides. Each of them contains two\\natoms of metal intimately associated, and combined as a whole\\nwith six atoms of chlorine.\\nThe same metal may form several combinations with chlorine.\\nThallium combines with one or three atoms of chlorine.\\nTin and platinum combine with two or four atoms of chlorine.\\nAntimony combines with three or five atoms of chlorine.\\nPhysical Properties of the Chlorides. Most of the chlo-\\nrides are solid and possess the aspect, color, and physical prop-\\nerties of the salts of the same metal. Nearly all are crystalline\\nand soluble in water. Only the chloride of silver, mercurous\\nAt temperatures above 700\u00c2\u00b0 these chlorides possess vapor densities\\ncorresponding to the formula MCI 3", "height": "4778", "width": "2922", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0263.jp2"}, "264": {"fulltext": "260 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nand cuprous chlorides are insoluble; lead chloride and thal-\\nlous chloride are but slightly soluble in water.\\nCertain metallic chlorides are liquid at ordinary tempera-\\ntures. Such are the tetrachlorides of tin and titanium. Some,\\nlike the chlorides of zinc and bismuth, are solid, but fusible at\\nlow temperatures. These latter were formerly designated as\\nmetallic butters.\\nMost of the chlorides are fusible at high temperatures, and\\nmany of them are volatile and can be distilled without altera-\\ntion. It is thus with the liquid chlorides, with the chlorides\\nof zinc, bismuth, mercury, etc.\\nChemical Properties. As a rule, the chlorides are very\\nstable. Only the chlorides of certain of the precious metals,\\nas those of gold and platinum, are entirely decomposed by a\\nhigh temperature. Some of the higher chlorides lose chlorine\\nwhen calcined, and are converted into lower chlorides. Thus,\\ncupric chloride is converted into cuprous chloride when heated\\nout of contact with air.\\nA great number of the chlorides are reduced when they are\\nheated in a current of hydrogen. In this case, hydrochloric\\nacid is disengaged, and the metal remains. Thus, hydrogen\\nremoves the chlorine from the chlorides of silver and iron.\\nThese decompositions are determined by the powerful affinity\\nof chlorine for hydrogen.\\nThe action of the metals upon the chlorides gives rise to\\ninteresting phenomena which are worthy of study.\\nIf corrosive sublimate, which is mercuric chloride, be mixed\\nwith powdered tin and the mixture be heated in a small glass\\nretort provided with a receiver, a liquid will soon collect in the\\nlatter which diffuses thick vapors in the air. It is the tetra-\\nchloride of tin, called by the ancient chemists fuming liquor\\nof Libavius. It is formed by the decomposition of the mer-\\ncuric chloride, which gives its chlorine to the tin, metallic\\nmercury being at the same time set free.\\nBismuth decomposes mercuric chloride in the same manner\\nwhen the two substances are heated together. These experi-\\nments are conducted in the dry way. They may be modified\\nby operating in the presence of water, in which we have re-\\nmarked that most of the chlorides are soluble it is thus with\\nmercuric chloride.\\nIf a plate of copper be plunged into a solution of this body,\\nit at once becomes covered with a layer of metallic mercury.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0264.jp2"}, "265": {"fulltext": "CHLORIDES. 261\\nThat metal is displaced from its combination by the copper,\\nwhich combines with the chlorine: cupric chloride is formed,\\nand after the lapse of some time, the liquid will contain only\\nthat compound. It becomes green, and if a plate of zinc be\\nplunged into it, the copper will be precipitated in its turn, and\\nthe zinc will combine with the chlorine and enter the solution\\nthe liquid then contains zinc chloride.\\nThus, the metals mutually displace each other from their\\nsolutions, according to the energy of their affinities. In this\\ncase it is the possession of the chlorine for which they antago-\\nnize each other, the stronger driving out the weaker. It must\\nbe remarked that in this respect the chlorides behave in the\\nsame manner as the oxygen salts.\\nThis analogy is continued in innumerable reactions. Solu-\\ntions of the chlorides enter into double decompositions like\\nsolutions of the true salts. If potassium hydrate be added to\\na solution of either cupric sulphate or cupric chloride, in each\\ncase a light-blue precipitate of cupric hydrate is obtained.\\nCuSO 4 2KOH K 2 SO Cu(OH) 2\\nCupric sulphate. Potassium hydrate. Potassium sulphate. Cupric hydrate.\\nCuCP 2KOH 2KC1 Cu(OH) 2\\nCupric chloride. Potassium chloride.\\nBut cupric chloride resembles the sulphate in still another\\nproperty. When perfectly pure it is yellowish. If it be moist-\\nened with water, it becomes heated and assumes a green color.\\nIt has combined with water, and will dissolve if enough of that\\nliquid be added. A green liquor is thus obtained, which de-\\nposits, by spontaneous evaporation, magnificent green prisms.\\nThese crystals are hydrated cupric chloride. They contain\\nwater of crystallization, and can only exist on that condition.\\nIt is the same with the crystals of cupric sulphate.\\nThus, certain chlorides are capable of taking water of crys-\\ntallization like the true salts.\\nWe may complete the analogy by one more characteristic.\\n1. If a solution of aluminium sulphate be added to a con-\\ncentrated solution of potassium sulphate, and the mixture be\\nagitated, an abundant crystalline deposit is obtained. This is\\na double salt, potassium and aluminium sulphate, or alum.\\n2. If a solution of platinic chloride be added to a concen-\\ntrated solution of potassium chloride, a yellow precipitate is", "height": "4793", "width": "2928", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0265.jp2"}, "266": {"fulltext": "262 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nformed at once. It is the double chloride of potassium and\\nplatinum, which contains all of the elements of two molecules\\nof potassium chloride and one molecule of platinic chloride.\\nThis example shows that the chlorides can combine together,\\nforming double chlorides, just as the true salts may combine\\ntogether to form double salts.\\nSALTS.\\nDefinition. The salts are formed by the substitution of\\nmetal for the hydrogen of the acids, and they result from the\\naction of the acids upon the metallic oxides or hydrates. The\\nname acid applies to two classes of compounds: the first are\\nformed by the union of hydrogen with a strongly electro-nega-\\ntive element, such as chlorine or bromine these are the hy-\\ndracids. Such are hydrochloric acid, HC1, and hydrobromic\\nacid, HBr.\\nThe acids of the other class are more complicated, contain-\\ning hydrogen united with a strongly electro-negative oxidized\\ngroup, that is, a group of atoms formed by oxygen and another\\nelement these are the oxyacids. Such are nitric acid. HNO 3\\nand sulphuric acid, H 2 S0 4\\nThese two classes of acids behave in the same manner in\\ncontact with bases, that is, with metallic oxides or hydrates.\\n1. If hydrochloric acid be gradually added to a concentrated\\nsolution of potassium hydrate, the liquid becomes heated,\\nand, as it is neutralized by the acid, a white crystalline de-\\nposit separates and augments on cooling: it is potassium\\nchloride.\\n2. If sulphuric acid diluted with its volume of water be\\ncautiously and gradually added to a concentrated solution of\\npotassium hydrate, the liquid becomes heated, and, as it is\\nneutralized by the acid, a white crystalline deposit separates\\nand increases on cooling it is potassium sulphate.\\nThe analogy between the two reactions is marked. In each\\ncase a powerful base, potassium hydrate, has been neutralized\\nby an energetic acid the reaction has been accompanied by\\nthe production of heat, and has given rise to the formation\\nof a saline matter which has been deposited. The part of the\\nreaction which is invisible is the formation of water. This\\nformation of water, which always accompanies the generation", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0266.jp2"}, "267": {"fulltext": "SALTS. _ 263\\nof a salt in the ordinary manners, is expressed in the following\\nequations\\nKOH HC1 KC1 H 2\\nPotassium hydrate. Potassium chloride.\\n2KOH H 2 SO K 2 SO 2H 2\\nPotassium sulphate.\\nThese reactions, it will be seen, consist in an interchange of\\nelements, a double decomposition. The hydrogen of the acid\\nis exchanged for the metal of the potassium hydrate and by\\nthe exchange the potassium hydrate is converted into water,\\nwhile the acid, that is, the salt of hydrogen, is converted into a\\nsalt of potassium. All hydrogen compounds capable of thus\\nexchanging their hydrogen for an equivalent quantity of metal,\\nfill the functions of acids, and these acids become salts when\\ntheir hydrogen is thus replaced by a metal. It may then be\\nseen what an important part hydrogen plays in the formation\\nof salts. Whence comes this property, this capacity for making\\nsuch exchanges, and for replacement by metals? Without\\ndoubt from the element or group with which the hydrogen is\\nunited in the acids and in this respect chlorine and sulphur\\nplay the same parts in hydrochloric and sulphydric acids that\\nthe oxidized groups play in nitric, sulphuric, and phosphoric\\nacids.\\nHC1 H 2 S\\nHydrochloric acid. Sulphydric acid.\\nH(N0 3 H 2 (S0 3 H 3 (P0 3\\nNitric acid. Sulphurous acid. Phosphorous acid.\\nH(C10 3 H 2 (S0 4 H 3 (PO)\\nChloric acid. Sulphuric acid. Phosphoric acid.\\nThis property is characterized by saying that the elements or\\ngroups, to which the hydrogen is united, are strongly electro-\\nnegative, or acid, in opposition to the hydrogen, which is\\nstrongly electro-positive, or basic.\\nWhen such an acid reacts upon an oxide, or upon a hydrate,\\nan interchange of elements takes place, and a salt and water\\nare formed the latter is a constant product necessary to the\\nreaction. Other examples may be added to those already given.\\nIf a current of hydrogen sulphide be passed into a solution\\nof potassium hydrate until no more is absorbed, potassium\\nsulphydrate and water are formed.\\nH 2 S KOH KSH -f H 2\\nPotassium sulphydrate.", "height": "4785", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0267.jp2"}, "268": {"fulltext": "264 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIf an excess of dilute sulphuric acid be poured into a solu-\\ntion of potassium hydrate, potassium acid sulphate and water\\nare formed.\\nH 2 SO KOH KHSO H 2\\nPotassium acid sulphate.\\nLastly, if cupric oxide be heated with dilute sulphuric acid,\\nit dissolves, coloring the liquid blue. Cupric sulphate and\\nwater are formed.\\nH 2 SO CuO CuSO H 2\\nCupric oxide. Cupric sulphate.\\nNeutral, Acid, and Basic Salts. If the salts result from\\nthe substitution of the metals for the basic hydrogen of acids,\\nit is evident that their composition must be related to that of\\nthe acids from which they are derived. We know that the\\nlatter contain one, two, or three atoms of hydrogen, capable of\\nbeing replaced by an equivalent quantity of metal they are\\nmonobasic, dibasic, and tribasic. It is evident that the salts\\nmust present analogous differences in their composition, accord-\\ning as they are derived from a monobasic, a dibasic, or a tribasic\\nacid.\\nA salt is neutral when the basic hydrogen has been entirely\\nreplaced by an equivalent quantity of metal. But the substi-\\ntution may be only partial, for when an acid contains two atoms\\nof basic hydrogen, only one of these atoms may be replaced by\\none atom of metal there will then remain in the salt thus\\nformed one atom of basic hydrogen.\\nWhen an acid contains three atoms of basic hydrogen, it\\nmay happen that only one is replaced by one atom of metal\\nthere will then remain in the salt two atoms of basic hydrogen\\nor it may be that two atoms of hydrogen are replaced by an\\nequivalent quantity of metal, and there will then remain in the\\nsalt a single atom of basic hydrogen.\\nWhenever basic hydrogen thus remains in a salt, the satura-\\ntion of the acid is said to be incomplete. The salt formed\\nordinarily retains the characters of an acid it is an acid salt.\\nThe following table indicates the possible cases of complete\\nor incomplete saturation which may be presented by a mono-\\nbasic, a dibasic, and a tribasic acid\\nHNO 3 H 2 SO H 3 P0 4\\nNitric acid. Sulphuric acid. Phosphoric acid.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0268.jp2"}, "269": {"fulltext": "SALTS. 265\\nKNO 3 j SO 4 2 i PO*\\nussium phoi\\n:}P0\\nPotassium nitrate. Potassium acid sulphate. Monopotassium phosphate.\\nK 2 S0 4 g\\nPotassium sulphate. Dipotassium phosphate.\\nK 3 P0 4\\nTripotassium phosphate.\\nCertain neutral salts possess the property of combining with\\nthe hydrates or the oxides. The compounds so formed contain\\nall of the elements of the neutral salt, plus those of the hydrate\\nor oxide; they are called basic salts. Thus, the oxides of\\nlead and copper may combine with the various salts of lead and\\ncopper, forming basic salts of those metals.\\nEichter s Laws. Towards the close of the last century\\nfruitful investigation was made into the phenomena of neu-\\ntralization or saturation of acids by bases. We know that a\\ngiven weight of acid requires for its neutralization a fixed and\\nabsolutely invariable quantity of a given base. Thus, for the\\nconversion of 1000 grammes of sulphuric acid into neutral\\npotassium salt, a quantity of potassium hydrate corresponding\\nto 961 grammes of potassium oxide, K 2 0, is required. To\\nsaturate these 1000 grammes of sulphuric acid, it is necessary\\nto take weights of the oxides which are invariable for each one\\nseparately, but which vary among themselves.\\nThus, 1000 grammes of concentrated sulphuric acid are neu-\\ntralized by the following quantities of the oxides named\\nPotassium oxide 961 grammes.\\nSodium oxide 632 u\\nBarium oxide 1561\\nCalcium oxide 571\\nZinc oxide 866\\nCupric oxide 811\\nMercuric oxide 2204\\nSilver oxide 2367\\nAgain, to neutralize 1000 grammes of the most concentrated\\nnitric acid, the following quantities of the same oxides are\\nrequired\\nPotassium oxide 747 grammes.\\nSodium oxide 492\\nBarium oxide 1214\\nCalcium oxide 444\\nZinc oxide 651\\nCupric oxide 631\\nMercuric oxide 1714\\nSilver oxide 1841\\nM 23", "height": "4785", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0269.jp2"}, "270": {"fulltext": "266 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nRichter was the first to remark that these latter quantities\\nare precisely in the same ratio to each other as the quantities\\nof oxides which neutralize 1000 grammes of sulphuric acid.\\nThus,\\n961 _ 747\\n632 492\\n961 747\\n1561 ~1214\\n961 I 47 etc.\\n571 444\\nIn other words, the quantities of oxides which neutralize a\\ngiven weight of one acid are proportional to the quantities of\\nthe same oxides which neutralize the same weight of another\\nacid. This law of the composition of salts was discovered,\\ntowards the close of the last century, by Richter, a chemist of\\nBerlin. It is the law of relative combining proportions, applied\\nto particular cases and the reactions of compounds, but soon\\nafterwards to be generalized by Dalton and expressed as the\\nfundamental law of chemical combination.\\nRichter also studied the phenomenon of the precipitation of\\nmetallic solutions by the metals. It is known that when a\\npiece of iron is plunged into a solution of cupric sulphate, the\\niron dissolves, displacing a certain quantity of copper, without\\nother change. Since the new salt formed, ferrous sulphate, ex-\\nists in the solution in the same conditions of neutrality as the\\ncupric sulphate, the quantities of metal which thus displace\\neach other are equivalent. As neither oxygen nor acid is set\\nat liberty, it must be admitted that the respective quantities of\\nthe metals, in the salts successively formed, are united to the\\nsame quantity of oxygen. It has even been supposed that in\\nthe salts which, like the sulphates, contain four atoms of oxygen,\\nthe metal is in intimate relation with one of these atoms, which\\nis precisely sufficient to constitute the metal in the state of\\nmonoxide.\\nCuSO* CuO,S0 3\\nFeSO 4 FeO,S0 3\\nIf this were so, it is evident that when cupric sulphate is\\ndecomposed by iron, the quantity of metal which enters into\\nsolution would combine or enter into relations with precisely the\\nquantity of oxygen abandoned by the copper. This quantity of\\noxygen being constant, the quantities of the metals which com-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0270.jp2"}, "271": {"fulltext": "SALTS. 267\\nbine successively with it, differ, but are equivalent to each\\nother, and it is evident that the oxides thus formed would be\\nmore rich in oxygen as the weight of metal which enters into\\nsolution is less considerable in other words, the richness of all\\nthese oxides in oxygen is inversely proportional to the weights\\nof the metals which successively become dissolved it was in\\nthis form that Richter announced the second law of the com-\\nposition of salts. It will be seen that this law is implied in\\nthe first, and that both are but particular cases and natural con-\\nsequences of the theory of equivalents, as it is understood at\\npresent and as it has already been explained (page 33).\\nGeneral Properties of Salts. The salts present very differ-\\nent colors. Those which are formed by an acid possessing a\\ncolor are themselves colored such are the chromates, manga-\\nnates, and permanganates.\\nMost of the colored oxides form salts presenting various\\ncolors.\\nFerrous salts are bluish-green.\\nFerric salts are yellow or yellowish-brown.\\nManganese salts are pink.\\nChromium salts are dark green or red.\\nNickel salts are green.\\nCobalt salts are currant-red or blue.\\nCupric salts are blue or green.\\nGold salts are yellow.\\nIt is to be remarked that these various colors are only devel-\\noped, as a rule, when the salts are hydrated. that is. combined\\nwith water of crystallization. The taste of the salts depends\\nupon their solubility it is wanting altogether or but slightly\\nmarked in the insoluble salts more or less pronounced and\\nvery diverse in the soluble salts. The salts of magnesium are\\nbitter the aluminium salts are astringent those of iron astrin-\\ngent, with a metallic after-taste the salts of lead are at the\\nsame time sweet and astringent the salts of copper, antimony,\\nand mercury have an acrid metallic taste, which is nauseous,\\nand is called styptic.\\nThe salts generally occur in crystalline form. Some of them\\nmay be obtained as amorphous precipitates, but if such sails\\nbe formed slowly under circumstances favoring crystallization,\\nthey also assume the form of crystals.\\nIsomorphism. Certain salts which possess similar atomic\\ncompositions crystallize in identical or nearly identical forms\\nthey are called isomorphous. It is thus with the double sul-", "height": "4793", "width": "2935", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0271.jp2"}, "272": {"fulltext": "268 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nphates, which are called alums, and of which ordinary alum\\nor aluminium and potassium sulphate is the type. These alums\\nare formed by the union of a sulphate, R 2 (S0 4 3 with a sul-\\nphate, M 2 S0 4 and they all contain 24 molecules of water of\\ncrystallization.\\nThus, ordinary alum,\\nAP(S0 4 3 .K 2 S0 4 24H 2\\nAluminium and potassium double sulphate.\\nis isomorphous with chrome alum and iron alum.\\nCr 2 (S0 4 3 .K 2 SO 24H 2\\nChromium and potassium double sulphate.\\nFe 2 (S0 4 3 .K 2 S0 4 24H 2\\nIron and potassium double sulphate.\\nAll of these alums crystallize in regular octahedra. Further,\\na solution containing two alums, for example, aluminium and\\npotassium sulphate and aluminium and ammonium sulphate,\\ndeposits on concentration crystals in which the two salts are\\nmixed. Such is the character of isomorphous bodies crystal-\\nlizing in the same form, they may mix together and replace\\neach other in all proportions in the same crystal. Many exam-\\nples of isomorphism will be cited in the course of this work.\\nIt will now be sufficient to add that this idea of isomorphism\\nhas rendered valuable service to chemical theory by permitting\\nthe grouping together of bodies similar both in crystalline form\\nand atomic constitution, and by furnishing in such cases useful\\nindications for the determination of the atomic weights. It is\\nevident that when two similar combinations, two sulphates, for\\nexample, are recognized to be isomorphous, it is necessary to\\nrepresent their constitutions by analogous formulae, and the\\nlatter can only be possible under the condition that the atomic\\nweights of the metals contained in these sulphates have known\\nvalues.\\nAction of Water upon the Salts. If water be poured upon\\nand agitated with powdered chalk, a white, cloudy liquid is\\nobtained. The chalk is suspended in the water without being\\ndissolved it is simply held up in the form of minute particles,\\nand if the liquid be allowed to stand, the precipitate is de-\\nposited, and clear water again appears above the deposit.\\nHowever, if saltpetre, or potassium nitrate, be agitated with\\nwater, a colorless, transparent liquid is obtained. The saltpetre\\nis dissolved in the water; it has disappeared as a solid body.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0272.jp2"}, "273": {"fulltext": "SALTS. 269\\nIt is melted by the water, as is commonly said, and is uniformly\\ndiffused through the liquid. It has itself become liquid, and\\nthis is the phenomenon of solution. It is accompanied by a\\nproduction of cold, that is, an absorption of heat for in assum-\\ning the liquid state and becoming diffused throughout the water,\\nthe saltpetre must absorb heat.\\nIf the introduction of powdered nitre into the solution be\\ncontinued, the solid still disappears, but a time arrives when\\nthe salt introduced ceases to dissolve for water at a given tem-\\nperature can only dissolve a fixed quantity of a salt, and when\\nthis limit is attained, the solvent force of the water upon the salt-\\npetre is exhausted. The water is then said to be saturated with\\nthe salt, and any excess of the latter remains in the solid state.\\nBut if now the solution be heated, this excess is in its turn\\ndissolved, for the solubility augments with the temperature,\\nand as the latter is elevated, a larger quantity of the salt is dis-\\nsolved. When the liquid begins to boil, the temperature and\\nthe solubility of the salt have reached their extreme limit.\\nIf the boiling saturated solution be allowed to cool, it depos-\\nits a large portion of the salt in the form of crystals. In this\\nmanner voluminous, colorless, and transparent prisms are ob-\\ntained which fill the vessel, and which are surrounded by a\\nsolution of saltpetre, saturated at the temperature to which the\\nliquid has been cooled. This liquid is called the mother-liquor\\nof the crystals. It is thus that soluble salts are crystallized by\\ncooling their hot saturated solutions.\\nGenerally the same facts are observed for other soluble salts.\\nTheir solubility increases with the temperature; there are,\\nhowever, some exceptions to this rule. Sodium chloride is\\nbut slightly more soluble in hot than in cold water, and gypsum,\\nor calcium sulphate, is sensibly more soluble in cold than in hot\\nwater; for, while 500 parts of boiling water are requisite to\\ndissolve one part of gypsum, only 460 parts of cold water are\\nnecessary to dissolve the same quantity. The maximum solu-\\nbility of sodium sulphate is between 32 and 33\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCrystals of nitre may be obtained by another process. We\\nmay expose the cold saturated solution to the air at the ordi-\\nnary temperature, or, better still, place it in a bell-jar over a\\nvessel containing sulphuric acid. The water of the solution\\nslowly disappears, and, as it is dissipated in vapor, a portion of\\nthe dissolved salt separates in the solid form. The crystals thus\\nformed by spontaneous evaporation are generally very regular.\\n23*", "height": "4786", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0273.jp2"}, "274": {"fulltext": "270 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nBut water exerts another and a different action upon the\\nsalts.\\nPerfectly dry cupric sulphate, CuSO 4 is a white powder.\\nIf water be poured upon it, it becomes blue and dissolves, com-\\nmunicating to the liquid a blue color and notably raising its\\ntemperature. On evaporation, this liquid deposits crystals of\\nblue vitriol, and if these be compared with the dry white pow-\\nder with which we started, they will be found to differ from it\\nby the water they contain. We have employed the anhydrous\\nsalt, and have hydrated it. In fact, the sulphate, CuSO 4 has\\nabsorbed five molecules of water, with which it has combined,\\nand this combination, like all others, has taken place with the\\nproduction of heat. The water which is thus absorbed by cer-\\ntain salts, and which combines with them in definite propor-\\ntions, is necessary to the formation of their crystals it is called\\nwater of crystallization.\\nIt is not necessary to the constitution of the salts them-\\nselves; they can exist without it, and generally lose it when\\nthey are heated to a temperature more or less elevated, without\\nundergoing any other decomposition. Certain salts abandon\\ntheir water of crystallization with such facility that they give\\nit up to the surrounding air when the latter is not saturated\\nwith moisture. They then become opaque and lose their\\nforms, for crystals cease to exist when their water of crystalli-\\nzation is disengaged. These salts become covered with a dry\\npowder in the air and are called efflorescent salts.\\nIt is seen by the example just cited that the phenomenon\\nof solution of salts in water, which depends upon a physical\\naction, upon a change of state, is often complicated with a true\\ncombination of the salt with water, that is, a chemical action\\nwhich disengages heat. The latter is generally more energetic\\nthan the physical action, and the difference between the two\\neffects is then manifested by an elevation of temperature.\\nBut the physical phenomenon is produced alone when the\\nsalt which dissolves is incapable of combining with water of\\ncrystallization. A depression of temperature is then observed,\\nas we have seen in the case of nitre, the crystals of which are\\nanhydrous; but another example will more clearly illustrate\\nthis important phenomenon.\\nIf water be poured upon recently fused and powdered calcium\\nchloride, the salt dissolves with production of heat. It changes\\nnot only its state but its composition it combines energetically", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0274.jp2"}, "275": {"fulltext": "SALTS. 271\\nwith the water, and this combination produces more heat than\\nis absorbed by the change of state. Hence there is an eleva-\\ntion of temperature.\\nIf calcium chloride, combined with its water of crystalliza-\\ntion, be rapidly mixed with snow, the salt is so soluble in water\\nthat it causes the snow to melt at the same time that it becomes\\nliquid itself. Here there is no combination, no chemical action,\\nand no heat is disengaged. It is a double physical phenome-\\nnon, fusion of the snow and fusion of the calcium chloride,\\nand neither of these bodies can undergo a change of state with-\\nout absorbing heat. Hence there is a depression of tempera-\\nture which may reach 40\u00c2\u00b0.\\nA mixture of snow and calcium chloride is a freezing mix-\\nture. A mixture of equal parts of common salt and broken\\nice or snow is frequently used for the production of cold.\\nThe phenomenon of the solution of salts in water presents\\nnone of the characteristics of a chemical action it does not\\ntake place in definite proportions.\\nIn fact, a soluble salt requires for its complete solution a\\nquantity of water, which is always the same for a certain weight\\nof the salt at a given temperature but there exists no atomic\\nrelation between this quantity of water and the weight of the\\nsalt which is dissolved.\\nFurther, although the solubility of a salt presents for each\\ntemperature a maximum limit, that is, although a given weight\\nof a salt requires for its solution a quantity of water which is\\ninvariable and which cannot be diminished, when the solution\\nhas been accomplished an indefinite quantity of water may be\\nadded, and the liquid will still remain perfectly homogeneous.\\nSupersaturation. We have seen that a saturated solution\\nof a salt at a given temperature generally deposits a part of\\nthat salt on cooling. This is not always the case it sometimes\\nhappens, if the cooling take place under certain conditions, that\\na portion of the salt, which the difference in temperature should\\nreduce to the solid state, still remains in solution. The solu-\\ntion is then said to be supersaturated. Sodium sulphate and\\nalum have a great tendency to form such solutions.\\nA hot, saturated solution of sodium sulphate is contained in\\nthe tube A (Fig. 95). It is heated to boiling, so that the vapor\\nescapes by the drawn-out extremity. By the aid of a blow-\\npipe, the tube is then sealed at C, before the vapor can con-\\ndense, and is then allowed to cool. A vacuum is formed above", "height": "4793", "width": "3017", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0275.jp2"}, "276": {"fulltext": "272\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nthe solution, for the air has been driven out by the vapor. The\\ncold liquid remains limpid it deposits no crystals. But the\\ninstant the drawn-out point of the tube is broken off, the air\\nenters and crystallization at once commences at the surface and\\nFig. 95.\\nproceeds throughout the entire mass, which becomes solid at\\nthe same time an elevation of temperature may be observed.\\n100 grammes of water and 200 grammes of crystallized so-\\ndium sulphate may be heated to ebullition in a narrow-necked\\nflask, and as soon as vapor begins to issue from the mouth, the\\nlatter may be covered with a watch-glass and the whole allowed\\nto cool tranquilly. The salt remains dissolved, and the solution\\ncontained in the flask is supersaturated; but as soon as the\\nwatch-glass is removed the liquid becomes a solid mass of crys-\\ntals (Loewel).\\nIn the first experiment it is the sudden entry of the air\\nwhich determines the crystallization; in the second, it is the\\nfree access of air, and it may be admitted that in each case the\\nair acts by the corpuscles which it holds in suspension, and\\nwhich, falling into the solution, determine the crystallization.\\nIndeed, Loewel has shown that air which has been filtered", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0276.jp2"}, "277": {"fulltext": "SALTS. 273\\nthrough cotton-wool has lost the property of causing supersat-\\nurated solutions to crystallize.\\nBut what is the nature of these particles which by falling\\nupon the surface of supersaturated solutions occasion crystalli-\\nzation The researches of Gernez have thrown great light upon\\nthis question. According to him, they are saline particles simi-\\nlar to the salt dissolved. The sodium sulphate is deposited in\\nthe preceding experiments because the entry of the air has\\nallowed an imperceptible particle of sodium sulphate to fall\\nupon the surface of the liquid, and around this particle the\\ncrystallization begins immediately and is propagated through-\\nout the entire mass of the supersaturated liquid. The air then\\ncontains a trace of sodium sulphate, as it contains a trace of\\ncommon salt and of carbonate and sulphate of calcium. These\\nparticles are suspended in the air in a state of extreme division,\\nand are carried from great distances by the winds.\\nA boiling saturated solution of sodium hyposulphite may be\\nallowed to cool in a carefully-corked flask. When cold, it is so\\nconcentrated that it possesses an oily consistency. The flask\\nmay be carefully uncorked and the surface of the liquid touched\\nwith a rod to the end of which a small particle of sodium hy-\\nposulphite has been made to adhere. Crystallization at once\\ncommences at the spot where the rod touches the liquid, and\\nin a few seconds the whole mass becomes solid. There is at\\nthe same time a notable disengagement of heat (G-ernez).\\nThe crystallization will also take place if a particle of sodium\\nsulphate be allowed to fall into the solution, for the latter salt\\npossesses the same crystalline form as sodium hyposulphite, and\\nan analogous constitution.\\nEbullition of Saline Solutions. Aqueous solutions of the\\nsalts generally possess a boiling-point higher than that of water.\\nThus, a saturated solution of common salt boils at 108.4\u00c2\u00b0 a\\nsaturated solution of potassium nitrate boils at 115.9\u00c2\u00b0; and a\\nsaturated solution of calcium chloride boils only at 179.5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAction of Heat upon the Salts. The hydrated salts lose\\ntheir water when they are heated. Ordinarily, a temperature\\nof 100\u00c2\u00b0 is sufficient to expel the water of crystallization. Cer-\\ntain salts melt in this water before losing it they are so soluble\\nin hot water that they dissolve in the water which at a lower tem-\\nperature constitutes them in the crystalline state. This is called\\naqueous fusion. A great number of anhydrous salts melt when\\nthey are exposed to intense heat this is called igneous fusion,", "height": "4792", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0277.jp2"}, "278": {"fulltext": "274\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nHeat exerts a decomposing action upon many salts. Upon\\nthis point it is difficult to give general laws. It can only be\\nsaid that the stability of a salt depends upon three conditions,\\nnamely, the fixedness of the corresponding acid, the stability\\nof the corresponding oxide, and the energy of the affinity with\\nwhich the two react together to form the salt.\\nThus the salts of acids decomposable by heat are themselves\\ndecomposed at an elevated temperature. It is thus with the\\nchlorates, the perchlorates, and the nitrates. Among the sul-\\nphates, some are decomposable, others are fixed. The latter are\\nthose of potassium, sodium, barium, strontium, calcium, mag-\\nnesium, lead, etc. The corresponding oxides of potassium,\\nsodium, barium, etc., are fixed bases, and possess a powerful\\naffinity for sulphuric acid. Hence their sulphates are stable.\\nMost of the carbonates are decomposable by heat; indeed,\\nthe affinity of carbonic acid for the bases is as a rule feeble.\\nIt is exceptionally strong for the alkaline bases hence the alka-\\nline carbonates and barium carbonate resist the action of heat.\\nAction of Electricity upon the Salts. When an electric\\ncurrent traverses the aque-\\nous solution of a salt, the\\nlatter is decomposed. The\\nmetal separates at the neg-\\native pole, and the other\\nelement of the salt at the\\npositive pole. This other\\nelement may be an elec-\\ntro-negative element, such\\nas chlorine, or an oxidized\\ngroup, that is, a group of\\natoms, one or more of\\nwhich is oxygen.\\nThe electrolysis of a\\nsalt may be effected as\\nfollows: An U tube (Fig.\\n96) contains a solution of\\ncupric chloride. In each\\nbranch a plate of platinum\\ndips into the liquid, and\\nF IG 96. these plates, connected by\\nconducting wires with the two poles of a battery, constitute\\nthe positive and negative electrodes, As soon as the current", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0278.jp2"}, "279": {"fulltext": "SALTS. 275\\npasses, the electro-positive element of the salt, the copper, is\\ndeposited upon the electro-negative electrode, and the chlorine,\\nwhich is electro-negative, is disengaged at the positive electrode.\\nA part of this chlorine combines with the platinum electrode\\nby a secondary reaction, forming platinum chloride, but the\\nprincipal action, that is, the decomposition of cupric chloride\\nby electrolysis, is represented by the following equation\\nCuCP Cu CI 2\\nCupric chloride. Copper. Chlorine.\\nIf the cupric chloride be replaced by cupric sulphate, the\\ncurrent will decompose this salt into copper, which deposits\\nupon the negative electrode, and into SO 4 which possesses no\\nstability, and consequently breaks up at the positive electrode\\ninto SO 3 which combines with the water to form sulphuric\\nacid, and 0, which is disengaged at the positive electrode.\\nThe decomposition of the SO 4 is a secondary action. The\\nprincipal action accomplished by the work of the current is\\nexpressed by the following equation\\nCuSO 4 Cu SO 4\\nCupric sulphate. Copper. Oxidized group.\\nThe secondary reactions are as follows\\nSO 4 SO 3\\nSO 3 H 2 H 2 S0 4\\nThe experiment may be repeated upon potassium sulphate,\\nand a solution of this salt colored by the syrup of violets is in-\\ntroduced in the U tube. As soon as the current passes, bub-\\nbles of gas are seen to arise from each electrode. Free oxygen\\nappears at the positive electrode, as in the preceding case, and\\nat the same time the liquid filling this branch of the tube as-\\nsumes a red color. This is the evidence of the presence of\\nsulphuric acid formed at the positive electrode.\\nThe gas disengaged at the negative electrode is hydrogen,\\nwhich is produced by a secondary action of the water upon the\\npotassium which is removed from the salt at the negative pole.\\nPotassium hydrate is thus formed, and the syrup of violets\\nin this branch of the tube is colored green. The principal ac-\\ntion accomplished by the current is expressed, as in the pre-\\nceding cases, by the equation\\nK 2 S0 4 K 2 SO 4\\nPotassium sulphate, Potassium. Oxidized group,", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0279.jp2"}, "280": {"fulltext": "276 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe appearance of hydrogen and potassium hydroxide at\\none pole, and the disengagement of oxygen and formation of\\nsulphuric acid at the other, are due to secondary reactions inde-\\npendent of the current, as has been explained.\\nThe positive pole is called the anode, and the negative pole\\nthe cathode, and the elements or groups which separate are\\ndistinguished as anions and cathions, according to the poles at\\nwhich they are set free. The groups into which a compound\\nis separated by the electric current are called the ions.\\nAccording to a theory proposed by Arrhenius, a salt in dilute\\nsolution exists as such only in small proportion, the larger pro-\\nportion being dissociated into the ions. Although it would at\\nfirst seem improbable that a compound like sodium chloride\\nwould thus exist in solution as free chlorine atoms and free\\nsodium atoms, it can be conceived that neither of them would\\nmanifest active properties in presence of the other. We have\\nanalogous cases in the vapors of certain substances that of\\nammonium chloride, for instance, is dissociated into free am-\\nmonia and hydrochloric acid, each of which masks the reactions\\nof the other. Phosphorus pen ta chloride vapor is in like man-\\nner dissociated into phosphorus trichloride and chlorine. The\\ntheory is supported by many facts which cannot be given here.\\nThe conduction of the current is effected by the ions, which\\nare thus continually united and dissociated through the mass\\nof the liquid while those at the poles are set free.\\nFaraday discovered the law expressing the relative quantities\\nof the ions of different electrolytes that would be set free by a\\ngiven current: it is, that a current of the same strength will\\nset free quantities of the ions that are exactly proportional to\\ntheir chemical equivalents. Referred to the elements, these\\nquantities will be in the ratio of the atomic weights divided\\nby the quantivalence.\\nAction of the Metals upon the Salts. The metals may\\ndisplace each other in their saline solutions.\\nIf a plate of copper be plunged into a solution of silver\\nnitrate, the copper enters into solution in the form of cupric\\nnitrate, displacing and precipitating the silver.\\nCu 2AgN0 3 Cu(N0 3 2 Ag 2\\nSilver nitrate. Cupric nitrate.\\nIf a piece of iron be introduced into a solution of cupric\\nsulphate, the iron instantly becomes covered with a layer of", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0280.jp2"}, "281": {"fulltext": "berthollet s laws. 277\\nmetallic copper, precipitated by a portion of the iron which\\nenters the solution.\\nFe CuSO Cu FeSO\\nCupric sulphate. Ferrous sulphate.\\nIf a strip of zinc around which some brass wires have been\\ntwisted be suspended in a dilute solution of plumbic acetate,\\nthe zinc will slowly displace the lead, which will be deposited\\nin brilliant scales upon the brass wires. The latter gradually\\nassume the appearance of fern-leaves, and the experiment\\nconstitutes the formation of the lead-tree.\\nRichter, of Berlin, was the first to remark (1792) that the\\nmetals displace each other in their saline solutions without the\\nneutrality of the latter being disturbed. When a neutral salt\\nis precipitated by a metal, a new neutral salt results. The\\nferrous sulphate formed by the action of iron upon cupric sul-\\nphate is neutral like the latter.\\nIt may be further stated that in this respect the chlorides\\nbehave like the oxygen salts. Iron displaces copper from cu-\\npric chloride as from the sulphate. In the first case it com-\\nbines with CI 2 in the second with SO*, and in this circumstance\\nagain the latter group acts in the same manner as chlorine.\\nCuCP Fe FeCl 2 Cu\\nCupric chloride. Ferrous chloride.\\nCu(S0 4 Fe Fe(SO*) Cu\\nCupric sulphate. Ferrous sulphate.\\nBERTHOLLET S LAWS.\\nTo conclude this general study of the salts, it only remains\\nto indicate the actions exerted upon them by the acids and the\\nbases, and the reciprocal actions of the salts themselves. These\\nfacts have been established and discussed principally by Ber-\\nthollet, who demonstrated the influence of physical conditions,\\nsuch as insolubility and volatility, upon the direction of chem-\\nical decompositions.\\nAction of Acids upon the Salts. When an acid, that is, a\\nsalt of hydrogen, is added to a metallic salt, the former tends\\nto exchange elements with the latter, in such a manner as to\\nform a new salt and a new acid.\\nIf sulphuric acid be added to powdered potassium nitrate,\\n24", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0281.jp2"}, "282": {"fulltext": "278 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nthe latter partially dissolves without the aid of heat, and\\npotassium acid sulphate and nitric acid are formed.\\nKNO 3 H 2 S0 4 HNO 3 KHSO 4\\nPotassium nitrate. Sulphuric acid. Nitric acid. Potassium acid sulphate.\\nBut this reaction is by no means complete. Powerful as\\nare its affinities, the sulphuric acid cannot decompose the whole\\nof the potassium nitrate unaided by heat a portion of the latter\\nsalt remains unaltered in presence of the excess of sulphuric\\nacid, so that the resulting thick and fuming liquid really con-\\ntains two acids and two salts, namely\\nSulphuric acid.\\nNitric acid.\\nPotassium acid sulphate.\\nPotassium nitrate.\\nThe reaction takes place as if two acids were in presence of\\na single base. There is a conflict between the acids, and they\\ntend to divide the base, which is potassium, in such a manner\\nthat each acid may saturate a portion.\\nHence the decomposition of potassium nitrate is not com-\\nplete, and it is arrested as soon as the nitric acid set free can\\ndispute with the sulphuric acid the possession of the base.\\nThere is then established a state of equilibrium between the\\ntwo acids, both remaining in presence of the two salts.\\nBut this equilibrium is unstable and may be deranged by\\nvarious circumstances.\\nIf the acid mixture be heated, abundant white vapors are\\ndisengaged. It is the nitric acid which volatilizes. But the\\nsulphuric acid becomes thus preponderant in the liquid and\\ndecomposes another portion of potassium nitrate, and, if the\\nvolatilization of the nitric acid set free be not arrested by the\\nremoval of the heat, it is evident that nothing can prevent the\\ncomplete decomposition of the potassium nitrate by the sul-\\nphuric acid. The nitric acid, which by its presence alone\\nprevented this total decomposition, is rendered powerless.\\nSuch is the influence of volatility or the gaseous state upon\\nthe progress of decompositions it is manifested in the highest\\ndegree in acids more volatile than nitric acid, such as carbonic\\nand sulphurous acids. We have already seen that the carbon-\\nates and sulphites are easily and entirely decomposed by the\\nenergetic acids.\\nWhile the volatility of acids favors the decomposition of\\ntheir salts, insolubility may play an analogous part.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0282.jp2"}, "283": {"fulltext": "BERTHOLLETS LAWS. 27$\\nIf hydrochloric acid be added to a solution of potassium sili-\\ncate, a gelatinous precipitate of silicic acid is at once produced,\\nand at the same time potassium chloride is formed. The de-\\ncomposition is complete, for the silicic acid is insoluble.\\nIf sulphuric acid be poured into a solution of barium nitrate,\\na precipitate of barium sulphate is immediately formed, while\\nat the same time nitric acid is set free.\\nBa(N0 3 2 H 2 SO 2HX0 3 BaSO\\nBarium nitrate. Sulphuric acid. Mtric acid. Barium sulphate.\\nIn this case also the decomposition is complete, for the ba-\\nrium sulphate is insoluble.\\nIn these two reactions, the division of the base between the\\ntwo acids cannot take place, since one of the products is imme-\\ndiately removed from the sphere of action by its insolubility.\\nIn the first case, it is the newly-formed acid which is precipi-\\ntated; in the second, it is the newly-formed salt which is de-\\nposited in the insoluble state.\\nInfluence of Mass, One other circumstance can influence\\nthe extent of these decompositions: it is the relative masses of\\nthe bodies which are in presence of each other.\\nIn the first experiment, it was supposed that an amount of\\nsulphuric acid had been added to potassium nitrate sufficient to\\nproduce the double decomposition. If a large excess had been\\nemployed, it is evident that it would have become preponderant\\nin the mixture, and that it would have displaced a more con-\\nsiderable portion of nitric acid.\\nThe influence of mass is manifested in the case of very feeble\\nacids, and permits them to displace stronger acids. If a small\\nquantity of tricalcic phosphate be introduced into water charged\\nwith carbonic acid, the latter, compensating by its mass for its\\ndeficiency in energy, will remove from the phosphate a portion\\nof its base. Calcium dicarbonate and calcium acid phosphate\\nare formed, both of which are soluble.\\nSuch, according to Berthollet, is the influence of insolubility\\nand volatility upon the phenomena of double decomposition\\nsuch, on the other hand, is the influence of mass. The same\\nconditions intervene, and in the same manner, in the reactions\\nwhich we are about to study.\\nAction of Bases upon the Salts. We will here consider\\nonly the action of the soluble bases, that is, the alkaline hy-\\ndrates.", "height": "4772", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0283.jp2"}, "284": {"fulltext": "280 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIf a solution of potassium hydrate be poured into a solu-\\ntion of sodium sulphate, no apparent change takes place but,\\naccording to the principle which has just been announced, it is\\nprobable that the potassium hydrate has liberated a portion\\nof sodium hydrate.\\nNa 2 SO 2KOH K 2 SO* 2NaOH\\nSodium sulphate. Potassium hydrate. Potassium sulphate. Sodium hydrate.\\nBut this decomposition cannot be complete, and the liquid\\nmust contain four bodies, namely\\nSodium sulphate.\\nPotassium sulphate.\\nSodium hydrate.\\nPotassium hydrate.\\nIf potassium hydrate be added to a solution of cupric sul-\\nphate, a light-blue precipitate of cupric hydrate is obtained.\\nIn this case the decomposition is complete, owing to the insol-\\nubility of the cupric hydrate which cannot dispute with the\\npotassium hydrate the possession of the acid.\\nCuSO 4 2KOH K 2 S0 4 Cu^OH) 2\\nCupric sulphate. Potassium hydrate. Potassium sulphate. Cupric hydrate.\\nIf a solution of barium hydrate be poured into a solution of\\npotassium sulphate, a precipitate of barium sulphate is pro-\\nduced, and potassium hydrate remains in solution. In thia\\ncase again, the decomposition is complete, by reason of the in-\\nsolubility of the barium sulphate. The potassium cannot di-\\nvide the acid with the barium, for the latter escapes with all\\nof it in the form of insoluble sulphate.\\nK 2 S0 4 Ba(OH) 2 BaSO 4 2KOH\\nPotassium sulphate. Barium hydrate. Barium sulphate. Potassium hydrate.\\nAction of the Salts upon each other. The action of salts\\nupon each other is what would naturally follow from the prin-\\nciples exposed in treating of the action of acids upon salts.\\nIndeed, the latter possess the same constitution as the acids,\\nand in their reactions upon salts should give rise to phenomena\\nof the same order. These are exchanges of elements, double\\ndecompositions, which take place and are more or less complete,\\naccording to the physical conditions of the bodies which are\\nproduced, and also according to the relative masses of the re-\\nacting bodies.\\nIn the first place, we must consider the reciprocal actions of\\nthe soluble salts.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0284.jp2"}, "285": {"fulltext": "berthollet s laws. 281\\nIf a solution of cupric sulphate be treated with a solution\\nof sodium chloride, no precipitate is formed, but the blue color\\nof the liquid is changed to green. This color is that of cupric\\nchloride, and it may be supposed that the latter salt is formed\\nby the reciprocal action of the sodium chloride and cupric\\nsulphate.\\nCuSO 4 2NaCl Na 2 S0 4 CuCP\\nCupric sulphate. Sodium chloride. Sodium sulphate. Cupric chloride.\\nBut this interchange of elements between the cupric sulphate\\nand the sodium chloride is arrested before the decomposition\\nof the two salts is complete. A part of each remains unaltered\\nin the presence of the other and of the two new salts which\\nare formed. Consequently, the green liquor obtained in this\\nexperiment contains four salts, namely:\\nCupric sulphate.\\nSodium chloride.\\nSodium sulphate.\\nCupric chloride.\\nThe respective proportions in which these salts exist in the\\nmixture depend upon several circumstances. Malaguti has\\nshown that in cases of this kind it is the energy of the affinity\\nof the acids for the bases which governs the decomposition.\\nThe most energetic acid tends to combine with the most power-\\nful base, and the proportion of the salt thus formed predomi-\\nnates in the mixture. Thus there is set up, as it were, between\\nthe elements in presence a sort of conflict, in which the stronger\\nare victorious, while the weaker are not altogether annihilated.\\nThe result is a state of equilibrium which is only disturbed in\\ncase one of the products is by reason of its insolubility removed\\nfrom the sphere of action of the other. The latter condition\\nis realized in the following experiments.\\nWhen barium chloride is added to the blue solution of cupric\\nsulphate, a precipitate of barium sulphate is immediately formed,\\nand cupric chloride remains in solution, coloring the liquid\\ngreen.\\nCuSO 4 BaCl 2 BaSO 4 CuCP\\nCupric sulphate. Barium chloride. Barium sulphate. Cupric chloride.\\nIn this case the decomposition is complete, owing to the in-\\nsolubility of the barium sulphate. That salt is removed by\\ncohesion from the sphere of action of the compounds which\\nremain in solution. The portions first formed, and thus with-\\n24*", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0285.jp2"}, "286": {"fulltext": "282 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ndrawn, are replaced by others, and the reaction once commenced\\nis finished in the same manner, so that the whole of the cupric\\nsulphate is converted into barium sulphate.\\nA concentrated solution of common salt produces no precipi-\\ntate in a concentrated solution of magnesium sulphate. How-\\never, we must admit that there is an interchange of elements,\\nand that the liquid contains four salts, namely\\nMagnesium sulphate.\\nSodium chloride.\\nSodium sulphate.\\nMagnesium chloride.\\nIf this solution be exposed to an intense cold, it deposits\\ncrystals of sodium sulphate, while magnesium chloride remains\\nin solution (Balard). Of the four salts which are in presence\\nof each other, the sodium sulphate is the least soluble it is\\ntherefore deposited, and the double decomposition continues\\nin the same manner until the greater part of the magnesium\\nsulphate has been decomposed.\\nThe subject could be further developed by other examples.\\nThose which have been given are sufficient to expose the true\\nprinciple of double decomposition.\\nWe may add that if the operations be conducted in the dry\\nway and at a high temperature, the volatility of the products\\nwhich may be formed exerts an influence upon the reactions\\nanalogous to that which has been established for insolubility.\\nIf an intimate mixture of mercuric sulphate and sodium\\nchloride be heated in a glass matrass, a sublimate of mercuric\\nchloride is formed.\\nHgSO 4 2NaCl Na 2 S0 4 HgCl 2\\nMercuric sulphate. Sodium chloride. Sodium sulphate. Mercuric chloride.\\nAction of Soluble Salts upon Insoluble Salts. The study\\nof double decomposition may be concluded by a summary ex-\\nposition of the action of soluble salts upon insoluble salts. It\\nis analogous to that which has just been studied, that is, it is\\ncharacterized by a tendency to an interchange of elements. A\\nsingle example will be sufficient.\\nIf a solution of sodium carbonate be boiled for a long time\\nwith barium sulphate, it is found that the latter salt has under-\\ngone a partial decomposition. It is partially converted into\\nbarium carbonate, insoluble like the sulphate, and the liquid\\nbecomes charged with a certain quantity of sodium sulphate.\\nBaSO 4 Na 2 C0 3 Na 2 S0 4 BaCO 3\\nBarium sulphate. Sodium carbonate. Sodium sulphate. Barium carbonate.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0286.jp2"}, "287": {"fulltext": "NITRATES. 283\\nThis decomposition is more complete as the proportion of\\nsodium carbonate which reacts upon the barium lulphate is\\nincreased. Here, as in some of the preceding experiments, the\\ninfluence exerted by the greater mass is very appreciable.\\nThis study may be aptly terminated by summary indications\\nupon the composition and properties of the more important\\nclasses of salts, which are the nitrates, sulphates, and carbonates.\\nNITRATES.\\nComposition. Nitric acid containing HNO 3 the nitrates\\ncontain the group NO 3 combined with a metal which replaces\\nthe hydrogen of the acid. Consequently they contain one or\\nmore groups, NO 3 according to the nature of the metal which\\nhas neutralized the nitric acid. Thus,\\n1. KOH HNO 3 KNO 3 H 2\\nPotassium hydrate. Nitric acid. Potassium nitrate.\\n2. PbO 2HN0 3 Pb(N0 3 2 H 2\\nPlumbic oxide. Plumbic nitrate.\\n3H 2\\n3. hUo 3 3HN0 3 Bi(N0 3 3\\nBismuthic hydrate. Bismuth trinitrate.\\nWith these few examples, we may conclude\\n1. That potassium, which unites with one atom of chlorine\\nto form potassium chloride, KC1, unites also with one group,\\nNO 3 to form potassium nitrate.\\n2. That lead, which unites with two atoms of chlorine to\\nform plumbic chloride, PbCP, unites also with two groups,\\nNO 3 to form plumbic nitrate.\\n3. That bismuth, which unites with three atoms of chlorine\\nto form bismuth trichloride, BiCl 3 unites also with three groups,\\nNO 3 to form bismuth trinitrate.\\nIn the chloride K Cl potassium is monatomic.\\nIn the chloride Pb Cl 2 lead is diatomic.\\nIn the chloride Bi Cl 3 bismuth is triatomic.\\nIn the nitrates, these three metals play the same parts as in\\nthe chlorides and we may say, in a general manner, that the\\nmetallic nitrates contain a metal united with as many times\\nNO 3 as the metal possesses atomicities.\\nIn K (N0 3 monatomic potassium is united with NO 3\\nIn Pb (N0 3 2 diatomic lead is united to 2^ T 3\\nIn Bi (N0 3 3 triatomic bismuth is united to 3N0 3\\nSuch is the law of the composition of the nitrates.", "height": "4788", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0287.jp2"}, "288": {"fulltext": "284 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nProperties. All of the nitrates are soluble in water. Some\\nof them are deposited from their solutions in the form of hy-\\ndrated crystals. Such is cupric nitrate, which crystallizes with\\nsix molecules of water at a low temperature.\\nOthers separate in anhydrous crystals. Such are the nitrates\\nof potassium, sodium, silver, barium, and lead.\\nAll of the nitrates are decomposable by heat, and the pro-\\nducts of the decomposition vary with the nature of the nitrate\\nand with the temperature. Thus, potassium nitrate is first\\nconverted into nitrite, and this is finally decomposed into\\nnitrogen, oxygen, and potassium oxide. The nitrates of barium\\nand lead yield nitrogen peroxide, oxygen, and a residue of\\noxide. Silver nitrate yields nitrogen peroxide, oxygen, and a\\nresidue of metal.\\n2AgN0 3 N 2 4 O 2 Ag 2\\nAll of the nitrates liberate oxygen when they are heated;\\nrich in oxygen, they constitute an abundant source of that\\nelement, and they are also easily reduced by bodies possessing\\na strong affinity for it.\\nSulphur, charcoal, phosphorus, and certain metals are ener-\\ngetically oxidized when heated with the nitrates.\\nIf sulphur be heated with potassium nitrate, potassium\\nsulphate is formed, and sulphurous oxide and nitrogen are\\ndisengaged.\\n2KN0 3 S 2 K 2 S0 4 SO 2 N 2\\nPotassium nitrate. Potassium sulphate.\\nWhen powdered potassium nitrate is thrown upon burning\\ncharcoal, the salt melts and increases the combustion of the\\ncharcoal, producing a vivid deflagration. Potassium carbonate\\nis formed and carbon dioxide and nitrogen are disengaged.\\n4KN0 3 5C 2K 2 C0 3 3C0 2 2N 2\\nPotassium nitrate. Potassium carbonate.\\nDistinctive Characters. All of the nitrates deflagrate when\\nthrown upon incandescent charcoal.\\nWith concentrated sulphuric acid they evolve white vapors of\\nnitric acid in the cold, and more abundantly when the reaction\\nis aided by heat. When mixed with copper-filings and treated\\nwith concentrated sulphuric acid, they disengage red vapors.\\nWhen the solution of a nitrate is mixed with its own volume\\nof concentrated sulphuric acid, and a crystal of ferrous sulphate\\nis introduced into the liquid, the crystal very soon assumes a", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0288.jp2"}, "289": {"fulltext": "SULPHATES. 285\\nbrown color which is communicated to the liquid. In this\\nvery delicate reaction the nitric acid is reduced by the ferrous\\nsulphate to nitrogen dioxide, which colors the excess of ferrous\\nsulphate brown (page 164).\\nThe solution of a nitrate, when treated with sulphuric acid,\\nwill decolorize solution of sulphate of indigo when the liquid\\nis heated to boiling.\\nSULPHATES.\\nComposition. Sulphuric acid, H 2 S0 4 contains two atoms\\nof hydrogen capable of being replaced by a metal. When both\\nare replaced by an equivalent quantity of metal, a neutral sul-\\nphate is formed. An acid sulphate is formed when a single\\none of these atoms of hydrogen is replaced by a single atom of\\nmetal. The hydrogen of the acid is removed by the oxygen\\nof the metallic oxide or hydrate which more or less completely\\nsaturates the sulphuric acid. Several cases may be presented.\\nH 2\\n1. K OH IPSO 4 g SO 4\\nPotassium hydrate. Potassium acid sulphate.\\n2. 2K OH IPSO K 2 S0 4 2H 2\\nPotassium sulphate.\\n3. Pb 0 HW Pb S0 4 H 2\\nPlumbic oxide. Plumbic sulphate.\\nC IPSO 4 SO 4\\n4. (Al 2 Ti 3 1 IPSO 4 (Al 2 SO 4 3H 2\\n(IPSO 4 (.SO 4\\nAluminium oxide. 3 molecules. Aluminium sulphate.\\nThese examples show that all of the sulphates contain the\\ngroup SO 4 which in sulphuric acid is united with two atoms\\nof hydrogen. This group is diatomic; it is necessary, then,\\nthat in the sulphates it shall be united with a quantity of metal\\nequivalent to two atoms of hydrogen.\\n1. In the acid sulphates it is united with an atom of hydro-\\ngen and an atom of a monatomic metal, xj SO 4\\n2. It is united with two atoms of a monatomic metal in the\\nneutral sulphates B/ 2 S0 4\\n3. With one atom of a diatomic metal in the neutral sul-\\nphates M S0 4\\nThese cases are very simple. It is not so, however, with", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0289.jp2"}, "290": {"fulltext": "286 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nthe fourth, in which we consider the saturation of sulphuric\\nacid by an oxide R 2 3 such as ferric oxide or aluminic oxide.\\nEach of the three atoms of oxygen of the oxide R 2 3 removes\\nH 2 from a molecule of H 2 S0 4 and it results that the metal\\nwhich was combined with 30 combines with 3(S0 4 The\\ntwo atoms of metal which are substituted for 3H 2 in three mol-\\necules of H 2 S0 4 are then equivalent to 6 atoms of hydrogen.\\nThey are hexatomic, as is marked by the index vi\\nProperties. The sulphates are nearly all soluble in water.\\nThose of barium, strontium, and lead are insoluble. The sul-\\nphates of calcium and silver, and mercurous sulphate are but\\nslightly soluble.\\nThe alkaline sulphates, and those of calcium, barium, stron-\\ntium, magnesium, and lead, are undecomposable by heat. The\\nothers are decomposed at a high temperature. A residue of\\noxide generally remains, while sulphurous oxide and oxygen\\nare disengaged. The sulphates of zinc and copper are thus\\ndecomposed at a high red heat.\\nCuSO 4 SO 2 CuO\\nCupric sulphate. Cupric oxide.\\nIn case the oxide is reducible by heat, the residue consists\\nof metal.\\nHgSO 4 Hg SO 2 O 2\\nMercuric sulphate. Mercury.\\nThe sulphates R 2 (S0 4 3 are decomposed at a comparatively\\nlow temperature, disengaging vapor of sulphur trioxide and\\nleaving a residue of sesquioxide.\\nFe 2 (S0 4 3 Fe 2 3 3S0 3\\nFerric sulphate. Ferric oxide. Sulphuric oxide.\\nThe sulphates are easily reduced by bodies avid of oxygen,\\nsuch as charcoal.\\nIf an intimate mixture of potassium sulphate with an excess\\nof charcoal be heated to bright redness, and allowed to cool out\\nof contact with the air, a black powder is obtained, which pro-\\nduces a shower of sparks when projected into the air. It is\\nthe pyrophorus of Gay-Lussac. It owes its spontaneous in-\\nflammability on contact with the air to finely-divided potassium\\nsulphide which it contains, and which attracts oxygen with great\\navidity. The sulphide is formed according to the following\\nreaction\\nK 2 S0 4 40 4C0 K 2 S\\nPotassium sulphate, Potassium sulphide,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0290.jp2"}, "291": {"fulltext": "CARBONATES. 287\\nIn the same manner barium sulphate and calcium sulphate\\nare converted into sulphides by the action of charcoal at a high\\ntemperature.\\nThe other sulphates are also reduced under the same circum-\\nstances, but the products vary; carbon dioxide or carbon mon-\\noxide and sulphurous oxide are disengaged, and the residue\\nconsists of either oxide or metal.\\nDistinctive Characters. When treated with sulphuric acid,\\nthe sulphates do not evolve any gas. They do not deflagrate\\nwhen thrown upon burning charcoal. Their solutions give a\\nwhite precipitate of barium sulphate with barium nitrate, which\\nis insoluble in nitric acid. When this precipitate is washed,\\ndried, and calcined with an excess of charcoal, it leaves a resi-\\ndue of barium sulphide, and when this is moistened with hy-\\ndrochloric acid, it evolves hydrogen sulphide, which is easily\\nrecognized by its odor.\\nCARBONATES.\\nComposition. Carbonic acid is dibasic, like sulphuric acid.\\nIt is not known in the state of hydrate, and the carbonates are\\nformed by the direct union of carbon dioxide with the metallic\\noxides or hydrates.\\nWhen freshly-burnt lime is exposed to the air, it attracts at\\nthe same time the moisture and the carbonic acid gas of the air,\\nand is converted into carbonate.\\nCO 2 CaO CaCO 3\\nCalcium oxide. Calcium carbonate.\\nThe carbonates then contain the group CO 3 combined with\\na metal. In carbonic acid, this group would be united with two\\natoms of hydrogen. The composition of the more simple car-\\nbonates is expressed by the following formulas:\\nH 2 C0 3 carbonic acid (unknown).\\ntt CO 3 acid carbonates (dicarbonates).\\nR/ 2 C0 3 neutral carbonates.\\nM C0 3 neutral carbonates.\\nIn these formulae, B/ represents a monatomic metal, such as\\npotassium, which is equivalent to one atom of hydrogen. M\\nrepresents a diatomic metal, such as calcium, which is equiva-\\nlent to two atoms of hydrogen.\\nProperties, Only the alkaline carbonates are soluble in pur?,", "height": "4801", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0291.jp2"}, "292": {"fulltext": "288 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nwater. The others are insoluble, but they dissolve in water\\ncharged with carbonic acid.\\nThe soluble carbonates possess an alkaline reaction. It is\\nthe same with the acid carbonates of the alkaline metals, which\\nare ordinarily called bicarbonates, such as potassium dicarbonate\\nKHCO 3\\nAll of the carbonates except the alkaline carbonates are de-\\ncomposable by heat. In this decomposition carbon dioxide is\\ndisengaged, and there remains a residue of oxide, or of metal\\nin case the oxide be reducible by heat. Thus, the carbonates\\nof magnesium, calcium, zinc, lead, and copper leave a residue\\nof oxide after calcination silver carbonate leaves a residue of\\nmetal.\\nBarium carbonate is but slowly decomposed at a white heat\\nits decomposition is facilitated by heating it in a current of\\nsteam.\\nBodies avid of oxygen act upon the carbonates as upon the\\noxides the metal is reduced if the base be reducible. Char-\\ncoal acts in this manner upon the carbonates.\\nIf cupric carbonate be heated with charcoal, carbon dioxide\\nis disengaged, and metallic copper remains.\\n2CuC0 3 C 3C0 2 2Cu\\nCupric carbonate. Copper.\\nIn this experiment carbon dioxide is disengaged, for cupric\\noxide is easily reducible by charcoal. It is not the same with\\npotassium oxide hence potassium carbonate is only reduced\\nby charcoal at a very high temperature with disengagement\\nof carbon monoxide.\\nK 2 C0 3 2C 3CO K 2\\nWhen barium carbonate is heated with charcoal, carbon\\nmonoxide is disengaged in the same manner, but there remains\\na residue of barium oxide, for the latter is irreducible by char-\\ncoal.\\nBaCO 3 C 2CO BaO\\nPhosphorus decomposes all of the carbonates.\\nA small piece of phosphorus may be placed at the bottom\\nof a small test-tube, and the latter then nearly filled with well-\\ndried sodium carbonate. The part of the tube containing the\\ncarbonate being heated to redness, the phosphorus may be\\nheated so that its vapor will pass over the incandescent car-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0292.jp2"}, "293": {"fulltext": "CLASSIFICATION OF THE METALS. 289\\nbonate. The latter will be decomposed with the formation of\\nsodium phosphate and a deposition of carbon. After cooling,\\nthe contents of the tube will be black.\\nThe experiment may be repeated upon calcium carbonate.\\nThe phosphorus is placed in a small crucible, which is then\\nintroduced into a larger one. The calcium carbonate (chalk)\\nis then placed upon the lid of the smaller crucible, which is\\npierced with holes. The arrangement is heated upon a double\\ngrate, so that when the chalk has been brought to incandes-\\ncence, the vapor of phosphorus may be caused to pass through\\nit by placing some hot coals upon the lower grate. The chalk\\nis rapidly decomposed, carbon monoxide is disengaged, and a\\nmixture of calcium phosphate and phosphide is formed. This\\nmixture serves for the preparation of hydrogen phosphide.\\nDistinctive Characters. When treated with sulphuric acid,\\nthe carbonates disengage a colorless, incombustible gas, which\\nextinguishes burning bodies and produces a milkiness when\\nagitated with lime-water.\\nCLASSIFICATION OF THE METALS.\\nIn the preceding pages we have studied the composition and\\nthe general properties of metallic compounds. This study has\\nrevealed the fact that the metals possess very different aptitudes\\nto form compounds, and various capacities of combination, which\\nare manifested by the greater or less number of other atoms\\nwhich the atoms of these metals can attract. In this respect,\\nthe differences existing between the metals are analogous to\\nthose which we have already remarked between the metalloids.\\nOn comparing the metals among themselves, some are discov-\\nered which resemble each other in the general structure of the\\ncompounds which they are capable of forming, and such can\\nnaturally be classed in the same group. On this plan the\\nmetals are divided into several families analogous to those first\\nproposed by Dumas for the metalloids, and it will be seen that\\nthe general composition of the metallic compounds furnishes\\nthe elements for a natural classification of the metals. While\\nthis principle is excellent, its application is attended with some\\ndifficulties which chemistry has not yet been able to solve.\\nConsequently, this chapter must be limited to summary indi-\\ncations upon the subject.\\nSome of the metals are incapable of combining with more\\njr t 2o", "height": "4790", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0293.jp2"}, "294": {"fulltext": "290\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nthan a single atom of chlorine, bromine, or iodine. The com-\\npounds thus formed correspond in their atomic constitution to\\nhydrochloric, hydriodic, and hydrobromic acids. On comparing\\npotassium chloride or silver chloride to hydrochloric acid, it\\nwill be seen that an atom of potassium or an atom of silver\\noccupies in them the place occupied by the hydrogen of the\\nacid. The atoms of potassium and of silver 1 are therefore\\nequivalent to the atoms of hydrogen as far as their capacity\\nof combination is concerned. The other alkaline metals, such\\nas sodium and lithium, are similar and belong to the same group.\\nTheir chlorides, bromides, and iodides, which are arranged in the\\nfollowing table, present analogous compositions\\nMonatomic Metals.\\nMonatomic\\nChlorides.\\nMonatomic\\nBromides.\\nMonatomic\\nIodides.\\nPotassium K\\nSodium Na\\nLithium Li\\nSilver Ag\\nH Cl\\nEBr\\nHI\\nKCl\\nNaCl\\nLiCl\\nAgCl\\nKBr\\nNaBr\\nLiBr\\nAgBr\\nKI\\nNal\\nLil\\nAgl\\nThese metals form oxides whose atomic constitutions corre-\\nspond to that of water, each containing two atoms of metal for\\none of oxygen. Their sulphides correspond to hydrogen sul-\\nphide, containing two atoms of metal for one of sulphur. With\\nthe oxides and sulphides we may group the hydrates and\\nsulphydrates, which possess analogous atomic constitutions.\\nType H20. Type H2S.\\nOxides.\\nK20\\nNa20\\nAg 2\\nHydrates.\\nKOH\\nNaOH\\nMONOSULPHIDES.\\nSulphydrates.\\nK2S\\nKSH\\nNa2S\\nNaSH\\nAg2S\\nThe same analogy is continued between the salts of these\\n1 Wislicenus has shown that the constitution of certain double salts of\\nsilver can be understood only by considering that this metal is diatomic,\\nand that its compounds are analogous to the cuprous compounds. For\\nconvenience of study it is preferable to consider silver as a monatomic ele-\\nment, and its compounds then become analogous in structure to those of\\npotassium and sodium. Moreover, this classification is in a measure justi-\\nfied by the isomorphism of corresponding compounds of silver and potassium.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0294.jp2"}, "295": {"fulltext": "CLASSIFICATION OF THE METALS.\\n291\\nSulphates.\\nAcid Sulphates.\\nK2SO\\nKHSO*\\nNa2S0*\\nNaHSO*\\nAg2S0*\\nmetals, as will be seen from the nitrates and sulphates which\\nwe take as examples.\\nNitric Acid, HNO 3 Sulphuric Acid, H2S0 4\\nNitrates.\\nKNO 3\\nNaNO 3\\nAgNO 3\\nIt is seen that in all of these compounds the metals under\\nconsideration replace hydrogen atom for atom each of them\\npossesses the same capacity of combination as that gas. They\\nare said to be monatomic.\\nCertain other metals manifest a double capacity of combina-\\ntion; one atom of any of these is capable of replacing two\\natoms of hydrogen, consequently it can combine with two\\natoms of chlorine, bromine, or iodine, or with one atom of\\noxygen or sulphur. In the chlorides of these metals, the two\\natomicities of the metal are satisfied by the two atomicities of\\ntwo atoms of chlorine. In their oxides, the two atomicities\\nof the metal are satisfied by the two atomicities or bonds of\\naffinity which reside in one atom of oxygen. These metals are\\nthen diatomic. They are quite numerous and can be divided\\ninto several groups, one of the most natural of which com-\\nprises barium, strontium, calcium, and lead. The following\\ntable shows the constitution of the principal compounds of\\nthese metals\\nDiatomic Metals.\\nChlorides.\\nOxides.\\nNitrates.\\nSulphates.\\nBarium Ba\\nStrontium Sr\\nCalcium Ca\\nLead Pb\\n2HC1\\nIPO\\n2HN0 3\\nIPSO*\\nBaCl 2\\nSrC12\\nCaCl 2\\nPbCl 2\\nBaO\\nSrO\\nCaO\\nPbO\\nBa(N0 3 2\\nSr(N0 3 2\\nCa(N0 3 2\\nPb(N0 3 2\\nBaSO*\\nSrSO\u00c2\u00b1\\nCaSO\u00c2\u00b1\\nPbSO*\\nThe metals of this group combine with oxygen in two pro-\\nportions, forming not only the monoxides, RO, but also the\\ndioxides, RO 2 They thus form two oxides, while they are\\ncapable of forming but one chloride, RC1 2 Thus, barium\\nforms a monoxide, BaO, a dioxide, BaO 2 and a dichloride,", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0295.jp2"}, "296": {"fulltext": "292 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nBaCl 2 but do tetrachloride of barium is known, and it is not\\nprobable that barium can act as a tetratomic element. How is\\nit, then, that in the dioxide this metal can combine with two\\natoms of oxygen, while it cannot combine with four atoms of\\nchlorine, which are equivalent to two atoms of oxygen In\\nother words, what is the atomicity of barium in the dioxide\\nwhich would seem to correspond to a tetrachloride? It is\\nundoubtedly diatomic in the dioxide as it is in the monoxide,\\nand the constitution of barium dioxide is analogous to that of\\nhydrogen dioxide, which has already been indicated. The\\ntwo atoms of oxygen mutually satisfy two of their atomicities\\nby combining together, and they retain two which are neutral-\\nized in combining with the diatomic atom of barium. Thus,\\nin barium monoxide one atom of oxygen is joined to one atom\\nof barium by both of its atomicities in the dioxide two atoms\\nof oxygen are united to one atom of barium, each by one atom-\\nicity. If we represent the saturation of two atomicities by a\\nstraight line, as has before been explained, we will have the\\nfollowing formulae\\nBa=0\\nBa\\nBarium monoxide.\\n0-0\\nBarium dioxide.\\nIn this manner, theory enables us to fix the relations existing\\nbetween the atoms in a given body.\\nThe comparison may be continued between the other diatomic\\nmetals. Magnesium, the radical of magnesia, somewhat resem-\\nbles calcium in its relations, and forms, as it were, the centre\\nof a group including magnesium, zinc, cobalt, and nickel, and\\nwhich is called the magnesium group. Manganese and iron, on\\none hand, and copper, on the other, seem to join this group by\\ncertain of their characteristics. In their most stable and gen-\\nerally their most important compounds, these metals act as\\ndiatomic elements. All form the dichlorides RCP and the\\noxides HO. But in other compounds, manganese and iron\\nseem removed from the metals of this group, and resemble\\nchromium and aluminium. Copper, which resembles magne-\\nsium in the series of cupric compounds, approaches mercury\\nin the cuprous series.\\nBismuth, which might be classed with antimony, and gold\\nare triatomic in their most important combinations. They\\nform the chlorides Bid 3 and AuCP,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0296.jp2"}, "297": {"fulltext": "CLASSIFICATION OF THE METALS.\\n293\\nA certain number of the metals may be grouped together as\\ntetratomic, since they manifest four atomicities in their principal\\ncombinations. They are tin, titanium, and zirconium. They\\nform the chlorides RC1 4 and the oxides RO 2 In stannic chlo-\\nride, SnCl*, the tin is saturated with chlorine, of which it\\ncannot combine with more than four atoms it is tetratomic\\nin this saturated compound. But it may combine with only\\ntwo atoms of chlorine, thus forming the chloride SnCl 2 which\\nis not saturated, for it can still fix two more atoms of chlorine.\\nTin only manifests two atomicities in the dichloride.\\nIn the same manner, ferrous chloride, FeCl 2 can absorb\\nchlorine, becoming ferric chloride. Above 700\u00c2\u00b0 the latter con-\\ntains one atom of iron and three of chlorine, but just above\\nits temperature of volatilization it appears to contain two atoms\\nof iron united with six of chlorine. The two iron atoms would\\nconstitute a hexatomic couple the same peculiarity is presented\\nby chromium and aluminium.\\nCompounds.\\nChlorides.\\nOxides.\\nSulphates.\\nFerric\\nManganic\\nChromic\\nAluminic\\n(FeCl 3 or\\n1 Fe2Cl 6\\nj MnCl 3 or\\nj Mn 2 Cl6\\nCrCl 3 or\\n1 Cr 2 Cl6\\nJA1C1 3 or\\nA1 2 C1\u00c2\u00ab\\nFe20 3\\nMn 2 3\\nCr20 3\\nA120 3\\nFe2(SO\u00c2\u00b1) 3\\nMn2(SO*) 3\\nCr2(SO\u00c2\u00b1) 3\\nA12(SO\u00c2\u00b1) 3\\nThe following table gives a resume of the constitution of the\\nprincipal metallic combinations. The metals there chosen as\\nexamples have different atomicities.\\nMetals.\\nChlorides.\\nOxides.\\nNitrates.\\nSulphates.\\nMonatomic metal\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Potassium K/\\nKC1\\nK20\\nKNO 3\\nK2S04\\nDiatomic metal Barium Ba\\nBaC12\\nBaO\\nBa(N0 3 )2\\nBaSOi\\nTriatomic metal Bismuth Bi r//\\nBiC13\\nBi203\\nBi(N03)3\\nBi2(SO*)S\\nTetratomic metal\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Tin Sniv\\nSnCH\\nSn02\\nHexatomic group\u00e2\u0080\u0094 (Fe 2 )vi 6\\nFe2C16\\nFe20 3\\nFe2(N03)6\\nFe2(S04)3\\n25*", "height": "4788", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0297.jp2"}, "298": {"fulltext": "294 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nSuch are the principles furnished by the theory of atomicity\\nfor a rational classification of the metals.\\nMendelejeff s Theory.\\nWithin recent years the labors of a Russian chemist, Men-\\ndelejeff, have developed interesting relations between the atomic\\nweights and properties of the elements. He has shown that\\nthe properties are functions of the atomic weights, and that the\\nfunctions are periodic. This relation is not applicable to a\\nlimited group of elements, but extends throughout the whole\\nseries, and consists not in certain analogies, but in the general\\nphysical and chemical properties taken together.\\nIf the elements be arranged in the order of their atomic\\nweights, it will be noticed that these latter increase gradually\\nby only a few units, and also that the properties of the elements\\nare gradually modified with the increase in atomic weights.\\nThe modifications are not, however, continuously progressive,\\nbut are developed in several series.\\nThe differences between the atomic weights of neighboring\\nelements are not equal, but are nearly so, and where these\\ndifferences are excessive it is probably owing to the existence\\nof undiscovered elements. Mendelejeff predicted the existence\\nof several such elements, and at least three of the gaps have\\nsince been filled by the discovery of gallium, scandium, and\\ngermanium. The hypothesis is then certainly worthy of seri-\\nous consideration in all attempts to classify the elements.\\nThe theory may be best explained by considering an example\\nof the periodicity on which it rests.\\nLet us study the first fourteen elements after hydrogen in\\nthe order of their atomic weights.\\nLi =7. Gl=9.4. Bo 11. C 12. N 14. 0=16. Fl 19.\\nNa=23. Mg 24. Al 27.3. Si 28. P 31. S 32. CI 35.5.\\nWe have here two groups, in each of which the change in\\nphysical and chemical properties is markedly progressive with\\nthe increase in atomic weight. The densities gradually increase\\nto the middle of each series, and then decrease to the end. The\\natomic volumes, which are the quotients of the atomic weights\\nby the densities, gradually decrease to the middle of the series,\\nand then augment. The volatility also diminishes from sodium\\nto silicon, and again increases to the end of the series.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0298.jp2"}, "299": {"fulltext": "Mg.\\nAl.\\nSi.\\nP.\\nS.\\nCI.\\n1.75\\n2.67\\n2.49\\n1.84\\n2.06\\n1.38\\n14\\n10\\n11\\n16\\n16\\n27\\nCLASSIFICATION OF THE METALS. 295\\nNa.\\nDensities 0.97\\nAtomic volumes 24\\nThe atomicity, or combining capacity, as indicated by the\\nnumber of atoms of hydrogen or chlorine with which one atom\\nof the elements combines, displays a similar periodicity.\\nLiCl G1C1 2 BCP CH* NH 3 OH 2 F1H\\nNaCl MgCl 2 A1C1 3 SiCP PH 3 SH 2 C1H\\nThe oxygen compounds show a similar progression.\\nLi 2 G1 2 2 B 2 3 C 2 4 N 2 5\\nNa 2 M- 2 2 APO 3 Si 2 4 P 2 5 S 2 6 CPO 7\\nD\\nThe number of oxygen atoms with which a constant number\\nof atoms of elements of these series can combine, regularly\\nincreases, and the properties of the oxides undergo a gradual\\nmodification. Those at the beginning of the series form pow-\\nerful bases the intermediate oxides are indifferent, while the\\nlatter members form strong acids.\\nThat which characterizes these variations is that they occur\\nin the same manner in the two groups, so that the first member\\nof the first series (Li) corresponds to the first member of the\\nsecond. These two series form the first two periods of Men-\\ndelejeff, who has shown that these series or periods can be ex-\\ntended throughout the whole list of elements, and that the\\nproperties of the elements are in periodic relations with their\\natomic weights.\\nThe arrangement of the elements in the periodic system is\\nshown in the table on the following page. The horizontal rows,\\nconsisting when complete of seven elements, are called periods,\\nwhile the vertical columns constitute the natural groups. The\\nseries are sub-classified according to the number of the line,\\nas odd and even. The members of each group are related by\\ntheir atomicities, as well as by the isomorphism and some other\\nproperties of their compounds, but differ very materially in\\nother respects. The fourth, the sixth, and the tenth periods\\nare each followed by three elements having nearly equal atomic\\nweights, and these nine elements constitute the eighth or transi-\\ntional group. Hydrogen stand? alone. The empty spaces in\\nthe table are probably the positions of elements yet to be\\ndiscovered.", "height": "4769", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0299.jp2"}, "300": {"fulltext": "296\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\n1\u00e2\u0080\u00941\\ni\\niq\\nCD CO CD\\nCM\\nCM\\ne CD.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\no3 3? P\\nCO\\nO\\no\\nlO\\nr-i\\nrH\\n2\\nII\\nII\\nH\\nCD 0^3\\nrH\\nc\\n00\\nCO 50\\nII II\\nCD O\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00barH\\nH rH\\nII II\\nPh3\\ni ^3\\nII II\\nen CXSh\\nfeO\\nPhPh\\nCPh\\np\\nfc- fc, o\\n8\\niH\\nII\\ns\\n1\\nCO\\ns\\nII\\nO\\nII II\\nP u\\n2\\nIT\\ns of the othc\\nuivalence fo\\ni the first gi\\nse together.\\n00\\nt^\\nt\\nH\\nM\\no\\nCO\\nl\\nW\\nH\\nft\\nO\\nSrSUO\\n0\\nC7\\nrH\\nII\\no\\nr-(\\nCO\\nII\\noo\\ns ii\\nII\\nPi\\no\\nOS CI\\nII\\nII CD\\no H\\n3\\n\u00c2\u00abo\\nco\\nOO\\nrH\\nII\\na\\no\\na\\nc\\n1\\ng CD CD\\nCD S^O^g\\no\\no\\nII oo\\nc bo.S 55\\nMO0t3\u00c2\u00ab\\nO\\n2 w Ph\\ni-H\\nII\\n3\\nII\\nCm\\n1 II\\ns\\nII\\nr-\\nII\\nCM S\\nS II\\nII g\\no3\\nH\\no\\n.Q\\n1\\nilar properties, bu\\nincreases up to th\\nThe metallic cha\\nements whose ato\\n4\\nO\\nr- 1\\nft\\nrH\\nm\\nm\\nO\\nfe\\ns\\nH\\nii\\nCO\\nCM\\n00\\nCO\\nrl\\n1\\n3\\niH\\nII\\n33\\noo II\\nO\\nB\\nTt rH\\nS II\\nII\\ntS3\\nCO\\n1\u00e2\u0080\u00941\\nII\\nCJ\\nco cj\\n5 ii\\nr-\\nc\\n1\\no\\nH\\np possess sim\\nfor oxygen\\ns to the 8th.\\nree similar e.\\nm\\nPh\\nft\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2-5\\nft\\nI*\\ni-H\\nII\\nPQ\\no\\nCM\\nII\\nC\u00c2\u00a3\\nt^\u00c2\u00bb o\\nII\\nCO I\\no5.\\nII o\\no\\nGO\\nCO\\nrH\\ni\\nii a\\n7\\nr-1\\nto\\nS II\\nII B\\n\u00c2\u00bb-i\\nrJ t^tuO\\nft\\nM\\n3\\nII\\nCUD\\n3\\nrH\\nrH O\\nr-i\\nrH\\nOS\\noo\\n1 8\\nthe same groi\\nThe atomicit;\\nhen diminish\\naents\u00e2\u0080\u0094 come t\\nft\\na. O\\n8\\no\u00c2\u00bb\\nII\\n3\\nII N\\nO\\nCO\\nS5 II\\nII s\\n(H\\n00\\nrH\\nII\\no3\\npq\\nII\\n00\\n\u00c2\u00abM H\\nI*\\nrH\\nII\\nw s\\nII\\nCO\\nCM\\nII\\n9\\nCO S\\no II\\nM P\\nII o\\nM\\nto\\nGO\\nII oo\\nr-H\\nII\\no\\n\u00c2\u00abo\\nrH\\nII\\nO CD\\ncd E a\\n^3 CD r- CD\\na M 5^\\nC5\\nJ3\\nS CD CD o\\n13\\nP4\\n^5^^ 1\\n^cP _ 1\\nGO\\nW\\nrS-iS CD\\nr-t CM\\nCO\\n\u00c2\u00bbo\\n\u00c2\u00abo I\\n00\\nO O rH\\nCN\\nS g\\nrH rH\\ni-H\\nu\\nm", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0300.jp2"}, "301": {"fulltext": "POTASSIUM. 297\\nPOTASSIUM.\\nK 39.03\\nPotassium was discovered by Sir Humphry Davy in 1807.\\nIt ordinarily occurs in commerce in gray, globular masses,\\nreadily indented by the finger-nail. It has a dull, tarnished\\nappearance, but when freshly cut it exposes a brilliant surface.\\nPreparation and Properties. Potassium is prepared by\\ndecomposing potassium carbonate by carbon at a high tem-\\nperature.\\nK 2 C0 3 2C 3CO K 2\\nPotassium carbonate. Carbon monoxide.\\nThe mixture is heated to whiteness in an iron retort and the\\nvapors are passed into a copper receiver. The potassium dis-\\ntils and condenses in globules or irregular masses, still contain-\\ning charcoal. It is purified by redistillation in an iron retort,\\nand is condensed in a copper receiver filled with naphtha.\\nThe manufacture of potassium is a dangerous operation,\\nowing to the formation of a very explosive compound of\\npotassium and carbon monoxide, C 6 6 K 6 (see Hexaoxyben-\\nzene). It has recently been proposed to prepare the metal\\nby heating potassium hydroxide with magnesium the potas-\\nsium distils off in the current of evolved hydrogen.\\n2KOH Mg MgO H 2 K 2\\nPotassium melts at 62.5\u00c2\u00b0 (Bunsen). It boils at a red heat,\\nand its vapor is green. When exposed to the air, it rapidly\\nabsorbs oxygen and at the same time decomposes the atmos-\\npheric moisture. It inflames at a temperature but slightly\\nelevated and becomes converted into oxide.\\nIf a fragment of this metal be thrown into water, it at once\\ntakes fire and rushes about on the surface of the liquid, burn-\\ning with a violet flame. Finally, it disappears with a little\\nexplosion.\\nThis brilliant phenomenon is due to the energy with which\\npotassium decomposes water.\\n2H 2 K 2 2KOH H 2\\nThe hydrogen which is disengaged is inflamed by the incan-\\ndescent metal. The potassium hydrate formed ultimately dis-\\nsolves in the water, but its temperature being very high at the\\nmoment of its solution, and its combination with the water\\nalso producing heat, there results a sudden formation of steam,\\nwhich gives rise to the little explosion.", "height": "4785", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0301.jp2"}, "302": {"fulltext": "298\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nPOTASSIUM OXIDES.\\nPotassium monoxide, K 2 0, is formed when thin pieces of\\nthe metal are abandoned to the action of dry air, or when\\npotassium hydrate is heated with potassium.\\n2KOH K 2 2K 2 H 2\\nIt is a grayish- white substance which unites with water with\\nextreme violence, forming potassium hydrate.\\nK 2 H 2 2KOH\\nA tetroxide of potassium, K 2 4 is formed when potassium\\nis heated in an excess of oxygen, but it is little known.\\nPOTASSIUM HYDRATE, OR CAUSTIC POTASSA.\\nKOH\\nThis important compound is prepared by boiling 1 part of\\npotassium carbonate with 1 2 parts of water, and gradually add-\\ning milk of lime to the boiling liquid. The lime combines\\nwith the carbonic acid forming an insoluble carbonate, while\\nthe potassa remains in solution.\\nK 2 C0 3 Ca(OH) 2 CaCO 3 2KOH\\nCalcium hydrate. Calcium carbonate.\\nWhen the decomposition is finished the liquid is allowed to\\nsettle, and the clear solution decanted and rapidly evaporated.\\nFig. 97.\\nThe residue is melted in a silver dish and poured out upon flat\\nstone slabs or cast in cylindrical metallic moulds (Fig. 97).\\nThis product is known as potash by lime. It is impure.\\nBy treating it with alcohol, which dissolves only the potassium", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0302.jp2"}, "303": {"fulltext": "SULPHIDES OF POTASSIUM. 299\\nhydrate, it may be purified from lime, and the salts of potas-\\nsium it may contain, and especially the carbonate, which is\\nformed by the absorption of carbonic acid gas from the air\\nduring the evaporation. The clear alcoholic solution is decanted,\\nand after the alcohol has been expelled by distillation, the resi-\\ndue is evaporated to dryness and fused in a silver dish. It is\\nknown as potash by alcohol.\\nPerfectly pure potassium hydroxide, such as is frequently\\nrequired in the laboratory, is prepared by double decomposi-\\ntion between potassium sulphate and barium hydroxide, the\\npotassium hydroxide solution being separated by decantation\\nfrom the insoluble barium sulphate.\\nK 2 S0 4 Ba(OH) 2 BaSO 4 2KOH\\nRecently-fused potassium hydrate occurs as opaque, white\\nfragments having a short fibrous fracture and a density of 2.1.\\nIt melts at a red heat and volatilizes at whiteness it is not\\ndecomposed by heat. When exposed to the air, it absorbs moist-\\nure and carbonic acid gas, and deliquesces. It is very soluble\\nin water, and produces heat in dissolving. A hydrate, KOH\\n-f- 2H 2 0, is deposited from its hot and very concentrated solu-\\ntion in acute rhombohedra.\\nPotassium hydrate is very caustic. It softens and destroys\\nthe skin, and for this purpose is employed in surgery as a caustic.\\nIt manifests the properties of an alkali in the highest degree\\nthese are its solubility in water, its power to neutralize the\\nacids and decompose a great number of metallic solutions, and\\nits corrosive action on the tissues. This alkalinity may be shown\\nby the energy with which the most feeble solutions of potassa\\nrestore the blue color to reddened litmus, and change to green\\nthe tincture of violets.\\nSULPHIDES OF POTASSIUM.\\nPotassium will burn in vapor of sulphur. It unites with\\nthe latter body in five different proportions, forming the sul-\\nphides K 2 S, K 2 S 2 K 2 S 3 K 2 S*, and K 2 S 5\\nPotassium monosulphide is formed when potassium sulphate\\nis heated to redness in a current of hydrogen, or in a brasqued 1\\nand covered crucible with charcoal.\\n1 A brasqued crucible is a clay crucible into which powdered charcoal\\nmoistened with gum-water has been strongly pressed, and afterwards cal-\\ncined. The substance to be reduced is placed in a cavity hollowed out in\\nthe charcoal.", "height": "4785", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0303.jp2"}, "304": {"fulltext": "300 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nK 2 S0 4 4C 4CO 4- K 2 S\\nPotassium sulphate. Potassium monosulphide.\\nA reddish, deliquescent, and caustic mass is thus obtained.\\nWhen a mixture of sulphur and potassium carbonate is fused,\\ncarbon dioxide is disengaged, and a brown mass is obtained on\\ncooling, which is known as liver of sulphur. It is a mixture\\nof potassium poly sulphide with undecomposed carbonate and\\npotassium sulphate or hyposulphite, according to the tempera-\\nture and the proportions of sulphur which have been employed.\\nWith an excess of sulphur, potassium pentasulphide is obtained.\\nLiver of sulphur dissolves in water with a brown-yellow color.\\nPotassium pentasulphide and hyposulphite are also formed\\nwhen potassium hydrate is boiled with an excess of flowers of\\nsulphur. The filtered solution is brown. When treated with\\nhydrochloric acid, it evolves hydrogen sulphide, and finely-\\ndivided, yellowish, pulverulent sulphur is deposited.\\nK 2 S 5 2HC1 2KC1 H 2 S S 4\\nPOTASSIUM CHLORIDE.\\nKC1\\nThis salt is found crystallized in cubes in the neighborhood\\nof certain fissures of Vesuvius, and in thin layers in the saline\\ndeposits at Stassfurt, Prussia, and in other localities. At\\nStassfurt there is found a double chloride of potassium and\\nmagnesium, camattite, KCl,MgCP 6H 2 0. When this is\\ndissolved in hot water, the greater part of the potassium\\nchloride is deposited on cooling while the magnesium chloride\\nremains in solution.\\nPotassium chloride crystallizes in cubes, but it sometimes\\nseparates in octahedra from solutions containing free potassa.\\nIt is unaltered by the air. Its taste is more bitter than that\\nof sodium chloride it is more soluble in water than the latter,\\nand produces a greater depression of temperature in dissolving.\\n1 part of chloride of potassium dissolves in 3 parts of water\\nat 17.5\u00c2\u00b0. 100 parts of water at 0\u00c2\u00b0 dissolve 29.23 parts of\\npotassium chloride and 0.2738 additional for each degree of\\ntemperature.\\nPOTASSIUM IODIDE AND POTASSIUM BROMIDE.\\nKJ and KBr\\nThese compounds are important on account of their use in\\nmedicine and photography. Potassium iodide is obtained by", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0304.jp2"}, "305": {"fulltext": "POTASSIUM NITRATE. 301\\nadding powdered iodine to a solution of potassium hydroxide\\nuntil the latter is completely neutralized. Potassium iodide\\nand iodate are formed, the latter being precipitated. The\\nwhole is evaporated to dryness, and the residue heated to red-\\nness, by which the iodate is converted into iodide. The mass\\nis dissolved in hot water on cooling the solution deposits the\\niodide in fine colorless and transparent crystals. These crys-\\ntals are opaque if the solution contains any free alkali. They\\nare cubic and anhydrous. They melt at a red heat without\\ndecomposition their taste is salty and somewhat bitter. 100\\nparts of water at 18\u00c2\u00b0 dissolve 143 parts of potassium iodide.\\nA solution of potassium iodide dissolves iodine abundantly,\\nassuming a dark-brown color.\\nIf nitric acid be added to a solution of potassium iodide,\\niodine is at once deposited and red vapors are disengaged if\\nthe solution be concentrated (page 141).\\nThis decomposition of potassium iodide takes place even in\\nvery dilute solutions. It may serve for the detection of the\\nsmallest trace of this salt if a solution of starch be previously\\nadded to the liquid in this case a blue color will be produced.\\nPotassium bromide is prepared by a process similar to that\\nwhich yields potassium iodide. It crystallizes in cubes which\\nare soluble in about 1.5 parts of cold water.\\nPOTASSIUM NITRATE.\\nKN03\\nThis important salt, long known as nitre and saltpetre, im-\\npregnates the soil and sometimes effloresces upon its surface in\\ncertain regions of India, Egypt, Persia, Hungary, and Spain.\\nIn the United States, it is found in many localities, generally\\nin caverns in limestone rock, called saltpetre caves. It is\\nobtained by lixiviating the earthy matters containing it and\\nevaporating the solution.\\nIt is less abundant in northern climates. It is formed\\nwherever nitrogenized organic substances decompose in pres-\\nence of potassa. Thus, it exists in small quantities in the soil\\nof cellars, in moist walls, and in old crumbling mortar. In\\nthese cases it is mixed with a certain quantity of sodium\\nnitrate and a large excess of calcium and magnesium nitrates.\\nFormerly such materials were lixiviated to obtain the nitrates,\\nall of which were then converted into potassium nitrate. Nitre\\nis also manufactured artificially by exposing to the air mixtures\\n26", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0305.jp2"}, "306": {"fulltext": "302 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nof animal matters with wood-ashes and lime which are fre-\\nquently moistened with stale urine or stable-drainings. By\\nfar the greater part of the saltpetre of commerce is now ob-\\ntained from sodium nitrate, of which vast deposits occur in\\nChili and Peru.\\nThe conversion of this Chili saltpeter, as it is called, into\\npotassium nitrate is effected as follows. The recrystallized\\nsodium nitrate is dissolved in water, and an equivalent\\nmolecular quantity of potassium chloride (obtained from\\nStassfurt salt) is added. The solution is boiled down until\\nit attains a density of 1.5, when the hot liquid deposits\\nsodium chloride, which is separated, and potassium nitrate\\ncrystallizes on cooling.\\nProperties. This salt crystallizes from its aqueous solution\\niu long, six-sided prisms, terminated by six-sided pyramids. Gen-\\nerally these crystals are grooved or striated. They belong to the\\nright rhombic system. Their taste is cooling and slightly bitter.\\nPotassium nitrate melts at about 350\u00c2\u00b0 at a higher tem-\\nperature it disengages oxygen and is converted into potassium\\nnitrite, KNO 2 which is in its turn decomposed at a red heat,\\nleaving a mixture of oxide and peroxide of potassium.\\nPotassium nitrate is very soluble in hot water 100 parts of\\nwater at 0\u00c2\u00b0 dissolve only 13.32 parts of the salt, but at 18\u00c2\u00b0 they\\ndissolve 29 parts at 97\u00c2\u00b0, 236 parts and at 100\u00c2\u00b0, 246 parts.\\nThe facility with which potassium nitrate parts with its oxy-\\ngen, of which it contains nearly half its weight, renders it an\\nenergetic oxidizer of many bodies.\\nIf a small quantity of pulverized saltpetre be thrown upon\\nglowing coals, the salt melts and decomposes, increasing the\\ncombustion at the point of contact with the fuel it is said to\\ndeflagrate. The nitrate becomes converted into carbonate.\\nOrdinary black gunpowder is an intimate mixture of nitre,\\ncharcoal, and sulphur. Its average composition is 75 per\\ncent, of nitre, 15 of charcoal, and 10 of sulphur. The com-\\nbustion of this mixture is instantaneous, and gives rise to\\nthe sudden formation of gaseous products. The decomposi-\\ntion may be expressed generally by stating that the char-\\ncoal combines with the oxygen of the nitre to form carbon\\ndioxide and carbon monoxide the nitrogen is liberated, and\\nthe sulphur combines with the potassium, forming potassium\\nsulphide. As the mixture contains all the oxygen necessary\\nfor its complete combustion, the latter can be effected in a", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0306.jp2"}, "307": {"fulltext": "POTASSIUM SULPHATE POTASSIUM CHLORATE. 303\\nlimited and closed space. It can readily be understood that\\nthe explosive energy of the powder is due to a sudden evo-\\nlution of gas occupying many times the volume of the pow-\\nder, and of which the volume is still further augmented by the\\nhigh temperature.\\nPOTASSIUM SULPHATE.\\nK 2 SO\\nThis salt is obtained as a by-product in various industrial\\noperations. It deposits from the mother-liquors of the soda\\nfrom sea-weed when these are exposed to low temperatures. It\\nmay be made by saturating with potassium carbonate the potas-\\nsium acid sulphate which is formed in the preparation of nitric\\nacid by the decomposition of potassium nitrate with sulphuric\\nacid, a process which is now but little employed.\\nIt crystallizes in four-sided prisms or in double, six-sided\\npyramids belonging to the orthorhombic system. These crys-\\ntals are hard, anhydrous, unaltered by the air, and melt at a\\nred heat without decomposition. They are but slightly soluble\\nin water and insoluble in absolute alcohol. 100 parts of water\\nat 0\u00c2\u00b0 dissolve 8.36 parts, and 0.1741 part for each additional\\ndegree of heat.\\nPOTASSIUM ACID SULPHATE.\\nThis salt may be obtained by fusing 13 parts of the neutral\\nsulphate with 8 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid. The\\nsaline mass is dissolved in boiling water, and the solution when\\nproperly concentrated deposits rhombic octahedra or tabular\\ncrystals belonging to the orthorhombic system.\\nPotassium acid sulphate is much more soluble in water than\\nthe neutral salt its solution is acid. When strongly heated,\\nit first gives up water and then sulphuric oxide, leaving a resi-\\ndue of neutral sulphate.\\nPOTASSIUM CHLOKATE.\\nKC103\\nThis salt is formed, together with potassium chloride, by the\\naction of chlorine upon a concentrated solution of potassium\\nhydrate or carbonate\\n6C1 6KOH KCIO 3 5KC1 3H 2", "height": "4797", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0307.jp2"}, "308": {"fulltext": "304 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIt is less soluble than the chloride, and is consequently de-\\nposited in great part as the solution becomes saturated with\\nchlorine. It is purified by several recrystallizations.\\nIn the arts, it is obtained by the action of chlorine upon a\\nmixture of lime, potassium chloride, and water, heated in closed\\nvessels. Chlorate and chloride of calcium are formed, and in\\npresence of the potassium chloride, a double decomposition takes\\nplace, potassium chlorate and calcium chloride, which is very\\nsoluble, being formed. The liquid is filtered hot, and the potas-\\nsium chlorate crystallizes out on cooling.\\nKOI 3CaO 3d 2 KCIO 3 3CaCP\\nCalcium oxule. Potassium chlorate.\\nPotassium chlorate crystallizes in colorless, monoclinic tables.\\nWhen very thin they present an iridescent reflection. It melts\\nat 400\u00c2\u00b0, and at a higher temperature is decomposed into oxygen\\nand chloride and perchlorate of potassium, the latter of which\\nis also decomposed when the temperature is raised still further.\\n2KC10 3 KC1 KCIO 4 O 2\\nKCIO 4 KC1 4- O 4\\nPotassium chlorate deflagrates when thrown upon hot coals\\nwhen mixed with sulphur, it explodes by friction or percussion\\nthe detonation becomes dangerous if the sulphur be replaced\\nby phosphorus.\\nIt is not very soluble in cold water. 100 parts of water at\\n0\u00c2\u00b0 dissolve 3.3 parts, and at 24\u00c2\u00b0, 8.44 parts. It is much more\\nsoluble in boiling water.\\nPOTASSIUM PERCHLORATE.\\nKCIO*\\nThis salt is formed by the action of either heat or sulphuric\\nacid upon potassium chlorate (page 134). It is but slightly\\nsoluble in water, requiring 65 parts at 15\u00c2\u00b0 for its solution. It\\ncrystallizes in anhydrous and transparent right rhombic prisms.\\nAbove 400\u00c2\u00b0 it decomposes into potassium chloride and oxygen.\\nPOTASSIUM CARBONATES.\\nPotassium Neutral Carbonate, K 2 C0 3 This carbonate\\nis found in commerce under the simple name potash, and is\\nknown according to its source as Russian or American potash.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0308.jp2"}, "309": {"fulltext": "POTASSIUM CARBONATES. 305\\nIt is obtained by lixiviating wood ashes that is, exhausting\\nthem with water, evaporating the solution to dryness, and cal-\\ncining the residue in the air. The potash thus obtained is\\nimpure carbonate mixed with other salts of potassium, princi-\\npally the chloride and sulphate, and small quantities of silicate.\\nIt contains from 60 to 80 per cent, of carbonate.\\nPotassium carbonate is now manufactured from the native\\nchloride, Stassfurt salt, by a process similar to that which will\\nbe described for the manufacture of sodium carbonate from\\ncommon salt.\\nPure potassium carbonate may be prepared by calcining potas-\\nsium acid tartrate, or cream of tartar, at a red heat. A black\\nmass is thus obtained from which water dissolves pure potas-\\nsium carbonate, and the solution is evaporated to dryness.\\nNeutral potassium carbonate is very soluble in water, and\\nabsorbs moisture from the air. 1 part of the anhydrous salt\\ndissolves in 1.05 parts of water at 3\u00c2\u00b0, and in 0.49 parts at 70\u00c2\u00b0\\n(Osann). The solution has a decided alkaline reaction. A\\nvery concentrated hot solution deposits rhombic octahedra\\ncontaining K 2 C0 3 2H 2 on cooling.\\nPotassium Acid Carbonate, KHCO 3 When a current of\\ncarbonic acid gas is passed into a concentrated solution of potas-\\nsium neutral carbonate, the gas is absorbed, and crystals of\\npotassium acid carbonate, ordinarily known as bicarbonate of\\npotassa, are formed.\\nIt represents carbonic acid in which a single atom of hydro-\\ngen is replaced by an atom of potassium.\\nCO 2 H 2 H 2 C0 3 carbonic acid (hypothetical).\\nCO 2 KHO tt CO 3 potassium acid carbonate.\\nCO 2 K 2 K 2 C0 3 potassium carbonate.\\nPotassium acid carbonate readily crystallizes in oblique rhom-\\nbic prisms. It is much less soluble in water than the neutral\\ncarbonate, and its solution disengages carbonic acid gas on\\nboiling. Its reaction is alkaline.\\nCharacters of Potassium Salts. The salts of potassium\\ncommunicate a violet tint to flame. Their solutions are not\\nprecipitated either by hydrogen sulphide, ammonium sulphide,\\nor sodium carbonate.\\nPerchloric acid occasions a white precipitate of potassium\\nperchlorate.\\nu 26*", "height": "4800", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0309.jp2"}, "310": {"fulltext": "306\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nPlatinum tetrachloride produces a yellow, crystalline precip-\\nitate of platinum and potassium double chloride, 2KCl.PtCl 4\\nHydrofluosilicic acid forms a white, gelatinous precipitate\\nconsisting of potassium fluosilicate.\\nSODIUM.\\nNa 23\\nSodium was discovered by Sir Humphry Davy in 1807. It\\nwas long made by distilling sodium carbonate with charcoal,\\na certain proportion of chalk being added to render the mix-\\nture infusible. The operation was conducted in large cast-iron\\nFig. 98.\\ncylinders covered with a refractory luting to enable them to\\nresist the high temperature required to effect the decomposi-\\ntion, and the sodium vapor was condensed in appropriate ves-\\nsels, carbon monoxide being disengaged. The importance of\\nsodium as a reducing agent in many chemical operations has\\nled chemists to devise methods for its economical production.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0310.jp2"}, "311": {"fulltext": "SODIUM. 307\\nCastner invented a process in which sodium hydrate is decomposed\\nby a coke made by heating finely-divided iron with gas tar, and con-\\ntaining 30 per cent carbon and 70 per cent, iron, the latter pre-\\nventing the carbon from floating. The mixture fuses readily, and\\nthe reduction takes place at a comparatively low temperature, but\\nonly one-third of the sodium is obtained, the remainder being con-\\nverted into carbonate.\\n3NaOH C Na 2 C0 3 H 3 Na\\nNetto allows fused sodium hydroxide to trickle over incandescent\\ncharcoal in an iron retort (Fig. 98). The sodium carbonate, formed\\nas in the preceding equation, is drawn off at the bottom of the retort.\\nSodium is also obtained by electrolysis of the fused hydroxide, a\\ncarbon anode being used, so that the reaction is\\nNaOH C CO H -f Na\\nThis metal is soft at the ordinary temperature. It has a\\nsilvery lustre, melts at 90.6\u00c2\u00b0, and distils at a red heat. It is\\nnot as avid of oxygen as potassium it can be melted in the\\nair without taking fire. When thrown upon water, it melts\\nand runs around on the surface, producing a hissing noise.\\nThe water is decomposed with disengagement of hydrogen and\\nthe formation of sodium hydrate. The reaction is analogous\\nto that of potassium upon water, but is less energetic; fre-\\nquently, however, it terminates by an explosion.\\nOXIDES AND HYDRATE OF SODIUM.\\nTwo oxides of sodium are known, a monoxide, Na 2 0, and a\\ndioxide, Na 2 2\\nSodium, hydrate, NaOH, is frequently employed in the lab\\noratory and in the arts under the name caustic soda. It is\\nprepared by decomposing a rather dilute, boiling solution of so-\\ndium carbonate by milk of lime, in the manner described for\\nthe preparation of potassium hydrate (page 298). It occurs\\nas a white solid, which attracts moisture and carbonic acid\\nfrom the air, and finally becomes transformed into a dry mass\\nof carbonate. Sodium hydrate is freely soluble in water, and is\\nvery caustic. It is known in commerce as concentrated lye.\\nSodium dioxide, Na 2 2 (sodium peroxide), is now produced\\non a commercial scale by heating the metal to 300\u00c2\u00b0 in a\\nmixture of nitrogen and oxygen gases in which the propor-\\ntion of the latter is gradually increased. It is a yellowish\\nsubstance, and acts as a powerful oxidizing agent. Water\\ndecomposes it into hydrogen dioxide and sodium hydroxide.\\nIts chief use is for bleaching; silk and wool.", "height": "4789", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0311.jp2"}, "312": {"fulltext": "308 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nSODIUM SULPHIDE AND SULPHYDRATE.\\nSodium sulphide Na 2 S, is prepared by the following pro\\ncess: A concentrated solution of sodium hydrate is divided\\ninto two equal parts one part is then saturated with hydrogen\\nsulphide, sodium sulphydrate being formed.\\nNaOH H 2 S NaSH H 2\\nSodium hydrate. Sodium sulphydrate.\\nTo this sulphydrate the other portion of sodium hydrate is\\nadded, and the solution is concentrated out of contact with the\\nair. Hydrated crystals of sodium sulphide are deposited.\\nNaSH NaOH H 2 Na 2 S\\nThese crystals are rectangular prisms terminated by four-\\nfaced points. When pure, they are colorless; they are very\\nsoluble in water.\\nSODIUM CHLORIDE.\\nKaCl\\nThis body is common salt, or sea-salt. It is widely diffused\\nin nature. It is found in the solid state, as rock-salt, in large\\ndeposits in many countries.\\nSea-water contains a large proportion of sodium chloride,\\nand this salt also exists in a number of mineral waters, of\\nwhich it forms the most abundant constituent.\\nMuch of the salt of commerce is obtained by the evapora-\\ntion of sea-water along the Mediterranean. The water is led\\ninto basins, where it forms a shallow layer, which is continu-\\nally swept by the summer winds. It thus becomes concen-\\ntrated, and is kept in motion from one basin to another, until\\nit arrives in the areas where the salt is deposited. In many\\nlocalities salt is obtained by direct mining operations more\\nfrequently, however, the crude salt is first dissolved in water,\\nand after the insoluble residue has been separated the brine\\nis evaporated. Thus, in Cheshire, England, bore-holes are\\nsunk down to the salt bed, water is turned into these holes,\\nand after it has become saturated with salt is pumped up\\nand evaporated.\\nSodium chloride is also obtained by the evaporation of the\\nwaters of brine springs. The operation is conducted in large\\nsheet-iron boilers the salt crystallizes from the hot liquid,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0312.jp2"}, "313": {"fulltext": "SODIUM SULPHATE. 309\\nand a double sulphate of calcium and sodium, which is but\\nslightly soluble, incrusts the basins in the course of time.\\nSodium chloride crystallizes from its aqueous solution in\\ncubes. The crystals are generally small, and a great number\\nof them frequently become agglomer- ________=\u00c2\u00ab=\\nated in symmetrical hopper-like masses jp\\n(Fig. 99). These crystals are anhy- fltk |||r\\ndrous, but contain a small quantity of jT i^wy^\\ninterposed water when heated they ^3Sj BF\\ndecrepitate, because this water is vola- W\\ntilized and suddenly separates the crys- Fig. 99.\\ntals. Sodium chloride fuses at a red\\nheat and solidifies to a crystalline mass on cooling. It vola-\\ntilizes at a white heat. It is very soluble in water, and its\\nsolubility increases only slightly with the temperature. Ac-\\ncording to Gray-Lussac,\\n1 part of common salt dissolves in 2.78 parts of water at 14\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.7 60\u00c2\u00b0\\nu 2.48 109.7\u00c2\u00b0\\nThe saturated solution boils at 109.7\u00c2\u00b0 its density at 8\u00c2\u00b0 is\\n1.205. Sodium chloride is insoluble in absolute alcohol.\\nSODIUM SULPHATE (Glauber s Salt).\\nNa 2 SO*\\nThis salt is obtained in the arts by decomposing common salt\\nwith sulphuric acid (page 127).\\nThis operation, which constitutes the first step in the manu-\\nfacture of sodium carbonate, is conducted in a reverberatory\\nfurnace, connected with a suitable apparatus for the condensa-\\ntion of the hydrochloric acid which is disengaged. Sodium\\nacid sulphate is first formed, and at a higher temperature this\\nreacts upon another molecule of sodium chloride.\\n^JSO 4 NaCl Na 2 S0 4 HC1\\nSodium acid sulphate. Sodium sulphate.\\nSodium sulphate is now extensively produced by subjecting\\nthe mother-liquors from the manufacture of salt from sea-water\\nto intense cold.\\nIt crystallizes from water in four-sided, oblique rhombic\\nprisms, containing 10 molecules of water of crystallization;", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0313.jp2"}, "314": {"fulltext": "310 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nthese crystals effloresce in the air. They possess a bitter, salty,\\nand disagreeable taste. They are very soluble in water, and\\nthe temperature of their maximum solubility is 33\u00c2\u00b0. Accord-\\ning to Gay-Lussac,\\n100 parts of water at 0\u00c2\u00b0 dissolve 12 parts of sodium sulphate.\\n25\u00c2\u00b0 100\\n33\u00c2\u00b0 332.6\\n50\u00c2\u00b0 263\\nWhen the solution saturated at 33\u00c2\u00b0 is heated, it deposits an-\\nhydrous sodium sulphate in orthorhombic octahedra, analogous\\nto the anhydrous sodium sulphate found in nature (thenar dite).\\nSodium Acid Sulphate, SO 4 This salt may be ob-\\ntained by dissolving in water the requisite proportions of so-\\ndium neutral sulphate and sulphuric acid. On cooling the\\nsaturated solution, oblique rhombic prisms are obtained, which,\\naccording to Mitscherlich, contain two molecules .of water of\\ncrystallization. These crystals are very soluble in water, and\\nhave an acid taste. Alcohol decomposes them into sulphuric\\nacid, which dissolves, and neutral sulphate, which precipitates.\\nSODIUM CARBONATE.\\nNa 2 C0 3\\nThis important salt, known also as soda and soda ash, is\\nmanufactured on an immense scale in the arts. It is used in\\nthe manufacture of soap and glass, for washing, and many\\nother purposes. It was formerly obtained from the ashes of\\nfuci, algae, and other sea-plants which furnished Alicant soda.\\nIt is now most generally prepared from sodium chloride. One\\nprocess, which is due to Le Blanc, consists of three distinct\\noperations: 1st, the transformation of the sodium chloride\\ninto sulphate by sulphuric acid 2d, the conversion of the sul-\\nphate into carbonate by calcination with a mixture of chalk\\nand coal; 3d, lixiviation of the calcined mass and evaporation\\nof the solution. Only the latter two operations need be de-\\nscribed here they are conducted in reverberatory furnaces,\\nof which the doubly-arched roofs are licked by the flame of\\nthe combustible (Fig. 100).\\nA mixture of 1000 parts of sodium sulphate, 1040 parts of\\nchalk, and 580 parts of coal is first introduced into compart-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0314.jp2"}, "315": {"fulltext": "SODIUM CARBONATE.\\n311\\nment B of the furnace, where it is dried. It is then transferred\\nto compartment A, where the temperature is very elevated,\\nand where the sodium sulphate is reduced to sulphide by the\\nFig. 100.\\ncoal. The sodium sulphide and chalk react upon each other,\\nforming sodium carbonate and calcium sulphide (Kolb).\\nThe results of the reaction may be expressed by the follow-\\ning equation\\nNa 2 S0 4 CaCO 3 C Na 2 C0 3 CaS 4CO\\nThere are, however, certain secondary reactions which tafce\\nplace at the same time thus, a certain quantity of sodium\\noxide is formed by the action of the coal upon the carbonate.\\nNa 2 CO s C 2CO Na 2\\nWhen the incandescent mass has become pasty, it is removed\\nfrom the furnace, reduced to powder, and thoroughly lixiviated.\\nThe water dissolves the sodium carbonate, and leaves the in-\\nsoluble calcium sulphide, which remains mixed with the lime\\nproduced by the decomposition of the excess of chalk employed\\n(G-ossage, Scheurer-Kestner). The solutions are concentrated\\nin the boiler D, heated by the waste heat from the soda fur-\\nnace. Finally, they are drawn off into the compartment C,\\nwhere they are evaporated to dryness. The soda ash of\\ncommerce is thus obtained. When the properly-concentrated\\nsolution is allowed to cool, the crystallized soda (washing\\nsoda) of commerce is deposited.\\nAnother process, known as the ammonia-soda process, has\\nnot only entered into successful competition with that of\\nLeblanc, but appears to gradually supersede it. It is also\\nknown as Solvay s process.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0315.jp2"}, "316": {"fulltext": "312 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIt depends upon the double decomposition which takes place\\nbetween ammonium acid carbonate and sodium chloride in\\nconcentrated aqueous solution.\\nNaCl (NH 4 )HC0 3 NH 4 C1 NaHCO 3\\nThe sodium acid carbonate, which is but slightly soluble, is\\nprecipitated it is collected and converted into the neutral car-\\nbonate by the action of heat.\\n2NaHC0 3 Na 2 C0 3 CO 2 H 2\\nIt thus loses half of its carbonic acid, which is utilized for\\nthe preparation of a new quantity of ammonium acid carbonate.\\nThe other portion of the carbonic acid necessary for this oper-\\nation is produced by the calcination of lime-stone (calcium car-\\nbonate), which at the same time yields the lime necessary for\\nthe liberation of the ammonia contained in the mother-liquor\\nin the form of ammonium chloride.\\nA considerable quantity of sodium carbonate is also manufac-\\ntured from cryolite, which is a double fluoride of sodium and\\naluminium, and of which large deposits exist in Greenland.\\nThe mineral is calcined with lime, calcium fluoride and alumi-\\nnate of soda being formed.\\n2AlFl 3 .3NaFl 6CaO 6CaFl 2 Al 2 3 ,3Na 2\\nCryolite. Calcium fluoride. Aluminate of soda.\\nThe latter compound is dissolved out by water and decom-\\nposed by carbonic acid gas, aluminium hydroxide being pre-\\ncipitated and sodium carbonate remaining in solution.\\nSodium carbonate crystallizes in oblique rhombic prisms,\\ncontaining 10 molecules of water of crystallization. When\\nheated, they fuse in this water of crystallization, which they\\nthen abandon they also lose it by efflorescence when exposed\\nto the air.\\nSodium carbonate is very soluble in water, and the solution\\nhas a strongly alkaline reaction. According to Poggiale,\\n100 parts\\nof water at 0\u00c2\u00b0 dissolve 7.08\\nparts\\nof sodium carbonate.\\na\\n10\u00c2\u00b0\\n16.06\\nu\\nit\\nu\\n20\u00c2\u00b0\\n25.93\\nSi\\nft\\na\\nu 25 o (t\\n30.83\\nit\\nit\\na\\na 30 o\\n35.90\\nit\\nit\\na\\n104.6\u00c2\u00b0\\n48.5\\ntl\\ntt\\nThe saturated solution boils at 104.6\u00c2\u00b0. Sodium carbonate\\nis insoluble in alcohol.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0316.jp2"}, "317": {"fulltext": "SODIUM BORATE. 313\\nSodium Acid Carbonate, NaHCO 3 When carbonic acid\\ngas is passed into a solution of sodium carbonate or over\\ncrystals of that salt, the gas is absorbed and sodium acid car-\\nbonate, commonly called bicarbonate of soda, is formed. This\\nsalt crystallizes in oblique, four-sided prisms, shortened into the\\nform of tables. Its taste is salty and slightly alkaline. It is\\nless soluble in water than the neutral carbonate. It restores\\nthe blue color to reddened litmus its solution does not pre-\\ncipitate that of magnesium sulphate, and when boiled loses\\ncarbonic acid, neutral carbonate being formed.\\nPHOSPHATES OF SODIUM.\\nThere are three phosphates of sodium derived from ordinary\\nor otho-phosphoric acid.\\nH tPO 4\\nHj\\nNa) Na)\\nH PO\u00c2\u00b1 2H20 Na PO* 12H20\\nhJ hJ\\nNa)\\nNa PO\u00c2\u00b1 12H20\\nXaJ\\nPhosphoric\\nacid.\\nMonosodium Disodium phosphate,\\nphosphate.\\nTrisodium phosphate.\\nMonosodium phosphate reddens blue litmus the disodium\\nand trisodium salts have an alkaline reaction. The most\\nimportant in the arts and in commerce is disodium phosphate,\\nor common phosphate of soda. It is prepared by neutral-\\nizing the calcium acid phosphate, obtained by digesting\\nbone-dust with dilute sulphuric acid and filtering, with so-\\ndium carbonate. Tricalcium phosphate is precipitated, and\\ndisodium phosphate remains in solution. By evaporation of\\nthe filtered liquid, the salt may be obtained in voluminous,\\ntransparent, monoclinic prisms, containing 12 molecules of\\nwater of crystallization. Monosodium phosphate exists in\\nurine, and is the cause of the normal acidity of that excretion.\\nSODIUM BORATE, OB BOBAX.\\nNa 2 B*0 7\\nThis salt corresponds to tetraboric acid, containing 2B 2 3\\nH 2 H 2 B 4 7 It results from the action of one molecule\\nof sodium oxide upon two molecules of boric oxide.\\n2(B 2 3 Na 2 Na 2 B 4 7\\nIt crystallizes with either 10 or 5 molecules of water.\\nBorax was formerly obtained from Asia, where it exists in\\nsolution in the waters of certain lakes. By the evaporation\\no 27", "height": "4789", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0317.jp2"}, "318": {"fulltext": "314 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nof these waters a product known as tinikal was obtained this\\nis natural borax. Part of the borax of commerce is obtained\\nby saturating the boric acid of Tuscany with sodium carbo-\\nnate, and evaporating the solution below 56\u00c2\u00b0. Borax is found\\nin abundance in certain lakes in California, and large quanti-\\nties are now derived from the naturally occurring borates of\\ncalcium (colemanite and borocalcite) and magnesium (bora-\\ncite). These yield borax by double decomposition with\\nsodium carbonate. When a concentrated boiling solution of\\nborax is allowed to cool, it deposits between 79\u00c2\u00b0 and 56\u00c2\u00b0\\nregular octahedral crystals containing 5 molecules of water\\nof crystallization below 56\u00c2\u00b0 the crystals deposited are\\nrhombic prisms and contain 10 molecules of water. The\\nlatter form is that found in commerce. Borax solution is\\nfaintly alkaline.\\nWhen borax is heated, it melts in its own water, swells up\\nand becomes dry, and then undergoes igneous fusion. Melted\\nborax dissolves a large number of oxides, forming borates.\\nOn solidifying, the color and appearance of a number of these\\nare highly characteristic For this reason borax is a valuable\\nagent in analysis. Anhydrous borax dissolves in 12 parts\\nof cold and 2 parts of boiling water.\\nBorax possesses antiseptic properties and is used as a\\npreservative.\\nCharacters of Sodium Salts. Sodium salts are not pre-\\ncipitated from their solutions by either hydrogen sulphide,\\nammonium sulphide, sodium carbonate, or platinic chloride.\\nHydrofluosilicic acid forms with them a white precipitate. A\\nsolution of potassium antimonate produces a white precipitate\\nof sodium antimonate (Fremy).\\nSodium salts impart a yellow color to non-luminous flames.\\nA small quantity of alcohol may be ignited in a saucer and\\nwill burn with an almost colorless flame, but the introduction\\nof a small quantity of sodium hydrate, chloride, or any other\\nsodium compound, at once colors the flame bright yellow.\\nThis character is very sensitive, and the smallest trace of\\nsodium may thus be recognized by introducing a platinum wire,\\ndipped into the substance to be tested, into the colorless flame\\nof the blow-pipe or of a Bunsen burner.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0318.jp2"}, "319": {"fulltext": "LITHIUM CESIUM AND RUBIDIUM. 315\\nLITHIUM,\\nLi 7\\nIn 1817, Arfvedson, a Swedish chemist, discovered a new\\nalkali, lithia, which is the hydrate of lithium, LiOH, analogous\\nto potassium hydrate, KOH. To this hydrate corresponds an\\noxide, Li 2 0, and a chloride, Li CI. Bunsen was the first to ob-\\ntain the metal lithium, which he prepared by electrolysis of the\\nfused chloride. It is a silvery-white metal, but its surface rap-\\nidly tarnishes in the air. It is the lightest of the solid ele-\\nments, its density being between 0.578 and 0.589. It melts at\\n180\u00c2\u00b0. It is less oxidizable than either sodium or potassium.\\nWhen heated above its point of fusion in the air or in oxygen,\\nit burns with a brilliant white flame. It decomposes water at\\nordinary temperatures, but without melting like sodium.\\nThe salts of lithium are soluble in water, but the carbonate\\nand phosphate only slightly so. There exists also a double\\nphosphate of sodium and lithium, which is but slightly soluble.\\nThe salts of lithium communicate a red color to the flame of\\nalcohol or of the Bunsen burner.\\nThe compounds of lithium are generally prepared from\\nlepidolite, triphyline, amblygonite, or spodumene, minerals of\\ncomplex composition containing small amounts of the ele-\\nment in the form of silicate or phosphate.\\n(LESIUM AND RUBIDIUM.\\nSPECTRUM ANALYSIS.\\nCaesium and rubidium are two alkaline metals discovered\\nby Kirchhoff and Bunsen in 1860-61, by the aid of a new\\nmethod of analysis. This method consists in the examination\\nof spectra hence the name spectrum analysis.\\nThe solar spectrum formed upon a screen which intercepts a\\nbeam of solar light refracted by passage through a prism, con-\\nsists of a series of colored bands. The different simple rays\\nof which white light is composed are unequally refracted by\\nthe prism, and separate from each other on their emergence.\\nThe violet rays, which are farthest turned from their original\\ndirection, form the most deviated extremity of the spectrum.", "height": "4792", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0319.jp2"}, "320": {"fulltext": "316 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe red rays, which are the least refracted, form the least de-\\nviated extremity. The visible spectrum of solar light presents\\nnot only a succession of variously-colored bands when it is\\nclosely examined by the aid of magnifying instruments, it is\\nfound that the succession is not continuous, but that the lumi-\\nnous bands are traversed by dark lines. These lines, which\\nwere discovered by Wollaston and studied by Fraunhofer, are\\nvery numerous, and are irregularly distributed throughout the\\nspectrum, from the red to the violet, but each one of them\\noccupies a definite position, and for the principal lines that\\nposition has been determined by exact measurements. Fraun-\\nhofer designated them by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, Gr, H.\\nThe D line is the most distinct of all its place is in the yel-\\nlow. Other lights, the stars, for example, give similar discon-\\ntinuous spectra. On the contrary, an incandescent platinum\\nwire, or any other luminous source which contains no volatile\\nmatter, gives a continuous spectrum.\\nVery interesting facts are observed when the sources of light\\nare flames into which the vapors of volatile substances, par-\\nticularly the metallic salts, are introduced. The spectra of such\\nflames are formed exclusively of brilliant lines (see plate).\\nIf a platinum wire which has been dipped into a solution\\nof sodium chloride be introduced into the colorless flame of\\na Bunsen burner, the flame will assume a yellow color, and will\\ngive a visible spectrum, but one which is very incomplete,\\nsince it consists of a single yellow line. It has been found\\nthat this line exactly coincides with the dark line D, existing in\\nthe yellow of the solar spectrum. This line characterizes\\nsodium in all of its compounds it is the spectrum of sodium.\\nIn the same manner, a flame into which a compound of potas-\\nsium, lithium, barium, calcium, or other volatile metal is intro-\\nduced, will give for each metal a particular spectrum formed of\\nvariously-colored lines. Each is perfectly characterized by the\\nnumber, color, and position of the lines. Barium gives the most\\nnumerous and the widest lines other metals give more compli-\\ncated spectra. That of iron is composed of 70 brilliant lines.\\nKirchhoff and Bunsen, who discovered these facts, made a\\nhappy application of them to analysis. To detect the presence\\nof a metal in a compound or even in a mixture, a small portion\\nof the substance is introduced into a colorless gas flame, and\\nthe spectrum then given by the flame is observed by the aid of\\nan instrument called a spectroscope. The light to be examined", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0320.jp2"}, "321": {"fulltext": "CO\\n3\\n\u00e2\u0096\u00a0f^s\\nin\\nw\\nH\\nI*\\na\\nK\\ng\\n1-=", "height": "4794", "width": "3128", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0323.jp2"}, "322": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0324.jp2"}, "323": {"fulltext": "SILVER. 317\\nis caused to pass through a narrow rectangular slit before falling\\non the prism. The image of the slit is then refracted to its own\\npeculiar place in the spectrum.\\nThe method is so sensitive that -g-.TnrJ.TUTr of a milligramme\\nof sodium chloride will render the yellow sodium line distinctly\\nvisible. The discovery of two new metals, caesium and rubi-\\ndium, crowned the brilliant researches of Kirchhoff and Bunsen.\\nSince then, a number of new metals have been discovered\\nby the aid of spectrum analysis thallium, which gives a\\ngreen line, indium, which gives an indigo-blue line, gallium,\\nwhich gives two violet lines very close together, and several\\nothers which will be mentioned farther on. Thallium was\\ndiscovered by Crookes and by Lamy, indium by Reich and\\nRichter, and gallium by Lecoq de Boisbaudran.\\nSILVER.\\nAg (Argentum) 107.66\\nNatural State. Silver is found native and in combination\\nin many minerals. Among these are the sulphide, the sulph-\\nantimonides and sulpharsenides, the antimonide, chloride,\\nbromide, iodide, selenide, telluride, and lastly an amalgam\\nof silver. It is found in small proportions in many galenas\\nand copper pyrites.\\nTreatment of Silver Ores. According to the nature of\\nthe ores the extraction of the silver is effected in the dry way\\nor the wet way.\\nArgentiferous galena is reduced as described under lead,\\nand the metal which contains all the silver is remelted and\\nsubjected to the process of cupellation (page 345), whereby\\nthe lead is removed as oxide, and the silver remains in the\\nmetallic state.\\nIn case the lead contains but a very small proportion of\\nsilver, a process devised by Parkes is employed it depends\\non the fact that when melted lead containing: silver is agitated\\nwith a small proportion of zinc, the latter metal dissolves out\\nall the silver, and the resulting alloy rises to the surface in\\nthe form of a scum. This is readily collected and the zinc\\nand lead are removed, the first by distillation, the last by\\ncupellation.\\n27*", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0325.jp2"}, "324": {"fulltext": "318 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nWhen the silver ore is free from lead, the extraction of\\nthe silver may be accomplished by means of mercury an\\namalgam of silver is formed from which the mercury is sepa-\\nrated by distillation.\\nMexican Amalgamation or Patio Process. American silver\\nore consists of sulpharsenide and sulphantimonide of silver,\\nmixed with silver chloride and native silver, the whole being\\ndisseminated in silica, calcium carbonate, and ferric oxide.\\nIn Mexico, the following primitive process is still used. The\\nfinely-pulverized ore is mixed with two per cent, of common\\nsalt and thrown into circular areas paved with flag-stones,\\nwhere it is rendered homogeneous by being trodden for several\\nhours by mules. About one per cent, of copper pyrites which\\nhas been roasted in the air and contains cupric sulphate is\\nthen added. The latter salt reacts with the sodium chloride,\\nforming sodium sulphate and cupric chloride, which latter\\ndecomposes the silver sulphide, forming silver chloride and\\ncupric sulphide. Mercury is then added and reduces the\\nsilver chloride, with formation of chloride of mercury and\\nmetallic silver. During the whole time the mass is continually\\ntrodden by the mules, and the mercury comes in contact with\\nthe disseminated silver the amalgam formed solidifies in\\nabout a fortnight. A second and finally a third addition of\\nmercury is then made until 7 or 8 parts of that metal have\\nbeen employed for one part of silver to be extracted. After\\na few months, the operation is terminated, and the mass is\\nwashed with large quantities of water to remove the earthy\\nand salty matters. The amalgam remains, and is heated in\\norder to extract the silver.\\nAmerican or Washoe Process. The above method of ex-\\ntraction is too slow to be employed for the vast quantities of\\nsilver ore that are mined on the Pacific Slope. The ore is\\nthere crushed and roasted with sodium chloride and a small\\nproportion of cupric sulphate, in furnaces of a peculiar con-\\nstruction. By this means all of the silver is converted into\\nchloride. The mass is made into a pulp with water and agi-\\ntated with mercury in large tanks or pans. The silver\\nchloride is reduced as before, and the amalgam obtained is\\nfirst squeezed out and afterwards heated to expel the mercury.\\nTo this end it is placed in horizontal iron retorts (Fig. 102),\\nwhich are heated to cherry redness. The mercury distils\\nand is collected under water, while an impure silver remains.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0326.jp2"}, "325": {"fulltext": "SILVER.\\n319\\nPig. 102.\\nSilver may also be extracted in the wet way. The Patera\\nprocess, which is applicable to sulphide ores, consists in trans-\\nforming the silver into\\nchloride by roasting the\\nore with salt, and lixivi-\\nating the product with so-\\ndium thiosulphate. Sul-\\nphide of silver is then\\nprecipitated by adding an\\nalkaline sulphide to the\\nsolution.\\nZiervogel s process de-\\npends on the conversion of\\nsulphide of silver into sul-\\nphate by roasting the ore\\nin the air. Upon treating\\nthe mass with hot water,\\nthe silver sulphate passes into solution, from which the metal\\nmay be precipitated by metallic copper.\\nProperties. Silver is the whitest and most brilliant of all\\nthe ordinary metals. Next to gold, it is the most malleable\\nand the most ductile. Its density is 10.5. It is the best\\nconductor of heat and electricity.\\nIt melts towards 1000\u00c2\u00b0, and when fused has the curious\\nproperty of dissolving oxygen, of which it absorbs 22 times\\nits volume. On solidifying, it again disengages the gas this\\nphenomenon, which occasionally causes the projection of por-\\ntions of silver, is called spitting. Silver volatilizes at the high\\ntemperature of the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe. Its vapor is\\ngreen.\\nIt is unaltered by the air. It absorbs ozone, being converted\\ninto the dioxide Ag 2 2 It combines with hydrogen dioxide,\\nforming argentous and argentic hydrates (Weltzien).\\nIt decomposes concentrated solution of hydriodic acid, dis-\\nengaging hydrogen and forming silver iodide (Deville). Hy-\\ndrochloric acid only attacks it superficially. Hydrogen sulphide\\nblackens it, forming a pellicle of silver sulphide. Its best sol-\\nvent is nitric acid which attacks it in the cold, yielding silver\\nnitrate and disengaging red vapors.\\nThe alkalies have no action upon silver; for this reason, silver\\nvessels are used for fusing potassium hydrate and concentrating\\nits solution.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0327.jp2"}, "326": {"fulltext": "320 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nBy precipitating silver solutions with various reducing agents,\\nunder peculiar circumstances, Carey Lea has obtained interest-\\ning allotropic forms of silver, red, blue, and gold in color, and\\nhaving a high degree of lustre. They are readily reconverted\\ninto ordinary silver.\\nSILVER OXIDE.\\nAg 2\\nThe only important oxide of silver is the monoxide, which\\nis precipitated in the anhydrous state when potassium hydrate,\\nfree from chloride, is added to a solution of silver nitrate.\\nIt forms an olive-brown, flocculent deposit which yields a\\nbrown powder on drying.\\nSilver oxide is readily decomposed by heat into silver and\\noxygen. It is reduced by hydrogen at a temperature below\\n100\u00c2\u00b0. When recently precipitated, it is slightly soluble in\\nwater. It is an energetic base, perfectly neutralizing the acids,\\nand displacing cupric oxide from the cupric salts.\\nWhen oxide of silver is digested with ammonia it is con-\\nverted into a very explosive, black powder, known as fulmi-\\nnating silver. It appears to be the nitride Ag 3 N.\\nSILVER SULPHIDE.\\nTo the oxide of silver corresponds the sulphide Ag 2 S, which\\noccurs native, as argentite, crystallized in regular octahedra,\\nordinarily modified by facettes. It is soft and can be scratched\\nby the finger-nail. Silver and sulphur combine readily by the\\naid of heat.\\nSILVER CHLORIDE.\\nAgCl\\nThis body is found native and is known to mineralogists as\\nhorn-silver. It is sometimes found crystallized in cubes and\\noctahedra. It is formed directly when silver is heated in chlo-\\nrine gas, and is prepared by double decomposition by adding\\nhydrochloric acid or a solution of sodium chloride to solution\\nof nitrate of silver. A white, curdy precipitate is thus obtained,\\nwhich assumes a violet tint when exposed to the action of light.\\nThe change of color is due to partial decomposition.\\nSilver chloride melts at about 260\u00c2\u00b0, and solidifies on cooling\\nto a gray, horn-like mass that can be cut with a knife.\\nIf recently precipitated and moist silver chloride be placed\\nupon a sheet of zinc, in a short time a dark color will appear", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0328.jp2"}, "327": {"fulltext": "SILVER IODIDE SILVER NITRATE. 321\\non the borders of the chloride, and the whole of that body will\\nsoon be converted into a dark-gray powder of finely-divided\\nsilver. Zinc chloride is at the same time formed.\\nThis reaction takes place much more rapidly if the silver\\nchloride be moistened with hydrochloric acid. In this case\\nthe reduction is effected by nascent hydrogen produced by the\\naction of the hydrochloric acid on the zinc.\\nWhen silver chloride is fused with the alkaline hydrates or\\ncarbonates, it is reduced to metallic silver oxygen is disen-\\ngaged, and an alkaline chloride is formed.\\nRecently-precipitated silver chloride dissolves readily in aque-\\nous ammonia. When dry, it absorbs ammonia gas abundantly,\\nand Faraday employed this compound for the preparation of\\nliquid ammonia.\\nSilver chloride dissolves also in alkaline hyposulphites.\\nSILVER IODIDE.\\nAgl\\nSilver iodide is obtained as a yellow precipitate by adding\\npotassium iodide to a solution of silver nitrate. It blackens\\non exposure to light. It is but very slightly soluble in ammo-\\nnia, a property which distinguishes it from silver chloride.\\nSILVER NITRATE.\\nAgNO 3\\nThis salt is prepared by dissolving silver in nitric acid. If\\nthe metal be pure, a colorless solution is obtained which after\\nconcentration and cooling deposits large, colorless tables of an-\\nhydrous silver nitrate. If silver coin be employed, the solution\\nwill be blue, containing, independently of silver nitrate, cupric\\nnitrate. The latter may be removed by evaporating the residue\\nto dryness and carefully heating it, so that the salt may remain\\nfused for some time. The cupric nitrate is decomposed, while\\nthe silver nitrate remains mixed with cupric oxide, from which\\nit may be freed by solution and filtration.\\nThis salt dissolves in its own weight of cold, and in half\\nits weight of boiling water. The solution is neutral to test-\\npaper. When exposed to the air, it blackens, as do also the\\ncrystals and the fused salt, a partial reduction being produced\\nby organic matters in the air. It blackens the skin from a\\nsimilar cause.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0329.jp2"}, "328": {"fulltext": "322 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nHydrogen slowly reduces the solution of silver nitrate with\\ndeposition of metallic silver (Beketoff).\\nSilver nitrate is extensively used in photography it is also\\nused in medicine, and when fused constitutes lunar caustic.\\nCharacters of Silver Salts. Solutions of silver are precipi-\\ntated black by hydrogen sulphide and by ammonium sulphide.\\nPotassium hydrate forms an olive-green precipitate of silver\\noxide, insoluble in excess. Ammonia does not precipitate them.\\nHydrochloric acid and the soluble chlorides form a white\\nprecipitate of silver chloride, insoluble in either cold or boiling\\nnitric acid, but soluble in ammonia.\\nPotassium iodide gives a yellow precipitate, almost insoluble\\nin ammonia.\\nSilvering. This operation consists in covering the common\\nmetals or glass with a coating of silver more or less thick.\\nThe metals are silvered by either amalgamation or galvanic\\ndeposition. In the latter and preferable operation, a solution\\nof the double cyanide of silver and potassium is generally used.\\nMirrors and glass articles in general are silvered by the re-\\nduction of a silver salt by aldehyde, glucose, or tartaric acid.\\nThe following receipt is given by Liebig: a solution of 10\\ngrammes of silver nitrate is supersaturated with ammonia and\\nrendered strongly alkaline by caustic soda. The volume of\\nthe liquid should be 1450 c.c. Another solution is prepared\\nby dissolving 1 part of milk sugar in 10 parts of water. The\\nlatter solution is mixed with its own volume of the first solu-\\ntion, and the glass to be silvered is washed with alcohol and\\nimmersed in the liquid. The reduction of the silver salt begins\\nimmediately, and does not require the aid of heat.\\nThe experiment may easily be made in a glass flask, the\\ninterior of which will be uniformly silvered.\\nAssaying of Silver. This name is applied to the methods\\nwhich serve for the analysis of alloys of silver and copper, such\\nas coin, medals, silverware, and jewelry. The assay may be\\nconducted by the dry way or by the wet way.\\nThe dry assay consists in the operation called cupellation\\n(Fig. 103). A certain quantity of metallic lead is melted in\\na cupel of bone-ash in a reverberatory furnace, and a weighed\\nquantity of the alloy of silver and copper, carefully wrapped\\nin a small piece of paper, is placed upon the fused metal. The\\nsilver dissolves in the melted lead, and a ternary alloy is thus\\nobtained which is exposed to the action of air at a red heat.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0330.jp2"}, "329": {"fulltext": "ASSAYING OF SILVER.\\n323\\nUnder these conditions, the lead and copper become oxidized\\nthe oxide of lead fuses, and the melted litharge, which should\\nbe in great excess in proportion to the oxide of copper, dis-\\nsolves the latter, and with it is absorbed by the porous cupel.\\nThe phenomenon of brightening (page 346) indicates the ter-\\nmination of the process.\\nFig. 103.\\nThe wet assay, invented by Gay-Lussac, consists in adding\\nto a solution in nitric acid of a known weight of the alloy of\\nsilver and copper, a titrated solution of sodium chloride, that\\nis, a solution containing an exactly known weight of salt in\\none litre of water. This solution is cautiously added until it\\nno longer precipitates silver chloride, and the quantity of\\nsilver present is calculated from the volume of the titrated\\nsolution that has been required to completely precipitate the\\nsilver in the form of chloride. As the latter readily deposits\\nfrom a liquid that is carefully agitated, it is easy to ascertain\\nthe end of the operation, that is, the precise moment when\\nall of the silver is precipitated and the addition of the titrated\\nliquid must be arrested.", "height": "4758", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0331.jp2"}, "330": {"fulltext": "324 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nProcess. Two titrated solutions are used to precipitate the\\nsilver 1st, a normal solution, containing 0.5417 gramme of\\nsodium chloride per decilitre, a quantity sufficient to precipitate\\none gramme of silver 2d, a decinormal solution, that is, one\\ncontaining the same quantity of sodium chloride per litre, so\\nthat 1 c.c. of this liquid will precipitate one milligramme\\nof silver. To analyze an alloy of silver, a coin, for example,\\nsuch a quantity is weighed as would contain one gramme of\\nsilver, if the proportion of silver were a little less than the\\nextreme limit allowed. If the alloy ought to contain 900\\nthousandths pure silver, with an allowance of 3 thousandths, it\\nwould be rejected should it contain less than 897 thousandths.\\nWe suppose, however, that the latter is its quality, and\\nweigh a quantity of the alloy which would then contain one\\ngramme of pure silver, that is, 1.1148 grammes. This alloy\\nis dissolved in nitric acid, and one decilitre of the normal solu-\\ntion is added. All of the silver should not be precipitated, for\\nthe standard of the alloy should be above 897. This is deter-\\nmined by adding to the clarified liquid one or more cubic cen-\\ntimetres of the decinormal solution, until the liquid ceases to\\nbecome cloudy on a fresh addition. As each cubic centimetre\\nof this solution corresponds to one milligramme of silver, we\\nmust add to the gramme of silver at first precipitated as many\\nmilligrammes as we have added cubic centimetres of the deci-\\nnormal solution, the last cubic centimetre added counting for\\nonly half a milligramme. Knowing the quantity of pure silver\\ncontained in 1.1148 grammes of the alloy analyzed, the\\nstandard of the latter is determined by a simple calculation.\\nCALCIUM.\\nCa 40\\nLime, which is universally known, is the oxide of a metal\\ncalled calcium. The latter was discovered by Davy in 1808,\\nand isolated in 1854 by Matthiessen, who obtained it by\\ndecomposing fused calcium chloride by the voltaic current.\\nAccording to Lies-Bodard and Jobin, calcium may be obtained\\nby decomposing calcium iodide with sodium in an iron crucible.\\nCalcium has a yellow color when freshly filed, but it tar-\\nnishes rapidly in moist air and becomes covered with a grayish", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0332.jp2"}, "331": {"fulltext": "OXIDE AND HYDRATE OF CALCIUM. 325\\nlayer of hydrate. When heated upon platinum-foil it takes\\nfire and burns with a dazzling flame. It decomposes water at\\nordinary temperatures.\\nOXIDE AND HYDRATE OF CALCIUM.\\nLime, or calcium oxide, CaO, is obtained by calcining the\\ncarbonate in special furnaces, which are called lime-kilns. As\\nquick-lime, it forms large, compact, and hard grayish masses.\\nIt is infusible, even at the highest temperatures. When\\nexposed to the air, it attracts moisture and carbonic acid, aug-\\nments in volume, and is finally converted into a white powder,\\na mixture of calcium hydrate and carbonate. When lime is\\nsprinkled with water, it absorbs the liquid without giving rise\\nto any particular phenomenon but in a little while, the pieces\\nsaturated with water become hot, give off steam, and then they\\nsplit and increase in volume. If enough water be used, the\\nquick-lime will be converted into a white powder, which is\\ncalled slaked lime; it is calcium hydrate.\\nCaO H 2 Ca0 2 H 2 Ca(OH) 2\\nWhen slaked lime is suspended in water, a white, creamy\\nliquid is obtained that is called milk of lime. If this be fil-\\ntered or allowed to settle, the clear, limpid liquid resulting will\\nhave an alkaline reaction, for it contains a small quantity of\\ncalcium hydrate in solution it is lime-water. Calcium hydrate\\nis more soluble in cold than in hot water.\\nEmployment of Lime in Constructions. Lime is largely employed\\nfor building purposes in both ordinary and submarine constructions.\\nThe limestone which is used for the preparation of lime is rarely\\npure, and consequently the product of its calcination presents differ-\\nent qualities, according to the proportions of foreign matters which\\nremain in the lime, and which consist of a small quantity of mag-\\nnesia, oxide of iron, and especially clay. Fat limes are those pro-\\nduced by the calcination of almost pure limestone they develop\\nmuch heat, and swell up very much on slaking. Such lime forms\\nan unctuous and binding paste with water, and makes ordinary\\nmortar when mixed with sand. Impure limestones yield lean lime,\\ncontaining magnesia, oxide of iron, and clay. It is gray, and de-\\nvelops but little heat and increases but slightly in volume on slaking.\\nThe calcination of limestone containing from 10 to 30 per cent, of\\nclay produces hydraulic lime. Such lime sets under water, that is,\\nthe mortar solidifies after a few days, and becomes very hard, even\\nwhen immersed in water. On account of this curious property it is\\nused in submarine constructions. Such lime is yellow slaking it\\nproduces but little heat, and scarcely any increase in volume. The\\n28", "height": "4795", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0333.jp2"}, "332": {"fulltext": "326 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nhydraulic mortar formed by its mixture with sand will harden under\\nwater. Mortars possessing this property may also be prepared by\\nmixing lime with baked argillaceous materials, such as powdered\\ntiles, pottery, bricks, etc. Certain argillaceous rocks of volcanic\\norigin, the pozzolana so abundant near Vesuvius, for example, yield\\nan excellent hydraulic lime when mixed with fat lime.\\nCement is a variety of lime resulting from the calcination of lime-\\nstones containing from 40 to 50 per cent, of slate. When mixed\\nwith water, such cement sets in a few minutes in a solid mass like\\nplaster. Vicat has shown that the different varieties of hydraulic\\nlime and cement can be prepared by properly calcining carbonate\\nof lime, or chalk, with various proportions of clay. According to\\nhim, ordinary mortar sets because the lime gradually absorbs car-\\nbonic acid gas from the air, forming a carbonate which hardens and\\nbinds together the grains of sand. The hardening of hydraulic\\nlime and mortar is due to another cause on contact with water, the\\nclay which they contain in the anhydrous state becomes hydrated\\nand forms a double silicate of calcium and aluminium, or a silicate\\nand aluminate of calcium, which are insoluble and very coherent.\\nCALCIUM CHLORIDE.\\nCaCl 2\\nThis salt is prepared by dissolving white marble or chalk in\\nhydrochloric acid. On evaporation, the solution deposits large,\\nsix-sided prisms, containing 6 molecules of water of crystal-\\nlization. They are very deliquescent and lower the tempera-\\nture when they are dissolved in water. If they be mixed with\\ntheir own weight of snow, a cold of 45\u00c2\u00b0 may be produced.\\nWhen they are heated, they melt in their water of crystal-\\nlization, of which they lose 4 molecules at 200\u00c2\u00b0, and the re-\\nmainder at a red heat. At the latter point the mass enters\\ninto igneous fusion, and on cooling solidifies to a white, crys-\\ntalline mass, in which form it is ordinarily employed for the\\ndesiccation of gases. Calcium chloride dissolves readily in\\nalcohol.\\nCALCIUM CARBIDE.\\nCaC 2\\nAt the high temperature of the electrical furnace lime is\\npromptly reduced by carbon, but metallic calcium is not ob-\\ntained. The reduced metal combines with part of the carbon,\\nforming a black, homogeneous, crystalline mass, which is the\\ncarbide CaC 2 (H. Moissan). It has a density of 2.2, and is\\nfusible at the high temperature at which it is formed. When\\nheated in air, it burns into calcium carbonate. Water in-\\nstantly reacts with it, forming calcium hydroxide and acety-\\nlene, C 2 H 2", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0334.jp2"}, "333": {"fulltext": "CALCIUM NITRATE CALCIUM CARBONATE. 327\\nCALCIUM NITKATE.\\nCa(N0 3 2 4H 2\\nThis salt is formed naturally in the neighborhood of dwell-\\nings, in the soils of cellars, and in damp walls. It is con-\\ntained in what are known as saltpetre materials, and exists in\\ncertain spring and well waters. It may be made by satu-\\nrating nitric acid with calcium carbonate. It is very soluble\\nin water and in alcohol. It crystallizes with difficulty in six-\\nsided, oblique rhombic prisms, which contain 4 molecules of\\nwater of crystallization they are deliquescent.\\nCALCIUM CARBONATE.\\nCaCO 3\\nCalcium carbonate, commonly known as carbonate of lime,\\nis found in great abundance in nature and under different\\nforms. It is dimorphous, being found as calcite crystallized\\nin rhombohedra and as arragonite in right rhombic prisms.\\nIceland spar is calcite which is colorless and perfectly trans-\\nparent the crystals are doubly refracting.\\nThe various limestones and marbles constitute natural cal-\\ncium carbonate in which crystalline structure is more or less\\napparent, and many varieties are colored by foreign matters.\\nAll the varieties of marble are susceptible of a high polish.\\nStatuary marble is the whitest, and is made up of brilliant\\ncrystalline grains lithographic-stone is exceedingly fine-\\ngrained, very compact, and has a yellowish-white color.\\nChalk is a soft and amorphous calcium carbonate, made\\nup of the mineral remains of marine animalcules.\\nPure water dissolves but feeble traces of this salt water\\ncharged with carbonic acid dissolves a larger quantity, con-\\nverting it into dicarbonate. It is in this state that it is\\ncontained in hard waters. When the carbonic acid slowly\\nevaporates, the calcium carbonate is deposited from such\\nwaters in compact form having crystalline structure, and\\nwhen the water drips from the dome of a cave, large and\\nfantastically shaped stalactites and stalagmites are frequently\\nformed, consisting of almost pure calcium carbonate.\\nCalcium carbonate may be prepared by double decomposi-\\ntion between solutions of sodium carbonate and calcium\\nchloride. When heated to bright redness, it is completely\\ndecomposed into lime and carbonic anhydride.", "height": "4798", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0335.jp2"}, "334": {"fulltext": "328 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nCALCIUM SULPHATE.\\nCaSO\\nThis salt exists in two states in nature anhydrous, it con-\\nstitutes the anhydrite of mineralogists combined with two\\nmolecules of water of crystallization, it forms gypsum or plas-\\nter stone. Gypsum sometimes occurs in lance-head-shaped\\ncrystals, grouped together they are divisible into thin, trans-\\nparent layers, easily scratched by the finger-nail. Alabaster\\nand satin-spar are varieties of gypsum. All the forms of\\nhydrated calcium sulphate contain 21 per cent, of water.\\nWhen heated to 80\u00c2\u00b0 in the air, or to 115\u00c2\u00b0 in closed vessels,\\nthe sulphate, CaSO 4 -f- 2H 2 0, abandons its water of crystalli-\\nzation and is converted into the anhydrous sulphate. Between\\n120 and 130\u00c2\u00b0, this dehydration is rapid and complete. It is\\noperated on the large scale in plaster furnaces. In this state\\ncalcium sulphate will readily recombine with its water of\\ncrystallization. If the plaster be calcined at too high a tem-\\nperature it will not again become hydrated.\\nIf powdered plaster of Paris be mixed with enough water\\nto form a creamy liquid, it may be poured into a mould, and\\nin a few minutes will harden to a compact mass, completely\\nfilling every cavity of the mould. In becoming hydrated, the\\nparticles of calcium sulphate assume the crystalline form and\\nincrease in volume. These properties render plaster of Paris\\nvaluable in building operations, for ornamental work, and for\\nmaking casts.\\nIt is also employed to a large extent in agriculture.\\nCalcium sulphate is but slightly soluble in water. 1000\\nparts of boiling water dissolve a little more than 2 parts of\\nthe salt; at 35\u00c2\u00b0 they dissolve 2.64 parts; at 20\u00c2\u00b0, 2.05 parts.\\nCHLORINATED LIME.\\n(bleaching-powder.)\\nThis substance is largely employed in the arts under the\\nname chloride of lime, and is obtained by exposing well-slaked\\nlime to the action of chlorine. Its constitution is not perfectly\\nunderstood; it was long regarded as a mixture of calcium", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0336.jp2"}, "335": {"fulltext": "CHLORINATED LIME.\\n329\\nchloride and calcium hypochlorite, CaCP Ca(ClO) 2 but re-\\ncent researches have shown that it does not contain calcium\\nhypochlorite already formed.\\nThe formation of the alkaline hypochlorites by the action of\\nchlorine on a solution of an alkaline hydrate is explained on\\npage 133. With the hydrates of diatomic metals like calcium\\nthe action is more complicated, and is probably expressed by\\nthe equation\\nCa(OH) 2 CI 2 Ca(OCl)Cl H 2\\nIts manufacture is conducted by passing a current of chlorine\\nover slaked lime placed in layers upon shelves arranged in the\\nwalls of masonry chambers (Fig. 104). The product always\\ncontains a certain proportion of lime which cannot possibly be\\nchlorinated.\\nFig. 104.\\nChlorinated lime is an energetic bleaching agent under the\\ninfluence of acids it is decomposed, chlorine being set free. A\\nsolution of the compound is decomposed by the more feeble\\nacids, even by carbonic acid gas, and decomposes spontaneously\\nin a short time into calcium chloride and calcium hypochlorite.\\n28*", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0337.jp2"}, "336": {"fulltext": "330 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nInasmuch as the substance is a mixture, and not a definite\\ncompound, its reactions may be interpreted in several different\\nmanners. It always contains water, calcium hydrate and a\\nproportion of calcium chloride, and its active principle is\\nprobably expressed by one, or perhaps both, of the following\\nformulae\\nCa 1 CaOCP Ca CaOCl.OH\\nThe reactions might then be written as follows:\\nThe spontaneous decomposition of the solution,\\n2CaOCP Ca(ClO) 2 CaCl 2\\nCalcium hypochlorite. Calcium chloride.\\n2CaOC1.0H Ca(ClO) 2 Ca(OH) 2\\nits decomposition by hydrochloric acid,\\nCaOCP 2HC1 CaCP -f H 2 CP\\nCaOCl.OH 3HC1 CaCP 2H 2 CP\\nWhen a solution of chlorinated lime is boiled, it is at once\\ndecomposed, yielding calcium chloride and calcium chlorate\\n6CaOCP 5CaCP Ca^lO 2\\nCalcium chloride. Calcium chlorate.\\nCharacters of Calcium Salts. Calcium salts are not pre-\\ncipitated either by hydrogen sulphide or ammonium sulphide.\\nSodium carbonate forms in them a white gelatinous precipitate.\\nSulphuric acid and the soluble sulphates produce a white pre-\\ncipitate, if the calcium solutions be concentrated or only mod-\\nerately dilute. Oxalic acid, or better, ammonium oxalate,\\nproduces a white precipitate of calcium oxalate, even in the\\nmost dilute solutions of calcium salts. Calcium compounds\\nimpart an orange-red color to non-luminous flames.\\nSTRONTIUM.\\nSr 87.5\\nStrontium was discovered by Davy in 1808, but the pure\\nmetal was first obtained by Bunsen and Matthiessen by a pro-\\ncess similar to that which serves for the preparation of barium.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0338.jp2"}, "337": {"fulltext": "BARIUM. 331\\nMatthiessen describes it as a yellow metal, having a density\\nof 2.50-2.58, harder than lead, and decomposing cold water.\\nStrontium forms two oxides, a monoxide, SrO, and a dioxide,\\nSrO 2\\nStrontium chloride, SrCP, crystallizes in deliquescent needles\\nwhich contain three molecules of water of crystallization. It\\nis very soluble in water and fairly soluble in alcohol the\\nalcoholic solution burns with a red flame.\\nStrontium nitrate, Sr(N0 3 2 which is prepared like barium\\nnitrate, is deposited from its hot aqueous solution in anhydrous\\noctahedra, and crystallizes at low temperatures in oblique rhom-\\nbic tables containing 5 molecules of water of crystallization\\n(Laurent).\\nThe carbonate of strontium, SrCO 3 (strontianite), and the\\nsulphate, SrSO 4 (celestine), are found native. These two salts\\nare insoluble in water, and are deposited as white precipitates\\non adding a soluble carbonate or sulphate to the solution of a\\nstrontium salt. Strontium sulphate is less insoluble, however,\\nthan barium sulphate. Strontium salts color flames red, and\\nthe nitrate is used in red fire.\\nBARIUM\\nBa 136.48\\nBunsen obtained barium by the electrolysis of fused barium\\nchloride this metal is very avid of oxygen, and tarnishes\\nrapidly. It decomposes cold water.\\nBarium Oxide, or Baryta, BaO. Barium oxide is obtained\\nby calcining barium nitrate. Its nature was first recognized\\nin 1808, by Davy, who decomposed it by the voltaic current.\\nIt is a gray, porous substance, which unites energetically with\\nwater, producing a hissing noise and a great disengagement of\\nsteam, due to the elevation of temperature. The product of\\nthe reaction is a white hydrate, ordinarily known as caustic\\nbaryta.\\nBaO H 2 Ba(OH) 2\\nBarium oxide. Barium hydrate.\\nBarium hydrate is soluble in two parts of boiling water, and\\non cooling is in great part deposited in large tabular crystals,\\ncontaining 8 molecules of water. The solution of barium hy-\\ndrate in water is called baryta water.", "height": "4792", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0339.jp2"}, "338": {"fulltext": "332 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nBarium Dioxide, BaO 2 When dry oxygen is passed over\\nbarium oxide heated to dull redness, the gas is absorbed and a\\ndioxide, BaO 2 is formed. It is a gray, porous mass, some-\\ntimes greenish. It loses one atom of oxygen at a bright-red\\nheat (see page 66). When brought in contact with water, it\\ncombines with the latter quietly and without disengagement of\\nheat, forming a pulverulent hydrate.\\nThis hydroxide is readily prepared pure by adding an\\nexcess of baryta water to a solution of hydrogen dioxide it\\nseparates in beautiful scales. It reacts with cold dilute hydro-\\nchloric acid, forming barium chloride and hydrogen dioxide.\\nBarium Sulphide, BaS. This is obtained by reducing\\nbarium sulphate with charcoal.\\nBaSO 4 C 4 BaS 4CO\\nThe sulphate is reduced to fine powder, and is mixed with a\\ncertain quantity of flour or rosin. The mixture is then made\\ninto a paste with linseed oil, and shaped into little balls. These\\nare calcined at a bright-red heat in a covered crucible, and a\\nporous, gray mass is thus obtained which, when treated with\\nboiling water, yields a solution which deposits hexagonal tables\\nafter filtration and cooling. These crystals do not present a\\nvery constant composition, being a mixture of sulphide, sulphy-\\ndrate, and hydrate of barium. Their solution has a light-yel-\\nlow color.\\nBARIUM SALTS.\\nBarium Chloride, BaCl 2 2H 2 0.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This salt is obtained\\nby saturating the solution of barium sulphide with hydrochloric\\nacid. Hydrogen sulphide is disengaged the solution is boiled,\\nfiltered, and evaporated to crystallization. Barium chloride\\nseparates in quadrangular tables belonging to the type of the\\nright rhombic prism. These crystals are inalterable in the air.\\n100 parts of water at 18\u00c2\u00b0 dissolve 43.5 parts of barium chlo-\\nride, and 78 parts at 105.5\u00c2\u00b0, the temperature of ebullition of\\nthe saturated solution (Gay-Lussac). Absolute alcohol dis-\\nsolves ^i-0- of its weight of barium chloride.\\nBarium Nitrate, Ba(N0 3 2 Barium nitrate is prepared\\nby decomposing barium sulphide or carbonate with dilute nitric\\nacid, and filtering and evaporating the solution.\\nIt crystallizes in regular octahedra, or in cubo-octahedra.\\nThe crystals are transparent and unaltered in the air. One", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0340.jp2"}, "339": {"fulltext": "GLUCINUM, OR BERYLLIUM. 333\\npart of this salt requires for its solution 20 parts of water at\\n0.12\u00c2\u00b0 5 parts of water at 15\u00c2\u00b0 2.8 parts at 106\u00c2\u00b0, the tem-\\nperature of ebullition (Gay-Lussac). When heated to redness,\\nbarium nitrate gives off oxygen, nitrogen, and red vapors, leav-\\ning a residue of oxide, BaO.\\nBarium Sulphate, BaSO 4 This salt is found abundantly\\nin nature as heavy spar, and sometimes occurs in right rhom-\\nbic crystals. It is entirely insoluble in water and acids, with\\nthe exception of concentrated sulphuric acid. It is precipi-\\ntated as a finely-divided, amorphous powder when sulphuric\\nacid or a soluble sulphate is added to a solution, even very di-\\nlute, of a salt of barium.\\nBarium Carbonate, BaCO 3 Barium carbonate constitutes\\nan amorphous, white powder, which is obtained by double de-\\ncomposition on adding solution of sodium carbonate to a solu-\\ntion of barium sulphide. Natural barium carbonate is an\\nabundant mineral, and is found crystallized in right rhombic\\nprisms it is called wither ite.\\nCharacters of Barium Salts. Barium salts are precipi-\\ntated neither by hydrogen sulphide nor by ammonium sulphide.\\nSodium carbonate produces in them a white precipitate. Even\\nwhen very dilute, the barium salts produce a white precipitate\\nwith sulphuric acid, which is insoluble in either cold or boiling\\nnitric acid. The salts of barium communicate a green color to\\nflames the nitrate is used in green fire.\\nGrlucinum, magnesium, zinc, and cadmium form a group in\\nwhich the chemical analogies of the members are well marked.\\nThey are diatomic, forming oxides RO, and chlorides RC1 2\\nGLUCINUM OR BERYLLIUM.\\nGl, or Be 9.08\\nThe varieties of beryl, including the green precious stone\\nemerald and aqua-marine, contain a double silicate of aluminium\\nand glucinum. The latter metal was first isolated bv Woehler\\nin 1827.\\nGlucinum is prepared by the reduction of its chloride by po-\\ntassium or sodium. It is white and brilliant, has a density of\\n2.1, and melts at a temperature below the fusing-point of silver.\\nIt does not decompose water, even by the aid of heat, but is", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0341.jp2"}, "340": {"fulltext": "334 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nreadily attacked by hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, hydrogen\\nbeing evolved and a chloride or sulphate formed.\\nGlucinum Oxide, GIO, is prepared from beryl, or by pre-\\ncipitating by ammonia a solution of glucinum chloride. In the\\nlatter case a hydrate Gl(OH) 2 is obtained, which is converted\\ninto oxide by heat.\\nThe oxide is a light, white, infusible powder, soluble in acids\\nand alkalies. When heated in the oxyhydrogen flame, it vola-\\ntilizes like magnesium and zinc oxides.\\nGlucinum Chloride, G1CP. This salt may be prepared by\\npassing chlorine over an intimate mixture of the oxide and\\ncharcoal at a high temperature.\\nGlucinum chloride forms white, deliquescent crystals that\\nfume in the air, condensing atmospheric moisture. It is fusible,\\nand volatilizes at a low red heat. It is very soluble in water,\\nand forms a hydrate which is decomposed by heat, yielding\\nglucinum oxide and hydrochloric acid.\\nGlucinum forms a nitrate, and a sulphate which is isomor-\\nphous with magnesium sulphate.\\nThe salts of glucinum possess a sweet taste, to which the\\nmetal owes its name.\\nMAGNESIUM.\\nMg 23.94\\nMagnesium was discovered by Bussy. Matthiessen obtained\\nit by decomposing fused magnesium chloride by electricity.\\nPreparation. Deville and Caron recommend the following\\nprocess for the preparation of considerable quantities of mag-\\nnesium. A mixture of 600 grammes of anhydrous magnesium\\nchloride, 100 grammes of sodium chloride, 100 grammes of\\ncalcium fluoride, and 100 grammes of sodium cut into small\\npieces is heated to redness in a covered crucible. The mag-\\nnesium chloride is reduced by the sodium, and the magnesium\\nset free collects in little globules disseminated in the fused\\nmass, which must be stirred with an iron rod. These little\\nglobules are removed from the scoriae when cold, introduced\\ninto a charcoal boat, and heated to bright redness in a cur-\\nrent of hydrogen. The magnesium volatilizes and condenses\\nfarther on in the tube it may then be fused with a flux con-\\nsisting of magnesium chloride, sodium chloride, and calcium\\nfluoride. The metal collects at the bottom of the crucible.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0342.jp2"}, "341": {"fulltext": "MAGNESIUM OXIDE, OR MAGNESIA.\\n335\\nFig. 105.\\nWithin recent years magnesium has acquired considerable\\ncommercial importance. It is manufactured by electrolyzing\\ncarnallite, the double chloride of magnesium and potassium.\\nThis salt is fused in an iron crucible (A, Fig. 105), which\\nserves as a negative electrode. A carbon rod forms the\\nanode, which is enclosed\\nby a porcelain cylinder\\nperforated at the bottom to\\npermit free passage of the\\nfused carnallite, and con-\\nnected at the top with a\\npipe to carry off the evolved\\nchlorine. In this manner\\nthe metal liberated at the\\ncathode cannot come in\\ncontact with the chlorine,\\nwith which it would at\\nonce recombine, and it is protected from oxidation by the\\npassage of an inert gas, such as nitrogen or hydrogen, through\\nthe space in the iron retort.\\nProperties. Magnesium has a density of 1.74 or 1.75. It\\nfuses at 500\u00c2\u00b0. It decomposes water at ordinary temperatures\\nbut slowly. It may readily be rolled into ribbon or drawn into\\nwire. The wire is grayish and not very brilliant. The end\\nof a bundle of these wires may be heated in an alcohol lamp\\nuntil they take fire, and the whole may then be plunged into a\\njar of oxygen. They burn with an incomparable splendor that\\nthe eye cannot support; at the same time the jar becomes filled\\nwith a white smoke, which condenses into a white powder, the\\nproduct of the combustion it is magnesia, the oxide of mag-\\nnesium. Magnesium also combines directly with nitrogen.\\nIn the form of powder, magnesium is employed in the\\nflash-lights used in photography and in pyrotechnics.\\nMAGNESIUM OXIDE, OR MAGNESIA.\\nMgO\\nThis body is obtained by calcining white magnesia, or mag-\\nnesium hydrocarbonate. It is a white, infusible, light, and\\ninsipid powder. It does not dissolve in water, but combines\\nwith that liquid forming a hydrate, Mg(OH) 2 MgO.H 2 0.\\nThis hydrate slowly restores the blue color to reddened\\nlitmus-paper.", "height": "4777", "width": "2934", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0343.jp2"}, "342": {"fulltext": "336 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nMagnesium hydroxide is precipitated when a solution of\\ncaustic potassa is added to the solution of a magnesium salt.\\nCalcined magnesia is frequently employed in medicine.\\nOn account of its great infusibility (it melts only at the\\ntemperature of the electric arc), crude magnesia is employed\\nfor lining furnaces and crucibles.\\nMAGNESIUM CHLORIDE.\\nMgCP\\nThis salt is known in the anhydrous state and crystallized.\\nAnhydrous magnesium chloride is prepared by dissolving the\\ncarbonate in hydrochloric acid, adding ammonium chloride to\\nthe solution and evaporating to dryness. A double chloride of\\nmagnesium and ammonium is thus obtained which may be per-\\nfectly dried the dry mass is introduced into a clay crucible and\\nheated; the ammonium chloride volatilizes, while the magne-\\nsium chloride remains, and solidifies on cooling to a colorless,\\npearly mass.\\nIt is very soluble in water, and when properly concentrated,\\nthe solution deposits deliquescent, prismatic crystals containing\\nsix molecules of water of crystallization. These crystals can-\\nnot be dehydrated, nor can their solution be evaporated to\\ndryness, without decomposing the chloride by the action of the\\nwater; under these circumstances the magnesium chloride is\\nconverted into hydrochloric acid and magnesia.\\nMgCP H 2 2HC1 MgO\\nMAGNESIUM CARBONATE.\\nMgCO 3\\nThe anhydrous carbonate MgCO 3 known as magnesite, is\\nfound native, crystallized in rhombohedra, similar to those of\\ncalcium carbonate. Considerable deposits are also found of a\\ndouble carbonate of magnesium and calcium, known as dolomite.\\nWhen a boiling solution of magnesium sulphate is precipi-\\ntated by an excess of sodium carbonate, carbonic acid gas is\\ndisengaged, and a precipitate is formed containing at the same\\ntime magnesium carbonate and magnesium hydrate (magnesium\\nhy drocarbonate)\\nWhen this is dried, it constitutes the white magnesia of the\\npharmacies.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0344.jp2"}, "343": {"fulltext": "zinc. 337\\nMAGNESIUM SULPHATE.\\nMgSO* 7H 2\\nThis salt exists in solution in sea-water and in certain pur-\\ngative mineral waters, such as those of Epsom, in England.\\nIts common name is Epsom salts.\\nAt Stassfurt, it is found crystallized with one molecule of\\nwater (kieserite) and mixed with the anhydrous sulphate.\\nWhen it separates at ordinary temperatures from an aqueous\\nsolution that has been tolerably concentrated by heat, it crystal-\\nlizes in transparent and colorless right rhombic prisms. At 0\u00c2\u00b0, it\\ncrystallizes with 12 molecules of water at 30\u00c2\u00b0, with 6 molecules.\\nIts taste is disagreeable, at the same time salty aud bitter. When\\nmagnesium sulphate crystallized with 7 molecules of water is\\nheated, it first melts in its water of crystallization, of which it\\nloses 6 molecules. At 132\u00c2\u00b0, it still retains one molecule, which\\nit loses only at 210\u00c2\u00b0. It is very soluble in water 100 parts of\\nwater at 0\u00c2\u00b0 dissolve 25.76 parts of the anhydrous sulphate, and\\n0.4781 6 part for every additional degree Gay-Lussac). It forms a\\ndouble sulphate with potassium sulphate, K 2 S0 4 .MgS0 4 6H 2 0.\\nCharacters of Magnesium Salts. They are precipitated\\nby neither hydrogen sulphide nor ammonium sulphide. Sodium\\ncarbonate produces a white, flocculent precipitate. Potassium\\nhydrate and ammonia form white precipitates, but ammonia\\nwill not precipitate magnesia from an acid solution or from one\\ncontaining ammonium chloride. Sodium phosphate and ammonia\\ntogether produce a crystalline precipitate of ammonio-magne-\\nsium phosphate. This is the most delicate test for magnesium.\\nZINC.\\nZn 65.1\\nTreatment of Zinc Ores. The most important ores of\\nzinc are zinc spar (smithsonite), ZnCO 3 blende or sphalerite,\\nZnS calamine, Zn 2 SiO* H 2 icillemite. Zn 2 SiO red\\nzinc ore, ZnO, and franMinite, (Zn.Fe)O.Fe 2 3\\nZinc ores are abundant in England, Silesia, Belgium, and\\nthroughout the United States. They are generally accom-\\npanied by other minerals thus, blende is often mixed with\\npyrites and galena (lead sulphide). The ore is then first\\nsubmitted to an ingenious system of washing, by which the\\np w 29", "height": "4775", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0345.jp2"}, "344": {"fulltext": "338\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nvarious sulphides separate from each other by reason of their\\ndifferent densities.\\nIn order to extract the zinc from blende separated by this\\nmethod, or from zinc spar, the minerals are first roasted. By\\nthe action of heat zinc spar loses carbonic acid gas and water,\\nand the blende disengages sulphur dioxide and is converted\\ninto zinc oxide. Thus converted into oxide, and rendered more\\nfriable by the heat, the zinc ores are pulverized and calcined\\nwith charcoal. Carbon monoxide is disengaged, and the zinc\\nset at liberty volatilizes, and is condensed in suitable receivers.\\nThe operation is conducted in cylinders of refractory clay,\\na number of which are arranged in a furnace, and their open\\nextremities connected with conical recipients of galvanized\\niron (Fig. 106). In Silesia, these cylindrical retorts are re-\\nplaced by muffles, which are heated in a furnace and com-\\nmunicate with recipients placed outside (Fig. 107).\\nFig. 106.\\nFig. 107.\\nThe zinc of commerce is impure. It contains small quan-\\ntities of iron, copper, lead, cadmium, carbon, and arsenic.\\nIt may be purified by repeated meltings with small quantities\\nof nitre. The last traces of impurities can be removed only\\nby fractional distillation in vacuo (Morse).\\nProperties. Zinc has a bluish-white color; its density\\nvaries from 6.86 to 7.2, according as it has been melted or\\nrolled its fracture is laminated and brilliant. Commercial", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0346.jp2"}, "345": {"fulltext": "ZINC OXIDE. 339\\nzinc is brittle at ordinary temperatures it becomes malleable\\nat a few degrees above 100\u00c2\u00b0, but when heated to 200\u00c2\u00b0 it\\nagain becomes brittle. It melts at 41 0\u00c2\u00b0, and distils at about\\n1000\u00c2\u00b0. Its vapor density compared to hydrogen indicates\\nthat the molecule contains but one atom. Its surface soon\\ntarnishes in moist air, but the tarnish is only superficial. It\\nis due to the formation of an impermeable layer of hydro-\\ncarbonate of zinc, which protects the metal from further\\noxidation.\\nWhen heated to redness in air, zinc volatilizes and burns\\nwith a greenish flame into a smoke of oxide, which falls in\\nlight, white flakes, formerly called flowers of zinc or philoso-\\npher s wool.\\nZinc dissolves with evolution of hydrogen in hydrochloric\\nand sulphuric acids, and in boiling solutions of potassium and\\nsodium hydrates. When perfectly pure, it is dissolved with\\ndifficulty by dilute sulphuric acid at ordinary temperatures, and\\nthe easy solubility of the metal of commerce must be attrib-\\nuted to the presence of small quantities of foreign metals. The\\nlatter being electro-negative in contact with zinc, form voltaic\\ncouples, in which the zinc is the more oxidizable metal.\\nGalvanized iron is iron covered with a thin layer of zinc; it\\nis prepared by plunging carefully- cleaned iron objects into a\\nbath of molten zinc.\\nBrass is an alloy of copper and zinc, obtained by melting the\\ntwo metals together in crucibles.\\nZINC OXIDE.\\nZnO\\nThis oxide is prepared in the arts by heating zinc in large\\nmuffles the product is separated from traces of metallic zinc\\nby suspending it in water and rapidly decanting the white\\nliquid. The zinc sinks to the bottom of the vessel before the\\nlighter white powder has time to deposit the latter is therefore\\ncarried by the water into a second vessel, where it is allowed\\nto settle. The process is called elutriation.\\nThis oxide is now manufactured on an enormous scale by\\ndrawing an excess of air through a burning mixture of zinc ore\\nand coal. The zinc is reduced and oxidized at one operation,\\nand the oxide is drawn through the blower and collects in can-\\nvas bags through which the waste gases are forced.", "height": "4801", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0347.jp2"}, "346": {"fulltext": "340 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nOxide of zinc is white it turns yellow when heated, is\\ninfusible and is irreducible by heat and insoluble in water.\\nA hydrate of this oxide is precipitated when an alkali is\\nadded to the solution of a zinc salt.\\nZnSO 2KOH K 2 S0 4 Zn(OH) 2\\nZinc sulphate. Zinc hydrate.\\nAn excess of alkali will redissolve the precipitate.\\nZinc oxide is largely used in the arts as a substitute for\\nwhite lead as a pigment.\\nZINC SULPHIDE.\\nZnS\\nThe blende which occurs in nature is sulphide of zinc. It\\ncrystallizes in the isometric system, often in hemihedral forms.\\nSometimes it occurs as wurtzite in hexagonal prisms (Friedel).\\nOn adding an alkaline sulphide to a neutral solution of a\\nzinc salt a white precipitate is obtained, which is hydrated zinc\\nsulphide. This precipitate is soluble in mineral acids.\\nWhen moderately heated in contact with the air, zinc sul-\\nphide absorbs four atoms of oxygen and is converted into sul-\\nphate. At a very high temperature it is converted into oxide,\\nwith formation of sulphurous oxide.\\nZINC CHLORIDE.\\nZnCl 2\\nZinc reduced to thin sheets will burn in chlorine. Zinc\\nchloride is prepared in the laboratory by dissolving zinc in\\nhydrochloric acid. The aqueous solution, evaporated to a\\nsyrupy consistence, deposits a hydrated chloride, ZnCl 2 -f- H 2 0,\\ncrystallizing in deliquescent octahedra. This salt loses its\\nwater when strongly heated, and melts at about 250\u00c2\u00b0. On\\ncooling, a solid white mass is obtained, which is the anhydrous\\nchloride in this state it is very avid of water and deliquesces\\nwhen exposed to the air. It volatilizes without decomposition\\nat a red heat. It is very soluble in water, and dissolves also\\nin alcohol.\\nZINC SULPHATE.\\nZnSO 4 7H 2\\nThis salt was formerly known as white vitriol. It is ob-\\ntained by moderately roasting blende. The latter being often", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0348.jp2"}, "347": {"fulltext": "CHARACTERS OF ZINC SALTS. 341\\nmixed with pyrites, zinc sulphate and ferrous sulphate are\\nformed, and when the product of the roasting is lixiviated a\\nsolution of the two salts is obtained. The solution is evapo-\\nrated, and the dry residue moderately calcined. The ferrous\\nsulphate decomposes, yielding sulphuric acid, which distils, and\\nferric oxide, which remains mixed with the zinc sulphate. The\\nresidue being exhausted with water, the zinc sulphate dissolves\\nand is deposited in crystals on the cooling of the concentrated\\nsolution.\\nThe salt may be prepared in the laboratory by dissolving\\nzinc in dilute sulphuric acid it is the residue in the prepara-\\ntion of hydrogen.\\nSulphate of zinc crystallizes with 7 molecules of water. In\\nthis state it occurs as right rhombic prisms, isomorphous with\\nmagnesium sulphate.\\nWhen heated, it melts in its water of crystallization, of\\nwhich it loses 6 molecules the seventh it abandons only at\\n238\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAt a high red heat it is decomposed into zinc oxide, sul-\\nphurous oxide, and oxygen.\\nZinc sulphate is very soluble in water, of which 100 parts\\ndissolve 48.36 parts of the anhydrous salt at 10\u00c2\u00b0, and 95.6\\nparts at 100\u00c2\u00b0. The solution has a styptic taste.\\nZinc sulphate forms crystallizable double salts with the alka-\\nline sulphates thus, there is a double sulphate of zinc and\\npotassium, containing\\nZnS0 4 .K 2 S0 4 6H 2\\nCharacters of Zinc Salts. The zinc salts are colorless\\nunless the corresponding acid be colored. Their neutral solu-\\ntions are partially decomposed by hydrogen sulphide, which\\nprecipitates white sulphide of zinc the addition of a mineral\\nacid prevents the precipitation the zinc salts of organic acids,\\nsuch as the acetate and lactate, are completely decomposed by\\nhydrogen sulphide.\\nAmmonium sulphide produces a white precipitate of sul-\\nphide; this reaction is characteristic.\\nPotassium and sodium hydrates, and also ammonia, form\\nwhite precipitates, soluble in an excess of the reagent.\\nPotassium ferrocyanide gives a white precipitate.\\n29*", "height": "4800", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0349.jp2"}, "348": {"fulltext": "342 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nCADMIUM.\\nCd 111.7\\nNatural State and Extraction. Cadmium is generally\\nfound associated with zinc, either as oxide in calamine, or as\\nsulphide in zinc blende. As it is more volatile than zinc, it\\nbecomes concentrated in the first products of distillation.\\nIt is found especially, in the state of oxide, in the brown\\npowder called cadmies, which condenses during the first hours\\nof the distillation in the sheet-iron receivers adapted to the re-\\ntorts (Fig. 106). When mixed with powdered charcoal and\\ncalcined, this powder yields an alloy of zinc and cadmium\\nwhich distils.\\nThe cadmium is extracted by dissolving the alloy in dilute\\nsulphuric acid and passing a current of hydrogen sulphide\\nthrough the acid liquid. The cadmium is precipitated as a\\nyellow sulphide. This sulphide is dissolved in hydrochloric\\nacid and the solution of cadmium chloride precipitated by am-\\nmonium carbonate. The cadmium carbonate thus obtained is\\ncalcined, and so converted into oxide, which is mixed with\\none-tenth its weight of powdered charcoal and heated in a clay\\nretort. The cadmium distils.\\nProperties. Pure cadmium has a white lustre, but soon\\ntarnishes in the air. Its density is 8.60-8.69. It melts at\\n320\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at 860\u00c2\u00b0. Its vapor density is 56. It may\\nbe obtained crystallized in octahedra.\\nIt dissolves in dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acids with\\nevolution of hydrogen.\\nCadmium Oxide, CdO. The oxide of cadmium may be ob-\\ntained by calcining either the carbonate or nitrate. It has a\\nyellowish-brown color, or a brown more or less deep. It is re-\\nduced at high temperatures by carbon and by hydrogen, its\\nreduction taking place more readily than that of zinc oxide.\\nCadmium Sulphide, CdS. This sulphide occurs in nature\\nas greenockite in the form of bright yellow, hexagonal prisms,\\nterminated by six-sided pyramids.\\nIt may be prepared in the laboratory by precipitating a solu-\\ntion of a cadmium salt by hydrogen sulphide or a soluble sul-\\nphide. An amorphous precipitate of a fine yellow color is thus\\nobtained. In this form it is employed in oil painting.\\nCadmium Iodide, Cdl 2 This salt is prepared by digesting", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0350.jp2"}, "349": {"fulltext": "LEAD. 343\\nfinely-divided cadmium with iodine in presence of water. It\\ncrystallizes from its aqueous solution in transparent and color-\\nless, hexagonal prisms having a brilliant lustre. It is soluble\\nin water and alcohol.\\nCadmium Sulphate, 3CdS0 4 8EPO.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Cadmium Sul-\\nphate is obtained by dissolving the metal, or its oxide or\\ncarbonate, in dilute sulphuric acid. The neutral and con-\\ncentrated solution deposits the salt in beautiful monoclinic\\nprisms. These crystals are efflorescent.\\nLEAD.\\nPb (Plumbum) 207\\nLead is related to the diatomic metals by a series of normal\\nsalts, the chloride PbCl 2 sulphide PbS, oxide PbO, etc., but\\nit is undoubtedly tetratomic in other compounds, among which\\nare a tetrachloride PbCl*, and a dioxide PbO 2 It is probable,\\nhowever, that lead is tetratomic in all of its compounds, in\\nwhich case the dichloride must be represented by the formula\\nc! Pb pb c!\\nthe oxide by the formula OPb=PbO, and the other compounds\\nin an analogous manner. It is convenient, in the absence of\\nmore positive data, to represent these molecules by the more\\nsimple formulae, bearing in mind that they probably express\\nonly half the molecular weights.\\nTreatment of Lead Ores. The minerals of lead which are\\nworked are the carbonate, and especially the sulphide, known as\\ngalena.\\nThe extraction of the metal from the carbonate is simple\\nit is heated with charcoal in a cupola-furnace, and the reduced\\nlead collects on the hearth.\\nTwo methods are employed for the reduction of galena.\\nOne consists in melting the ore with iron (granulated cast iron).\\nSulphide of iron is formed, and both it and the reduced lead\\nenter into fusion and separate from each other by virtue of\\ntheir different densities, the lead being much the heavier,\\nThis is the precipitation method. It is employed for impure\\nores having a silicious gangue.\\nBy the other process, known as the reaction method, the", "height": "4777", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0351.jp2"}, "350": {"fulltext": "344\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ngalena is first roasted, by which the sulphide is partially trans-\\nformed into oxide and sulphate the openings of the furnace\\nare now closed and the temperature is elevated. The excess\\nof sulphide then reacts upon the oxide and upon the sulphate\\nsulphurous acid gas is disengaged, and metallic lead is formed.\\nThis is called work-lead.\\nPbS 2PbO 3Pb SO 2\\nPbS PbSO 4 2Pb 2S0 2\\nThe operation is conducted in a reverberatory furnace repre-\\nsented in Fig. 108. The ore is spread in thin layers on the\\nFig. 108.\\nhearth E, and heated to dull redness the fire is at A, and the\\nair enters by the openings D. These are closed when it is\\njudged by the aspect of the mass that the roasting is suffi-\\nciently advanced. The heat is then increased.\\nIndependently of the portion of lead sulphide which reacts\\nupon the oxide and sulphate, there is always an excess, which\\nmelts when the heat is increased, and separates in the form of\\nlead matte. This is subjected to another operation by the same\\nprocess of reaction, and furnishes a harder lead than that first\\nobtained it contains a small quantity of copper, and is known\\nas slag lead.\\nIn some works, charcoal-powder is added at a certain stage\\nof the roasting, to remove the oxygen from the oxide and sul-\\nphate formed.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0352.jp2"}, "351": {"fulltext": "LEAD.\\n345\\nTreatment of Argentiferous Lead. The lead produced by\\nthese methods, and especially the work-lead, often contains a\\nsmall proportion of silver. In order to separate the latter\\nmetal, the lead is desilverized, as described on page 317, or\\nis first refined by crystallization.\\nThe object of refining by crystallization is the formation of\\nan alloy of lead and silver, richer in silver than the work-lead.\\nThe argentiferous lead is melted and allowed to cool slowly;\\nnearly pure lead separates in the form of crystals, which are\\ndeposited at the bottom of the molten metal. These are re-\\nmoved by a ladle as fast as they are formed the richer alloy\\nFig. 109.\\nof lead and silver remains liquid. The crystals of lead still\\ncontain a little silver, and are submitted to another fusion lead\\nagain crystallizes out on cooling, and a small quantity of an\\nalloy still rich in silver is obtained. The same operation re-\\npeated a third time determines the separation of pure lead.\\nThe alloys of lead and silver thus obtained are themselves sub-\\nmitted to several successive fusions and crystallizations, and a\\nstill richer alloy results.\\nThe alloy thus concentrated is cupelled. The operation con-\\nsists in melting the lead in a reverberatory furnace (Fig. 109),", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0353.jp2"}, "352": {"fulltext": "346 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nof which the hearth has a hemispherical form, and is called\\nthe cupel. The vault of the furnace is formed by a sheet-iron\\ncover, G, which can be raised and lowered at will. When the\\nlead is melted, a strong blast of air is blown upon its surface\\nthrough the tuyeres tt; the lead is thus converted into oxide,\\nwhich melts and, driven by the current of air, flows from the\\ncupel through a notch cut in its edge down to the level of the\\nmolten metal, and which is gradually deepened as that level\\nbecomes lowered. The silver, which is not oxidizable, becomes\\nconcentrated in the cupel as the lead is eliminated and when\\nthe last portions of the latter metal become oxidized, the sur-\\nface of the silver is covered with only a thin layer of fused\\nlitharge, which breaks up suddenly and displays the brilliant\\nsurface of the metal. This phenomenon, called brightening,\\nindicates the termination of the operation.\\nThe oxide of lead formed first in the cupellation of work-\\nlead is called abstrich. It is black, and still contains a little\\nsilver, as well as copper and antimony (Berthier). The oxide\\nwhich flows out after the abstrich is litharge.\\nProperties of Lead. Lead is a bluish-white metal, having\\na certain degree of lustre when its surface is freshly cut. It\\nis the softest and least tenacious of all the common metals. It\\ncan easily be cut with a knife and scratched by the finger-nail.\\nIt may readily be reduced to thin sheets, but is not easily drawn\\ninto wire. Its density is 11.363 (H. Deville). It melts be-\\ntween 326 and 334\u00c2\u00b0, and volatilizes at a white heat. It may\\nsometimes be obtained crystallized in regular octahedra by\\nallowing a large quantity of molten lead to cool slowly, and\\ndecanting the still liquid portion.\\nThe brilliant surface of lead tarnishes in the air. When\\nmelted, it rapidly absorbs oxygen and becomes covered with a\\npellicle of oxide, which is transformed by the prolonged action\\nof heat into a yellow powder, known as massicot.\\nOn contact with aerated water, lead absorbs oxygen and car-\\nbon dioxide, and becomes covered with a thin layer of carbon-\\nate. This fact explains the presence of traces of lead in rain-\\nwater which has been collected from lead gutters, or kept in\\nleaden reservoirs.\\nThe presence of small quantities of sulphates and chlorides\\nin water prevents this oxidation of lead, so that the metal can\\nbe used without danger for the distribution of most spring and\\nriver waters.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0354.jp2"}, "353": {"fulltext": "LEAD MONOXIDE. 347\\nLead is slowly attacked by concentrated and boiling hydro-\\nchloric acid. Dilute sulphuric acid does not attack it; the\\nboiling concentrated acid converts it into sulphate with evolu-\\ntion of sulphurous acid gas. Nitric acid attacks and dissolves\\nit at ordinary temperatures, disengaging red vapors and forming\\nlead nitrate.\\nLead and its compounds are poisonous. Its effects on the\\neconomy are especially manifested after the long-continued\\nabsorption of very small quantities of the metal, of which the\\naccumulation in the system is made evident by various symp-\\ntoms the best known is lead colic or painter s colic. Plumbers,\\nglaziers of pottery, painters, color-grinders, and the workmen\\nemployed in the manufacture of minium, or red lead, white\\nlead, etc., are exposed to this chronic poisoning. The soluble\\nsulphates are antidotes for acute cases of poisoning, and potas-\\nsium iodide causes the elimination of lead from the system in\\nchronic cases.\\nUses of Lead. This metal is used for the manufacture of\\nshot, and pipes for the distribution of water and gas. When\\nreduced to sheets it is made into gutters, the coverings of roofs,\\nlinings for troughs and reservoirs. Sheet-iron dipped into a\\nbath of melted lead retains a coating of that metal, and is called\\nleaded iron. Lead enters into the composition of type-metal,\\nplumber s solder, pewter, etc.\\nLEAD MONOXIDE.\\nPbO\\nMassicot and litharge, of which the formation has been in-\\ndicated, constitute the monoxide of lead.\\nMassicot is a yellow, amorphous powder. Litharge occurs in\\nreddish-yellow, crystalline scales. It is rendered crystalline by\\nthe fusion and cooling through which it passes. It is sometimes\\nmet with in the form of rhombic octahedra (Mitscherlich).\\nOxide of lead melts at a red heat when fused it absorbs\\noxygen, which it again gives up on solidifying (F. Le Blanc).\\nIt cannot be melted in an earthen crucible without attacking\\nand sometimes piercing the latter, owing to the formation of a\\nvery fusible silicate of lead.\\nLead monoxide is easily reduced by hydrogen, charcoal, and\\ncarbon monoxide.\\nIt is very slightly soluble in water, and possesses a sufficiently", "height": "4791", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0355.jp2"}, "354": {"fulltext": "348 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nmarked alkaline reaction to restore the blue color to feebly\\nreddened litmus-paper.\\nWhen potassium hydrate or ammonia is added to a solution\\nof a salt of lead, a white precipitate, which is a hydrate of lead,\\nis formed. This hydrate dissolves in an excess of potassium\\nhydrate it is also soluble in lime-water, and these solutions\\nare precipitated black by hydrogen sulphide.\\nLitharge is used for the manufacture of lead acetate and\\nwhite lead. It gives to linseed oil drying properties. It enters\\ninto the composition of various plasters, and different coloring\\nmatters (Cassel yellow).\\nLEAD DIOXIDE.\\nPbO 2\\nThis body is made by treating minium, or intermediate oxide\\nof lead, with dilute nitric acid. A brown powder remains and\\nmust be washed with boiling water. This is dioxide of lead\\nit is insoluble in water it is readily decomposed by heat, losing\\nhalf of its oxygen and being converted into monoxide. It is\\nan energetic oxidizing agent. When it is briskly triturated\\nwith a small quantity of sulphur, the latter is inflamed.\\nIf lead dioxide be introduced into a test-tube filled with sul-\\nphurous acid gas, the latter is immediately absorbed with for-\\nmation of lead sulphate.\\nSO 2 PbO 2 PbSO 4\\nHydrochloric acid poured upon lead dioxide determines the\\nformation of lead chloride and the disengagement of chlorine.\\nPbO 2 4HC1 PbCl 2 CI 2 2H 2\\nLead dioxide unites with the alkalies forming veritable salts.\\nFremy has described a plumbate of potassium, K 2 Pb0 3 -j~\\n3H 2 0, which crystallizes in cubes, and which is formed when\\ndioxide of lead is gently heated with a very concentrated solu-\\ntion of potassium hydrate in a silver crucible.\\nPLUMBOSO-PLUMBIC OXIDE (RED LEAD)\\nThis oxide is prepared by heating massicot in furnaces to a\\ntemperature that should not exceed 300\u00c2\u00b0. Under these con-\\nditions, the monoxide absorbs oxygen from the air, and is con-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0356.jp2"}, "355": {"fulltext": "LEAD SULPHIDE. 349\\nverted into a beautiful red powder known as minium or red lead.\\nThe product obtained by heating lead carbonate or white lead\\nin contact with the air is called orange minium.\\nMinium is a combination of monoxide and dioxide of lead\\nits composition is variable, according to the length of time it\\nis roasted. It ordinarily corresponds to the formula\\nPb 3 0* 2PbO.Pb0 2 (Jacquelain)\\nSometimes it contains less oxygen, having the composition\\nPb 4 5 3PbO.Pb0 2 (Mulder)\\nRed crystals of the latter composition have been found in\\nthe fissures of a minium furnace.\\nMinium has a scarlet-red color, which becomes much darker\\non heating. It gives up oxygen at a red heat, being reduced\\nto monoxide. If red lead be sprinkled with nitric acid, the\\ncolor disappears, giving place to a brown. The nitric acid\\nremoves the monoxide, forming nitrate, and leaves the brown\\ndioxide.\\nMinium is used to color sealing-wax and wall-papers. It is\\nemployed in the manufacture of flint glass, which owes its fusi-\\nbility, its perfect transparency and its refractive power, to sili-\\ncate of lead. When mixed with stannic oxide, minium serves\\nas an enamel for crockery-ware.\\nA mixture of red lead and white lead with a small quantity\\nof oil is employed as a luting for steam-pipes, and as a cement.\\nLEAD SULPHIDE.\\nPbS\\nGalena or sulphide of lead occurs in nature in beautiful\\ncubical crystals of a bluish-gray color and a metallic lustre its\\ndensity is 7.58. It melts at a red heat. When heated in con-\\ntact with air, it is converted into oxide and sulphate, and by the\\nreaction of an excess of sulphide upon these compounds me-\\ntallic lead is produced. Hot fuming nitric acid converts lead\\nsulphide into sulphate. Concentrated and boiling hydrochloric\\nacid transforms it into chloride with evolution of hydrogen\\nsulphide.\\nGalena is used for glazing common pottery. A broth of\\npowdered galena and cow s dung mixed with water is applied\\nto the surface of the previously well-dried vessels,\\n30", "height": "4788", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0357.jp2"}, "356": {"fulltext": "350 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThis sort of pottery is generally baked at a temperature not\\nvery high, so that the sulphide of lead, the oxidation of which\\nis prevented by the cow s dung, melts and spreads over the sur-\\nface, forming a varnish of a dark color when cold. Neverthe-\\nless, a small quantity of oxide is always formed by the oxidation\\nof the galena when the baking takes place at a higher temper-\\nature, this oxide forms a fusible silicate, which covers the\\npottery. This glazing often has a green color, due to the\\npresence of oxide of copper, and is attacked by vinegar and\\nother acids, which dissolve the oxides of lead and copper.\\nHence the danger in the use of ware so glazed for culinary\\npurposes.\\nLEAD CHLORIDE.\\nPbCl 2\\nThis body may be obtained as a white, crystalline powder by\\nheating litharge with hydrochloric acid. It is deposited as a\\ndense, white precipitate when hydrochloric acid is added to a\\nconcentrated solution of acetate or nitrate of lead. It is not\\nvery soluble in water; 135 parts of water at 12.5\u00c2\u00b0, or 33 parts\\nof boiling water being required to dissolve one part of lead\\nchloride. It may be obtained crystallized in long needles by\\nallowing its saturated boiling solution to cool. Lead chloride\\nmelts below a red heat, and on cooling solidifies to a semi-trans-\\nparent mass, which was formerly called horn-lead.\\nMineral yellow Turner s yellow, and Cassel yellow, employed\\nin painting, are oxychlorides of lead, combinations of lead\\noxide and chloride in variable proportions.\\nLEAD IODIDE.\\nPbP\\nWhen a solution of potassium iodide is added to a solution\\nof lead acetate, a beautiful yellow precipitate of lead iodide is\\nformed.\\nThis body melts to a red-brown liquid at a high temperature.\\nIt requires for solution 1235 parts of cold, or 194 parts of\\nboiling water. On the cooling of its saturated, boiling solution,\\nit is deposited in golden-yellow, hexagonal scales having a mag-\\nnificent lustre.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0358.jp2"}, "357": {"fulltext": "LEAD NITRATE LEAD SULPHATE. 351\\nLEAD NITRATE.\\nPb(N0 3 2\\nThis body is prepared by dissolving litharge in dilute nitric\\nacid. It crystallizes from its hot, saturated solution in anhy-\\ndrous, white, regular octahedra. These crystals decrepitate\\nwhen they are heated they dissolve in 7 i times their weight\\nof cold water, and in a much less quantity of boiling water.\\nAt a red heat this salt is decomposed into nitrogen peroxide,\\noxygen, and lead monoxide. It forms various basic compounds\\nwith lead monoxide.\\nWhen one molecule of the nitrate is boiled with one molecule\\nof the monoxide, and the filtered solution is allowed to cool,\\na crystalline deposit is obtained, which is a dibasic nitrate,\\nPb(N0 3 2 PbO H 2 (Pelouze). This salt can be consid-\\nered as derived from orthonitric acid, H 3 N0 4 HNO 3\\nH 2 0. Indeed\\nPb(N0 3 2 PbO H 2 2^ b J NO 4\\nThis basic nitrate of lead corresponds to the basic nitrate of\\nbismuth (page 379).\\nBi N0 4 P g| NO 4\\nBismuth subnitrate. Lead subnitrate.\\nWhen a solution of nitrate of lead is boiled with thin sheet-\\nlead, the latter is dissolved, and the liquid assumes a yellow\\ncolor. Under these conditions soluble basic nitrites of lead are\\nformed. On cooling the filtered liquid deposits yellow crystals\\nhaving a variable composition. By a prolonged boiling a tetra-\\nbasic nitrite, Pb(N0 2 2 3PbO H 2 0, is obtained. The so-\\nlution of the latter, decomposed by carbon dioxide, gives the\\nneutral nitrite Pb(N0 2 2 -f- H 2 0, crystallizing in long, yellow\\nprisms (Peligot) or in yellow plates (Chevreul).\\nLEAD SULPHATE.\\nPbSO*\\nThis salt is found crystallized in nature. It can be prepared\\nby double decomposition by precipitating the solution of any\\nsoluble lead salt, such as the nitrate or acetate, with sulphuric\\nacid or solution of a sulphate. It is a white powder, insoluble\\nin water.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0359.jp2"}, "358": {"fulltext": "352\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nAt a high temperature, lead sulphate melts without decom-\\nposition. Charcoal reduces it, transforming it into sulphide,\\nmetal, or oxide, according to the proportions employed.\\nQuickly heated with an excess of charcoal, it yields sulphide.\\nPbSO* C 2 2C0 2 PbS\\nBy diminishing the proportion of charcoal, a residue of\\nmetal, or even of oxide, may be obtained.\\nPbSO 4 C CO 2 SO 2 Pb\\n2PbS0 4 C CO 2 2S0 2 2PbO\\nIron and zinc, in contact with lead sulphate suspended in\\nwater, cause the separation of metallic lead.\\nLEAD CARBONATE.\\nPbC03\\nCrystallized lead carbonate is found in nature as the min-\\neral cerusite. The salt may be obtained artificially, as an\\namorphous white powder, by precipitating a soluble lead salt\\nby an excess of an alkaline carbonate.\\nA hydrated, and sometimes basic, carbonate of lead is\\nknown as ceruse or white lead. Its composition varies.\\nPbCO 3 H 2 and 2PbC0 3 Pb(OH) 2\\nWhite lead is extensively used as a paint and paint body.\\nIt is prepared by several methods, the oldest of which is called\\nthe Dutch process. It consists in exposing sheets of lead to an\\natmosphere charged with acetic acid\\n:v^~^L v vapor and rich in carbonic acid gas.\\nThe leaden sheets are introduced\\ninto glazed earthen pots, A (Fig.\\n110), containing a small quantity of\\nvinegar. The lead rests upon short\\nprojecting arms, B, below which is\\nplaced the crude vinegar. The\\npots are covered by a disk of lead,\\nD, which incompletely closes them.\\nThey are then arranged in rows in\\nlarge chambers a row of pots is\\nplaced on a bed of spent tan or horse-manure these are cov-\\nered with planks, upon which more spent tan or horse-manure\\nis placed, and then another layer of pots, and so on. The fer-\\nFig. 110.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0360.jp2"}, "359": {"fulltext": "LEAD CHROMATE. 353\\nmentation of the tan or manure raises the temperature to 30\\nor 40\u00c2\u00b0, and produces carbonic acid gas. On the other hand,\\nthe oxygen of the air intervenes, causing the lead to be\\nattacked by the acetic acid, so that basic acetate of lead is\\nformed upon the surface of the metal but this salt is con-\\ntinually decomposed by the carbonic acid gas, so that the lead\\ngradually becomes covered with a layer of carbonate.\\nThenard suggested another process by which litharge is dis-\\nsolved in a solution of lead acetate, and a current of carbon\\ndioxide passed through the solution of subacetate so formed.\\nLead carbonate is precipitated and neutral acetate regenerated\\nthe latter is then again transformed into basic acetate. The\\nproduct so obtained is known as Clicliy white lead.\\nLEAD CHROMATE.\\nPbCrO 4\\nThis salt exists crystallized in nature, constituting the\\ncrocoite of Siberia. It is prepared by double decomposition\\nbetween solutions of potassium chromate and lead acetate a\\nyellow precipitate is thus obtained, and is employed in painting\\nunder the name chrome yellow.\\nLead chromate melts at a red heat at a white heat it loses\\n4 per cent, of oxygen. It is easily reduced by charcoal and\\nhydrogen. Insoluble in water, it dissolves readily in solutions\\nof potassium hydrate.\\nCharacters of Lead Salts. The soluble lead salts have a\\nsweetish taste. Black precipitates are formed in their solutions\\nby both hydrogen sulphide and ammonium sulphide.\\nPotassa and soda yield white precipitates, soluble in a large\\nexcess of the reagent. Ammonia gives a white precipitate,\\ninsoluble in excess.\\nSulphuric acid forms a white precipitate even in the most\\ndilute solutions of lead. Hydrochloric acid forms a white\\nprecipitate of lead chloride, but this precipitate is not produced\\nin dilute solutions.\\nPotassium chromate throws down a yellow precipitate, soluble\\nin potassium hydrate.\\nWhen heated with sodium carbonate upon a piece of charcoal\\nin the reducing flame of the blow-pipe, the lead salts yield a\\nmetallic globule which when cold can readily be flattened out\\nby hammering.\\nx 3Q*", "height": "4766", "width": "2918", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0361.jp2"}, "360": {"fulltext": "354 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nTHALLIUM.\\nTl 204\\nThe spectroscopic green line given by this metal was first\\nobserved by William Crookes, who regarded it as characteris-\\ntic of a new element. The honor of having isolated the latter\\nand of establishing its true character belongs to Lamy.\\nThallium is widely distributed in nature, but constitutes\\nonly a very small proportion of the minerals in which it occurs,\\nexcepting the very rare crookesite, which contains 16 to 18\\nper cent.\\nIt is a heavy metal, rather whiter than lead it is soft and\\nsectile. Its density is 11.9, and it melts at 285\u00c2\u00b0. It is sol-\\nuble in dilute sulphuric and nitric acids.\\nThallium forms two oxides, to which correspond two series\\nof salts.\\nThallous oxide, TPO, is a black powder the corresponding\\nhydroxide, TIOH, is soluble and caustic like the alkalies, and\\ncrystallizes in yellowish prisms. Thallous chloride, T1C1, is\\nsparingly soluble in water. The carbonate, TPCO 3 is quite\\nsoluble in water.\\nThallic oxide, TPO 3 is obtained as a dark powder, when\\nthallium burns in oxygen or when the hydroxide is heated.\\nThe compounds derived from this oxide are less stable\\nthan the thallous compounds the chloride T1CP, sulphate\\nT1 2 (S0 4 3 and other thallic salts have been prepared.\\nCOPPER.\\nCu (Cuprum) 63.44\\nNatural State. Copper is found in the native state, some-\\ntimes crystallized in isometric forms, sometimes in masses.\\nIt is also found as cuprous oxide, Cu 2 0, cupric oxide, CuO, and\\ncupric carbonate, CuCO 3 but its most abundant minerals are\\ncuprous sulphide, Cu 2 S (Chalkosine), and a double sulphide\\nof copper and iron, Cu 2 S.Fe 2 S 3 designated as copper pyrites.\\nUnder the name gray copper are also worked various minerals\\ncontaining cuprous sulphide combined with the sulphides of\\nantimony and arsenic, and in which the copper is sometimes\\nreplaced by iron, zinc, silver, and mercury.\\nTreatment of Copper Ores. Copper is easily extracted\\nfrom cuprous oxide and cupric carbonate, These ores are", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0362.jp2"}, "361": {"fulltext": "COPPER.\\n355\\nmelted with charcoal in suitable furnaces, and the metal is at\\nonce obtained. Copper pyrites, which is often mixed with\\ncuprous sulphide, requires a more complicated treatment. The\\niron and sulphur must be eliminated, and for this reason the\\nore is subjected to an incomplete roasting;. This operation is\\nconducted in a reverberatory furnace (Fig. 111). The flame\\nFig. 111.\\nof the fire sweeps the arched vault of the furnace vv. The\\nopening of the chimney is at C, and the ore is fed in from iron\\ntroughs placed above the furnace.\\nThe first roasting drives out part of the sulphur, and the\\nsulphides of iron and copper are partially converted into oxides\\nand sulphates. An excess of sulphide remains, and the im-\\nperfectly-roasted ore is fused in presence of silicious materials.\\nThe scoriae formed in roasting the matte (see farther on) are\\ngenerally added, and sometimes fluor spar, to render the slag\\nmore fusible. This operation is conducted either in cupola-fur-\\nnaces or in reverberatory furnaces of peculiar construction. In\\npresence of the unattacked sulphide of iron, the cupric oxide\\nformed during the roasting is converted into cupric sulphide, and\\noxide of iron is formed. The latter unites with the silica, as\\ndoes also the oxide produced by the roasting, both being reduced\\nto ferrous oxide by the reducing gases of the fire. Ferrous sili-\\ncate is thus formed, and constitutes a very fusible slag, below\\nwhich accumulates the sulphide of copper containing much less\\nsulphide of iron than the original pyrites, This product is the\\nmatte,", "height": "4786", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0363.jp2"}, "362": {"fulltext": "356 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe sulphur, which was thus far necessary to expel the iron,\\nmust now be removed, and the matte is broken up and repeat-\\nedly roasted, by which the remainder of the iron is oxidized\\nand nearly all of the sulphur expelled. The mineral is now\\nagain melted with silicious materials and the scoriae produced\\nin refining black copper, and rich in cupric oxide, are added.\\nFerrous silicate separates as a slag, and a metallic mass contain-\\ning from 90 to 94 per cent, of copper, still alloyed with iron,\\nlead, arsenic, sulphur, etc., is obtained. This is black copper.\\nInstead of reducing matte by successive roasting and melt-\\ning as above, the sulphur is often removed by blowing air\\nthrough the melted material in a vessel resembling a Bessemer\\nconverter (page 395) and lined with quartz iron and copper\\nare rapidly oxidized, while sulphur dioxide is given off. The\\nresulting metal is much purer than that obtained by the older\\nprocess.\\nRefining of Black Copper. The impure metal is melted in\\na reverberatory furnace the air-holes are then opened, and\\nthe impurities are partly volatilized, partly oxidized. The\\nsulphur is driven off as sulphur dioxide, and iron and other\\nmetallic impurities, as well as copper, become oxidized and\\npass into the slag. This is skimmed off so that the metal\\nmay absorb more oxygen, which it transmits to the remaining\\nsulphur. Finally the oxygen is eliminated by covering the\\nsurface of the metal with coal and plunging poles of green\\nwood into it. The hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide so\\nproduced reduce the cuprous oxide to the metal.\\nKed, ductile copper is thus obtained.\\nLarge quantities of copper are now refined by electrolysis.\\nThe crude metal is cast in plates which serve as anodes in an\\nacid bath of copper sulphate solution, the cathodes being\\nthin copper plates. Under the influence of the current the\\nanodes are dissolved, and an equivalent quantity of pure\\ncopper is deposited on the cathodes. The precious metals silver\\nand gold remain undissolved, while the more positive metals\\nare held in solution. The electrolytic method is expensive,\\nbut it yields a product of extraordinary purity, and effects\\nthe extraction of the noble metals from the crude copper.\\nIn the Lake Superior region, the native copper is separated\\nmechanically from the rock and then subjected to a refining\\noperation similar to that already described. The product is\\nknown as Lake Copper, and is of the highest grade.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0364.jp2"}, "363": {"fulltext": "copper. 357\\nCement copper is copper precipitated from a solution of\\ncupric sulphate by metallic iron. It is very pure.\\nProperties of Copper. This metal has a characteristic red\\ncolor that is universally known. When rubbed with the hand\\nit exhales a peculiar, disagreeable odor. By fusion it crystal-\\nlizes in cubes, but it may be deposited by electrolysis in reg-\\nular octahedra. It melts towards 1100\u00c2\u00b0, and maybe volatilized\\nby the heat of the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe.\\nIts density varies from 8.85 to 8.95. It is very malleable,\\nductile, and tenacious.\\nIn dry air it is unaltered at ordinary temperatures, but it\\nabsorbs oxygen in presence of moisture and carbonic acid gas.\\nGreen spots are then formed upon the surface of the metal,\\nconstituting a hydrocarbonate of copper this is the product\\nordinarily called verdigris.\\nAt a high temperature copper absorbs oxygen with avidity,\\nbeing converted into black, cupric oxide if the oxygen be in\\nexcess but in the contrary case, red, cuprous oxide is formed.\\nThe oxidation is favored by division of the metal.\\nIf some pulverulent copper, produced by the decomposition\\nof copper acetate, be thrown upon a moderately hot tile and an\\nincandescent coal be approached so as to heat one point, a black\\nspot instantly forms there and rapidly extends throughout the\\nmass, showing the progress of the oxidation.\\nIn presence of acids or ammonia, copper rapidly absorbs\\noxygen at ordinary temperatures.\\nIf some ammonia and copper-turnings be shaken up with air\\nin a glass-stoppered bottle, the ammoniacal liquid becomes blue\\nif now the bottle be turned upside-down and opened under\\nwater, the latter will rise in the bottle, replacing the oxygen\\nwhich was absorbed. The blue liquid contains in solution am-\\nmoniacal oxide of copper and nitrite of copper (Schonbein,\\nPeligot).\\nThis liquid is capable of dissolving cotton and lint, which\\nare almost pure cellulose (Schweizer).\\nWhen heated with concentrated sulphuric acid, copper is\\nconverted into sulphate with disengagement of sulphurous\\nacid gas. Nitric acid, even dilute, dissolves it readily, forming\\ncupric nitrate and evolving nitric oxide. Boiling hydrochloric\\nacid attacks it slowly, disengaging hydrogen and forming\\ncuprous chloride.\\nUses of Copper. Copper is much employed for the con-", "height": "4788", "width": "2935", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0365.jp2"}, "364": {"fulltext": "358 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nstruction of boilers, alembics, stills and worms, and for kitchen\\nutensils. Owing to its high electric conductivity, enormous\\nquantities are used in electric constructions for cables, dyna-\\nmos, etc. Sheet-copper is used for coating the bottoms of ships\\nand sometimes for roofing houses. This metal enters into the\\ncomposition of many important alloys, such as brass, various\\nbronzes, and German silver.\\nCUPROUS OXIDE.\\nCu 2\\nThis oxide is found in nature, sometimes in vitreous masses,\\nsometimes in beautiful, red, regular octahedra.\\nIt is ordinarily prepared in the wet way by boiling a solution\\nof acetate of copper with glucose a bright-red, crystalline pow-\\nder is precipitated, which is anhydrous cuprous oxide. When\\nheated in contact with air, it absorbs oxygen and is converted\\ninto cupric oxide.\\nWhen potassium hydrate is added to a solution of cuprous\\nchloride, a yellow precipitate of cuprous hydrate is thrown\\ndown. Cuprous oxide is used to communicate a red color to glass.\\nCUPRIC OXIDE.\\nCuO\\nTwo processes are used for the preparation of this important\\nbody calcination of copper in the air calcination of cupric\\nnitrate. The first method furnishes a granular, compact, black\\noxide the second, a fine, deep-black powder.\\nCupric oxide is easily reduced by both hydrogen and char-\\ncoal, with formation of either water or carbon dioxide.\\nWith water it forms a hydrate, Cu(OH) 2 CuO.H 2 0, which\\nprecipitates as a thick, light-blue magma, when potassium hy-\\ndrate is added to a cupric solution. This hydrate is converted\\ninto brown, anhydrous oxide by boiling with water. Cupric\\noxide is largely used in the laboratory in the analysis of or-\\nganic substances. It is used in the arts to color glass, to which\\nit imparts a green color.\\nSULPHIDES OF COPPER.\\nCopper forms two sulphides, corresponding to the oxides.\\nCuprous sulphide, Cu 2 S, occurs in nature as copper glance in\\nfusible, steel-gray crystals, which may be scratched with a\\nknife.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0366.jp2"}, "365": {"fulltext": "CHLORIDES OF COPPER CUPRIC SULPHATE. 359\\nCupric sulphide CuS, is formed in the wet way when a\\nsolution of a copper salt is precipitated by hydrogen sulphide.\\nWhen strongly calcined, it loses sulphur and is reduced to\\ncuprous sulphide.\\nIf copper filings or turnings be thrown into a flask containing\\nboiling sulphur, a brilliant incandescence takes place from the\\nunion of the two elements.\\nCHLORIDES OF COPPER.\\nCuprous chloride, Cu 2 CP, is prepared by boiling copper-\\nturnings in hydrochloric acid and adding small quantities of\\nnitric acid from time to time. The nitro-muriatic acid formed\\nconverts the copper into cupric chloride, which is reduced by\\nthe excess of copper present. A brown liquid is thus obtained\\nwhich, by continued boiling, becomes almost colorless. On\\nadding water to this liquid, a white, crystalline precipitate of\\ncuprous chloride is deposited. It is insoluble in water, but dis-\\nsolves in aqueous ammonia, forming a liquid which remains\\ncolorless when kept in closed vessels in presence of an excess\\nof copper, but becomes blue on exposure to the air, from which\\nit absorbs oxygen.\\nCarbon monoxide is perfectly absorbed by a solution of\\ncuprous chloride in hydrochloric acid or in ammonia.\\nCupric chloride, CuCl 2 is obtained by dissolving cupric oxide\\nin hydrochloric acid or copper in aqua regia. A green solu-\\ntion is formed, which, after concentration, deposits beautiful\\nrhombic prisms of a bluish-green color, containing 2 mole-\\ncules of water of crystallization.\\nCUPRIC SULPHATE.\\nCuSO* 5H 2\\nPreparation. This salt is commonly called blue vitriol. It\\nis a product of many industrial operations, such as roasting\\nsulphurous copper ores, and the decomposition by copper of\\nthe silver sulphate resulting from the refining of gold, that\\nis, the treatment of silver coin containing gold with sulphuric\\nacid.\\nCupric sulphate produced by roasting copper ore contains\\nmore or less ferrous sulphate. The two salts crystallize together\\nin oblique rhombic prisms, containing 7 molecules of water of\\ncrystallization. The mixture is called Salzburg vitriol.", "height": "4785", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0367.jp2"}, "366": {"fulltext": "360 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nInstead of copper pyrites, artificial cupric sulphide may be\\noxidized. Old copper plates are moistened and sprinkled with\\nflowers of sulphur; they are then heated in a furnace, and the\\nsulphide of copper first formed is converted into sulphate by\\nthe oxygen of the air drawn into the furnace. The still hot\\nplates are plunged into water, which dissolves the layer of cupric\\nsulphate, and the same operation is repeated until all of the\\nmetal is transformed into sulphate.\\nThe simplest process consists in boiling copper turnings and\\nclippings with sulphuric acid sulphurous acid gas is disen-\\ngaged, and cupric sulphate formed. In the arts, the operation\\nis conducted in wooden tanks lined with lead and heated by\\nsteam.\\nProperties. Cupric sulphate crystallizes in large tabular\\nforms belonging to the triclinic system. These crystals have\\na fine blue color, and contain 5 molecules of water. When\\nexposed to dry air they effloresce superficially: heated to 100\u00c2\u00b0,\\nthey lose 4 molecules of water, disengaging the fifth only at\\n243\u00c2\u00b0. The anhydrous salt is white. At a high heat, cupric\\nsulphate is decomposed into cupric oxide, sulphurous oxide,\\nand oxygen.\\nCupric sulphate dissolves in 4 parts of cold, and in 2 parts\\nof boiling water, and the concentrated solution has a pure blue\\ncolor. It is insoluble in alcohol.\\nWhen an excess of ammonia is added to a solution of cupric\\nsulphate, a beautiful, dark-blue liquid is obtained. It contains\\nammoniacal cupric sulphate, CuSO 4 4NH 3 H 2 0, which\\nseparates in dark-blue crystals when alcohol is added to the\\naqueous solution.\\nThere, are several basic sulphates of copper representing\\ncompounds of cupric sulphate and cupric hydrate. One of\\nthem is obtained as a green powder when a solution of cupric\\nsulphate is digested with cupric hydrate. The bluish precipi-\\ntates obtained by incompletely precipitating solutions of cupric\\nsulphate with potassium hydrate are basic sulphates.\\nUses. Cupric sulphate is employed as a caustic applicable\\nto diseases of the eye. In the arts, it is used in the prepara-\\ntion of blue ashes, a mixture of calcium sulphate and cupric\\nhydrate, made by decomposing cupric sulphate with milk of\\nlime.\\nIt is much used in dyeing, particularly in dyeing black on\\nwool and cotton. It is also employed for preserving wood.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0368.jp2"}, "367": {"fulltext": "CARBONATES OF COPPER ALLOYS OF COPPER. 361\\nLarge quantities of sulphate of copper are employed for elec-\\ntrotyping, and for electric batteries.\\nCARBONATES OF COPPER.\\nWhen cold solutions of sodium carbonate and cupric sul-\\nphate are mixed, a bluish-green precipitate is obtained, and at\\nthe same time carbonic acid gas is disengaged. The precipi-\\ntate becomes green when washed with warm water. It is\\nknown as mineral green, and can be regarded as a combina-\\ntion of one molecule of cupric carbonate with one molecule of\\ncupric hydrate. It contains\\nCuCO 3 Cu(OH) 2\\nA similar compound exists in nature, constituting malachite.\\nThis mineral occurs in green masses. When cut and polished,\\nit presents veins of various tints, and is fashioned into orna-\\nmental objects, such as vases, cups, etc.\\nAzurite or mountain blue, which crystallizes in beautiful,\\nblue, oblique rhombic prisms, can be regarded as a compound\\nof two molecules of cupric carbonate with one of the hydrate.\\n2CuC0 3 Cu(OH) 2\\nDebray has reproduced azurite artificially by leaving calcium\\ncarbonate for a long time in contact with cupric nitrate in\\nsealed tubes.\\nALLOYS OF COPPER.\\nBrass is an alloy of copper and zinc, ordinarily containing i\\nzinc and f copper. It often contains a small proportion of tin\\nand even of lead.\\nBronze is an alloy of copper and tin (see table of alloys, page\\n249). While brass is malleable and ductile, bronze is brittle\\nwhen it has been slowly cooled, but it becomes malleable after\\ntempering, that is, when it is heated to redness and then\\nplunged into cold water.\\nGerman silver contains 25 per cent, of zinc, 25 of nickel,\\nand 50 of copper.\\nAluminium-bronze, phosphor-bronze, manganese-bronze,\\nand silicon-bronze are very tenacious and valuable alloys of\\ncopper with the elements indicated by the names. Silicon-\\nbronze is used for telegraph-wires, and manganese-bronze for\\nq 31", "height": "4792", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0369.jp2"}, "368": {"fulltext": "362 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nthe propellers of ships, as it resists the corroding action of\\nsalt water and is remarkably tenacious.\\nCharacters of Copper Salts. These salts are blue or green.\\nTheir solutions are precipitated brown by hydrogen sulphide\\nand ammonium sulphide an excess of the latter reagent will\\nnot dissolve the precipitate.\\nPotassium hydrate forms a dense, light-blue precipitate, in-\\nsoluble in excess. Ammonia first forms a pale-blue precipitate,\\nwhich is then dissolved by an excess of the reagent with a rich\\nsky-blue color.\\nPotassium ferrocyanide gives a reddish-brown precipitate\\neven in very dilute cupric solutions.\\nAn apple-green precipitate of cupric arsenite (Scheele s\\ngreen) is formed when potassium arsenite is added to cupric\\nsulphate.\\nA bright piece of iron plunged into a cupric solution in-\\nstantly becomes covered with a deposit of metallic copper.\\nMERCURY.\\nHg (Hydrargyrum) 200\\nNatural State and Extraction. Mercury occurs native,\\nand especially combined with sulphur, mercuric sulphide or\\nnatural cinnabar being its principal ore. It is found in differ-\\nent localities in Europe and America, principally at Almaden,\\nSpain; Idria, in Illyria; and in California.\\nThe treatment of the ore is very simple. The sulphide is\\nroasted in a current of air in furnaces of peculiar construction\\nthe sulphur is oxidized, and passes off as sulphur dioxide, the\\nmercury being set free. The metal volatilizes and is led, to-\\ngether with the gases from the combustion, either into con-\\ndensation-chambers, or through long rows of little cylindrical\\nvessels, where the mercury condenses.\\nFig. 113 represents the furnaces employed at Almaden,\\nwith the fireplace, and the body, AB, charged with ore. The\\nmercury-vapor passes by o, .and condenses in a series of aludels\\nentering one in the other, and arranged upon two inclined planes,\\nab, be. The condensed metal runs into a channel, b, from\\nwhich it is conducted into a reservoir. The sulphurous acid\\ngas, still charged with vapor of mercury, passes into a chamber,\\nC, descending to the floor, where it is cooled by contact with a", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0370.jp2"}, "369": {"fulltext": "MERCURY.\\n363\\ntrough filled with water, d. In this chamber the condensa-\\ntion of the mercury-vapor is completed.\\nFig. 113,\\nFig. 114 represents the several-storied furnaces aa, bb, cc,\\nand the condensation-chambers CC, used at Idria.\\nCinnabar may also be reduced by iron or by lime.\\nThe metal thus extracted is purified by filtration through\\nticking-cloth or chamois-skin. It is ordinarily transported in\\nforged iron bottles.\\nFig. 114.\\nThe mercury of commerce is nearly always alloyed with\\nsmall quantities of other metals, such as lead, tin, copper, and", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0371.jp2"}, "370": {"fulltext": "364 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nbismuth. In this state its surface is not as brilliant as when\\npure, it does not run as readily, and the drops are drawn out\\nto a point. They are said to form tails. It may be purified by\\ndistillation, an operation which requires certain precautions\\non account of the violent bumping of boiling mercury. This\\ndistillation is best effected under diminished pressure. Mer-\\ncury may also be purified by digesting it for several days with\\none-thirtieth its weight of commercial nitric acid diluted with\\nits own weight of water; the aqueous liquid is then decanted\\nand the mercury washed, first with warm water acidulated with\\nnitric acid, then with pure water, after which it can be dried.\\nIn this operation, the nitric acid removes the foreign metals,\\nmore oxidizable than the mercury, which displace the latter\\nmetal from its solution in the nitric acid.\\nProperties. Mercury is liquid, but solidifies at 40\u00c2\u00b0. The\\nsolid metal at this low temperature is malleable, and has a\\ndensity of 14.4. The density of liquid mercury is 13.595. It\\nboils at 350\u00c2\u00b0 of an air thermometer. Its vapor is colorless,\\nand has a density of 6.976.\\nIt is unaltered by contact with the air at ordinary tempera-\\ntures, but at 300\u00c2\u00b0 it slowly absorbs oxygen, and its surface\\nbecomes covered with a red powder, which is mercuric oxide,\\ncalled by the ancients red precipitate.\\nMercury combines with chlorine, bromine, and iodine at ordi-\\nnary temperatures, and with sulphur by the aid of a gentle heat.\\nHydrochloric acid does not attack it. Dilute nitric acid dis-\\nsolves it in the cold, forming mercurous nitrate. Hot nitric\\nacid dissolves it, forming mercuric nitrate and evolving red\\nvapors.\\nOXIDES OF MERCURY.\\nTwo oxides of mercury are known, mercurous oxide, Hg 2 0,\\nand mercuric oxide, HgO.\\nThe first is prepared by digesting mercurous chloride (calo-\\nmel) with potassium hydrate a black powder is obtained which\\nis very unstable. By the action of light, or by a temperature\\nabove 100\u00c2\u00b0, it decomposes into mercuric oxide and mercury.\\nMercuric Oxide, HgO, can be obtained by either the dry or\\nwet method. The first consists in decomposing mercuric nitrate\\nby heat the salt is gradually heated in a flask on a sand-\\nbath until red vapors cease to be disengaged.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0372.jp2"}, "371": {"fulltext": "MERCURIC SULPHIDE. 365\\nThe oxide thus prepared is an orange-red, granular, and\\ncrystalline powder.\\nMercuric oxide is prepared in the wet way by decomposing\\na solution of mercuric chloride by potassium hydrate. A\\nyellow precipitate of anhydrous mercuric oxide is obtained.\\nWhen mercuric oxide is heated, it assumes a dark-red color\\nand decomposes, if the temperature be above 400\u00c2\u00b0, into oxygen\\nand mercury. It yields its oxygen to many bodies, such as\\ncharcoal, sulphur, and phosphorus, which it oxidizes energet-\\nically. When heated with sulphur, it produces an explosion.\\nIn these reactions the finely-divided yellow oxide is more active\\nthan the red oxide.\\nMERCURIC SULPHIDE.\\nHgS\\nThis is the cinnabar generally found in nature in compact\\nmasses, sometimes in transparent, red, hexagonal prisms or\\nrhombohedra. It is manufactured by directly combining sul-\\nphur and mercury. The combination takes place when the\\nbodies are triturated together in the cold, in the proportion of\\n100 parts of mercury and 18 parts of sulphur. A black mass\\nis thus obtained which is sublimed in iron vessels.\\nCinnabar prepared by sublimation occurs in dark -red masses,\\nhaving a fibrous and crystalline structure. Its density is 8.124.\\nAt a high temperature, it volatilizes without melting. When\\nheated in the air, it burns with a blue flame, yielding sulphur-\\nous acid gas and metallic mercury. It is decomposed by hydro-\\ngen, charcoal, and most of the metals. Boiling sulphuric acid\\ndecomposes it with formation of sulphurous acid gas and sul-\\nphate of mercury. Nitric acid scarcely attacks it, even when\\nboiling.\\nVermilion is a finely-divided mercuric sulphide having a\\nrich scarlet color. It is prepared by triturating for several\\nhours in a mortar, 300 parts of mercury and 114 parts of\\nflowers of sulphur, and adding to the black sulphide thus ob-\\ntained 75 parts of potassa and 400 parts of water. The mixture\\nis maintained at a temperature of about 45\u00c2\u00b0, being continually\\ntriturated with a pestle. As soon as the powder has acquired\\na fine scarlet color, it is rapidly washed with hot water and\\ndried. It is employed in painting and also to color sealing-\\nwax,\\n31*", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0373.jp2"}, "372": {"fulltext": "366 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nMERCUROUS CHLORIDE, OR CALOMEL.\\nHg 2 Cl 2\\nMercurous chloride is largely used in medicine under the\\nname calomel or mild chloride of mercury.\\nPreparation. An intimate mixture of mercurous sulphate\\nand sodium chloride is heated in a capacious glass matrass on\\na sand-bath. The mercurous chloride, formed by double decom-\\nposition, sublimes.\\nHg 2 S0 4 2NaCl Hg 2 CP Na 2 S0 4\\nIt is thus obtained in compact, crystalline masses. When\\nit is strongly heated and its vapor passed into large stoneware\\nvessels filled with steam, it condenses in an impalpable powder,\\nin which form it is used by preference in medicine.\\nCalomel may also be prepared in the wet way by adding\\nhydrochloric acid, or a solution of sodium chloride, to a solu-\\ntion of mercurous nitrate. A white, curdy precipitate is\\nobtained which is washed and dried.\\nProperties. Prepared in the dry way calomel occurs as\\ndense, fibrous, crystalline and slightly transparent masses, one\\nside of which is smooth, the other presenting the sharp points\\nof the crystals. When exposed to light, it becomes yellow and\\neven gray in time, being partially decomposed. Its density is\\n7.17. It melts and volatilizes at the same temperature, but\\nit seems that dissociation takes place into mercuric chloride\\nand metallic mercury the density of its vapor being 8.35.\\nWhen slowly sublimed, it crystallizes in tetragonal prisms.\\nIt is insoluble in water.\\nA solution of potassium iodide agitated with calomel con-\\nverts it into a green powder of mercurous iodide. If an excess\\nof potassium iodide be employed, the green powder disappears\\nand is replaced by a gray precipitate of metallic mercury, the\\nmercurous iodide at first formed being decomposed into mercury\\nand mercuric iodide, which dissolves in the potassium iodide.\\nAn analogous reaction takes place with the alkaline chlorides\\nby the aid of heat, the mercurous chloride breaking up into\\nmercuric chloride which dissolves, and metallic mercury which\\nis deposited,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0374.jp2"}, "373": {"fulltext": "MERCURIC CHLORIDE, OR CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. 367\\nMERCURIC CHLORIDE, OR CORROSIVE SUBLI-\\nMATE.\\nHgCl 2\\nPreparation. This body is obtained by double decomposi-\\ntion, by heating a mixture of mercuric sulphate and sodium\\nchloride on a sand-bath. The mercuric chloride condenses in\\nthe upper part of the matrasses which are imbedded up to the\\nneck in the sand.\\nHgSO 4 2NaCl Na 2 S0 4 HgCl 2\\nTowards the close of the operation the heat is increased in\\norder to agglomerate the sublimate by a partial fusion.\\nAnother process consists in passing chlorine into heated\\nmercury the combination takes place with the production of\\nluminous heat.\\nProperties. Mercuric chloride prepared by the dry method\\noccurs in compact, white, crystalline and friable masses, having\\na density of 6.5. It is an energetic poison. It melts at about\\n265\u00c2\u00b0, and boils towards 295\u00c2\u00b0. The density of its vapor is\\n9.42. By sublimation it may be obtained crystallized in rec-\\ntangular octahedra.\\nIt is soluble in 19 parts of cold water, also in alcohol and ether.\\nIt is deposited from its hot, saturated, aqueous solution in\\nlong prisms, belonging to the type of the right rhombic prism.\\nThe crystals are anhydrous.\\nThe aqueous solution of mercuric chloride produces a white\\nprecipitate in a solution of albumen of white of egg. This\\nprecipitate is a combination of mercuric chloride and albumen.\\nAlbumen is thus the antidote to corrosive sublimate. Corro-\\nsive sublimate is one of the most powerful antiseptics it is\\nused in surgery, medicine, taxidermy, preserving wood, etc.\\nWhen a slight excess of ammonia is added to a solution\\nof corrosive sublimate, a white deposit is formed, known as\\nwhite precipitate, of which the composition is HglFNCl.\\nHgCl 2 2NH 3 NH 4 C1 HgH 2 NCl\\nIt may be regarded as the chloride of mercury-ammonium,\\nthat is, ammonium chloride in which 2 atoms of hydrogen are\\nreplaced by one atom of the diatomic metal mercury.\\nHg\\nHglFNCl H NCI\\nH", "height": "4782", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0375.jp2"}, "374": {"fulltext": "368 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nCorrosive sublimate forms crystallizable double combina-\\ntions with the alkaline chlorides and with ammonium chloride.\\nMERCUROUS IODIDE.\\nHg 2 I 2\\nThis compound is ordinarily prepared by directly combining\\nmercury and iodine. 100 parts of mercury and 63.5 parts of\\niodine are triturated with a small quantity of alcohol, until the\\nwhole is converted into a green powder, which is then washed\\nwith boiling alcohol and dried.\\nIt may also be prepared by double decomposition by precipi-\\ntating a solution of mercurous nitrate with potassium iodide,\\nor by the reaction of the latter body upon calomel.\\nMercurous iodide is not a stable compound. It is decom-\\nposed by light. Heat breaks it up into mercury and mercuric\\niodide, and the same decomposition is effected by potassium\\niodide and the alkaline chlorides.\\nMERCURIC IODIDE.\\nHgP\\nMercuric iodide is prepared by pouring a solution of 100\\nparts of potassium iodide into a solution of 80 parts of corro-\\nsive sublimate. A beautiful scarlet-red precipitate of mercuric\\niodide is thrown down.\\nIt is necessary that the bodies be employed in the propor-\\ntions indicated an excess of potassium iodide would dissolve\\nthe mercuric iodide first precipitated.\\nMercuric iodide is almost insoluble in water it is slightly\\nsoluble in boiling alcohol, which deposits it on cooling in small\\nred octahedral crystals.\\nIf mercuric iodide be heated in a small glass retort, it melts\\nto a dark-yellow liquid which solidifies on cooling to a yellow\\nmass. At a higher temperature the liquid boils and its vapor\\ncondenses in a dark-yellow liquid which solidifies to a yellow\\nmass at the same time, right rhombic prisms of a yellow color\\nsublime. If these be rubbed with a glass rod or other hard\\nbody they instantly become red, first at the point of contact,\\nthen throughout the entire mass.\\nThese two forms of mercuric iodide constitute one of the\\nmost curious examples of dimorphism.\\nMercuric iodide forms a combination with potassium iodide", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0376.jp2"}, "375": {"fulltext": "NITRATES OF MERCURY SULPHATES OF MERCURY. 369\\nwhich is soluble in water. A solution of this potassium-mer-\\ncuric iodide is not precipitated by potassium hydrate, but the\\nliquid rendered alkaline by the latter reagent is a very sensi-\\ntive test for ammonia (Nesslers test), with which it gives a pre-\\ncipitate or a brown cloud more or less intense, according to the\\nquantity of ammonia present.\\nNITRATES OF MERCURY.\\nNeutral mercurous nitrate (Hg 2 (N0 3 2 -f- 2H 2 0, is ob-\\ntained by the action of an excess of cold, dilute nitric acid upon\\nmetallic mercury. After some time, short colorless prisms are\\nformed in the liquid, constituting the neutral salt. The latter\\nis readily soluble in water charged with nitric acid.\\nWhen mercury is attacked by an excess of boiling nitric\\nacid and the solution is evaporated, voluminous crystals of a\\nbasic mercuric nitrate separate, Hg(N0 3 2 .HgO 2H 2 0.\\nThe syrupy liquid from which these crystals are deposited,\\ncontains neutral mercuric nitrate.\\nH g (N0 3 2 8H 2\\nThis salt is deposited in large, colorless, rhombic tables when\\nthe syrupy solution is cooled to 15\u00c2\u00b0.\\nA large quantity of cold water decomposes this nitrate into\\nnitric acid which dissolves, and a basic salt, Hg(N0 3 2 .2HgO\\nH 2 0, forming a yellow powder.\\nSULPHATES OF MERCURY.\\nThere is a mercurous sulphate, (Hg 2 SO*, and a mercuric\\nsulphate, Hg SO*.\\nThe first is obtained by heating equal parts of mercury and\\nsulphuric acid, arresting the operation when two-thirds of the\\nmercury are converted into a white, crystalline powder. Mer-\\ncurous sulphate is but slightly soluble in cold water.\\nTo prepare mercuric sulphate, 1 part of mercury and 1J\\nparts of sulphuric acid are heated to dryness on a sand-bath.\\nHg 2H 2 S0 4 2H 2 HgSO 4 SO 2\\nIt is well to add a small quantity of nitric acid before drying.\\nMercuric sulphate is an anhydrous, white powder. It decom-\\nposes at a red heat into metallic mercury, sulphurous acid gas,\\nand oxygen. Charcoal reduces it readily, equal volumes of\\ncarbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide being disengaged.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0377.jp2"}, "376": {"fulltext": "370 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nMercuric sulphate is slightly soluble in water a large quan-\\ntity of cold water converts it into a yellow, basic salt, HgSO*.\\n2HgO, known as turpeth mineral.\\nCharacters of Mercurous Salts. Their solutions are pre-\\ncipitated black by hydrogen sulphide, and also by potassium\\nhydrate and ammonia. Hydrochloric acid gives a white pre-\\ncipitate which is blackened by ammonia. Potassium iodide\\nforms a green precipitate of mercurous iodide, converted by\\nan excess of the reagent into mercuric iodide which dissolves,\\nand gray metallic mercury.\\nCharacters of Mercuric Salts. Solutions of mercuric salts\\nare precipitated black by an excess of hydrogen sulphide, and\\nby ammonium sulphide.\\nPotassium hydrate forms a yellow precipitate, insoluble in\\nexcess.\\nAmmonia yields a white precipitate in solutions of corrosive\\nsublimate.\\nHydrochloric acid does not precipitate the mercuric salts.\\nIron, zinc, and copper precipitate metallic mercury from\\nboth mercurous and mercuric solutions. A strip of copper\\ndipped into such solutions becomes covered with a gray coating\\nwhich acquires brilliancy by rubbing.\\nHeated with lime in a glass tube, all of the mercury com-\\npounds yield metallic mercury which sublimes in small globules,\\neasy to recognize under the microscope, and which can be char-\\nacterized by the addition of iodine, the vapor of which converts\\nthe metallic globules into yellow or red mercuric iodide.\\nAtomicity of Copper and Mercury. Copper and mercury\\nform two series of compounds. In the one, two atoms of the\\ndiatomic metal are combined together, forming a diatomic\\ncouple, as in cuprous and mercurous chlorides,\\nCl-Cu-Cu-Cl Cl-Hg-Hg-Cl\\nIn the other, one atom of the diatomic metal is saturated by\\ntwo atoms of chlorine, or one atom of oxygen, etc., as in cupric\\nand mercuric oxides, CuO and HgO.\\nVANADIUM.\\nY 51.37\\nVanadium, niobium, tantalum, thallium, gold, and bismuth\\nconstitute a class of triatomic or pentatomic elements. The", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0378.jp2"}, "377": {"fulltext": "NIOBIUM AND TANTALUM. 371\\nfirst three are more closely related to the non-metallic bodies\\nthan to the metals, and might properly be considered as mem-\\nbers of the group of which nitrogen and phosphorus are types.\\nVanadium is widely disseminated, occurring as vanadates\\nof lead, copper, bismuth, zinc, calcium, etc., and in many\\nargillaceous iron ores, but always in small quantity.\\nThe compounds of the metal may be prepared most readily\\nfrom the native vanadates vanadinite or mottramite. The\\npowdered mineral is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, the solu-\\ntion concentrated, and ammonium chloride added ammonium\\nmetavanadate separates. This is repeatedly recrystallized and\\nconverted into vanadic oxide, V 2 5 by gentle ignition.\\nVanadic oxide cannot be reduced to metal by either hydro-\\ngen or carbon the former converts it into trioxide V y 3 and\\nthe latter into dioxide V 2 2 The metal may be prepared by\\nthe protracted action of hydrogen on the dichloride VCP at\\na bright red heat.\\nIts chemical relations place vanadium in the nitrogen\\ngroup the vanadates are isomorphous with the phosphates\\nand arsenates. The oxides known are V 2 0, V 2 2 V 2 3\\nV 2 4 and V 2 5 and the chlorides VC1 8 TCI 8 and VC1 1 have\\nbeen obtained there are also oxychlorides.\\nAlthough vanadium is not very abundant, vanadic acid is\\nemployed in certain dyeing operations, by reason of the facility\\nwith which it passes to a lower stage of oxidation and again\\nbecomes oxidized, thus transferring oxygen from the air to\\nthe dye stuff. Meta vanadic acid, HVO 3 is a brilliant yellow,\\nmetal-like substance, and has been proposed as a substitute\\nfor gold bronze.\\nNIOBIUM AND TANTALUM.\\nNb 94 Ta 182\\nThese elements are associated in several minerals, and *ere\\nregarded as identical until 1846. Their principal sources are\\ncolumbite, a niobate of iron and manganese, (Nb0 3 2 FeMn, in\\nwhich more or less of the niobium is usually replaced by tan-\\ntalum tantalite, a ferrous tantalite, Fe(Ta0 3 3 in which in like\\nmanner a portion of the tantalum is replaced by niobium pyro-\\nchlorite, fergusonite, yttrotantalite, and eaxenite, in which these\\nelements are associated with yttrium, cerium, etc.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0379.jp2"}, "378": {"fulltext": "372 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nNiobium was obtained as steel-gray crusts by Roscoe, who\\npassed through a red-hot tube the vapor of niobium chloride\\nmixed with hydrogen. Its specific gravity is 7.06 it oxidizes\\nwith incandescence when heated in the air, and burns also in\\nchlorine.\\nThere are three oxides of niobium, Nb 2 2 Nb 2 4 and Nb 2 5\\nA mixture of the latter with the corresponding tantalic oxide\\nmay be obtained by fusing niobiferous minerals with potassium\\nacid sulphate, and boiling the fused mass with water. The res-\\nidue is digested with ammonium sulphide, and the remaining\\npowder boiled with hydrochloric acid. The two oxides, which\\nare unaffected by this treatment, are then separated by convert-\\ning them into fluotantalate and fluoniobate of potassium the\\nlatter is much more soluble than the former. The potassium\\nsalts are then decomposed by boiling with sulphuric acid.\\nNiobic oxide, Nb 2 5 is a white, insoluble, infusible powder,\\nwhich is yellow while hot. When strongly heated in hydrogen\\nit is reduced to the tetroxide, a bluish-black powder, which\\nburns into the pentoxide when heated to redness in the air.\\nNiobium pentoxide is the anhydride of niobic acid, HNbO 3\\nwhich is obtained as a white powder by the reaction of niobium\\npentachloride, NbCl 5 with water. The normal niobates have\\nthe general composition E/NbO 3 and there is also a series of\\nhighly complicated niobates, derived from an unknown hydrate,\\nH 8 Nb 6 19 nH 2 0.\\nNiobium forms two chlorides, NbCl 3 and NbCl 5 and an oxy-\\nchloride, NbOCl 3\\nTantalum has probably not been obtained in a pure state.\\nBerzelius obtained it as a black powder by heating potassium\\nfluotantalate with potassium.\\nThere are two oxides, Ta 2 4 and Ta 2 5 Tantalic oxide is\\nseparated from the niobic acid, with which it is associated in its\\nminerals, by the process already indicated. It is a white, infu-\\nsible powder, and becomes crystalline when heated. By strong\\nignition with charcoal it is converted into the tetroxide.\\nTantalic acid, HTaO 3 is analogous to niobic acid, and forms\\ncorresponding series of salts.\\nTantalum chloride, TaCP, is formed by heating an intimate\\nmixture of tantalic oxide and charcoal in a current of chlorine.\\nNiobic chloride is formed in a similar manner. Both are fusi-\\nble, volatile solids, crystallizing in yellow needles. There is no\\ntantalum chloride corresponding to the niobous chloride NbCl 3", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0380.jp2"}, "379": {"fulltext": "GOLD. 373\\nGOLD.\\nAu (Aurum) 196.6\\nNatural State. Gold is one of the most anciently known\\nmetals. It is generally found in the native state, either in\\nstreaks or veins, or in sand. It ordinarily occurs in scales or\\nrounded grains disseminated in alluvial sands, or in the rocks\\nwhose disintegration produces such sands. It is well known\\nthat gold-dust is suspended in the waters of certain rivers.\\nGold is sometimes found combined with silver, lead, copper,\\nand tellurium.\\nExtraction. Gold is extracted from auriferous sand by\\nwashings, which remove the particles lighter than the gold.\\nThe sand, pebbles, and gold, and a strong stream of water\\nare thrown into long wooden sluices arranged in zig-zag and\\nprovided with pockets in the latter the gold sinks, while the\\nlighter earthy material is carried on by the force of the\\nstream. When the gold is in particles too minute to be\\nseparated mechanically from the sand, which still remains in\\nsmall quantity, the whole is agitated with mercury the gold\\nFig. 115.\\ndissolves. The amalgam thus obtained is compressed in a\\nchamois-skin, which allows the passage of the excess of mer-\\ncury. When the solid residue is distilled the gold remains.\\nAuriferous quartz rocks are crushed to powder, which is then\\nsubjected to washings. Mercury is sometimes employed to ex-\\ntract the gold from the pulverized rock. The following process\\nhas been employed for some years in California and Australia.\\nThe crushed rock, with mercury, water, and two cast-iron balls,\\nis introduced into basins, to which a rotating motion is given\\n32", "height": "4788", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0381.jp2"}, "380": {"fulltext": "374 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\n(Fig. 115). By the friction of the balls it is soon reduced\\nto an impalpable powder, which remains suspended in the\\nwater, and is carried out with the latter through openings in\\nthe upper part of the basins, while the gold amalgamates\\nwith the mercury.\\nAnother process, known as the cyanide process, depends\\nupon the solubility of metallic gold in solution of potassium\\ncyanide. A double cyanide of gold and potassium is formed,\\nfrom which the gold is precipitated by metallic zinc.\\nAu 2KCN H 2 K Au(CN) 2 KOH H\\n2KAu(CN) 2 Zn K 2 Zn(CN)* 2Au\\nFrom sulphide ores (pyrites) gold may be extracted by\\nmeans of chlorine. The roasted ore is moistened and treated\\nwith chlorine gas. The mass is exhausted with water, when\\nauric chloride goes into solution and the gold is precipitated\\nby means of ferrous sulphate.\\nNative gold, as well as that extracted from different minerals,\\nis nearly always alloyed with silver. The two metals are sep-\\narated by the wet way, by attacking the alloy with either nitric\\nor sulphuric acid. Nitrate or sulphate of silver is formed, the\\nlatter being soluble in hot water. The gold remains in a pul-\\nverulent state. It is to be remarked that the alloy of gold and\\nsilver must be rich in silver in order that this process, called\\nrefining, can be applied. Hence it is sometimes necessary to\\nincrease the proportion of silver by melting the alloy with that\\nmetal.\\nAn alloy of gold and silver rich in gold may also be treated\\nwith aqua regia. Both metals are converted into chlorides;\\nthat of silver is insoluble, while that of gold dissolves. When\\nferrous sulphate is added to the yellow solution of chloride of\\ngold, a precipitate of metallic gold is obtained, the chlorine\\nacting upon the iron of the ferrous sulphate which is thus\\ntransformed into ferric salt.\\nProperties of Gold. Pure gold has a beautiful yellow color.\\nIn thin leaves it is translucent, allowing the passage of a green-\\nish light. Its density is 19.5. It is quite soft, and is the most\\nmalleable and most ductile^ of the metals.\\nIt melts at 1200\u00c2\u00b0, and volatilizes at a higher temperature.\\nIts vapor is green.\\nIt is unaltered by the air at all temperatures. Sulphuric,\\nhydrochloric, nitric, and phosphoric acids have no action on it", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0382.jp2"}, "381": {"fulltext": "OXIDES OF GOLD CHLORIDES OF GOLD. 375\\neither in the cold or when aided by heat. It is dissolved by\\nnitro-hydrochloric acid.\\nSome gold leaf may be boiled with hydrochloric acid in a\\ntest-tube the gold will resist the action of the acid, and will\\nretain its lustre. Some more gold leaf may be boiled with pure\\nnitric acid in another tube, and again the metal will not be\\nattacked. But on mixing the two liquids, the gold will be dis-\\nsolved with disengagement of red vapors. Gold trichloride will\\nbe formed, and will color the liquid yellow.\\nOXIDES OF GOLD.\\nThere are two compounds of gold and oxygen, a monoxide,\\nAu 2 0, and a trioxide, Au 2 3 The latter forms compounds\\nwith the bases. When magnesia is added to solution of auric\\nchloride, an insoluble yellow precipitate of magnesium aurate\\nis formed when this is decomposed by nitric acid it leaves auric\\nhydrate. This hydrate is yellow it easily parts with its water,\\nand is converted into a brown-black powder of auric oxide.\\nThe latter is not stable, being decomposed by light and by a\\ntemperature of about 250\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCHLORIDES OF GOLD.\\nAurous chloride, AuCl, is obtained as an insoluble yellow\\npowder by heating auric chloride to 230\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAuric chloride or trichloride of gold, AuCl 3 is prepared by\\ndissolving the metal in aqua regia. After concentration the\\nliquid solidifies, on cooling, to a dark-red, crystalline and deli-\\nquescent mass.\\nThe solution of auric chloride is yellowish-brown when con-\\ncentrated, pure yellow when dilute. It is decomposed by light.\\nIt colors the skin violet, and is reduced by a great number of\\nbodies. Phosphorus, and hypophosphorous, phosphorous and\\nsulphurous acids precipitate from it metallic gold. It is the\\nsame with most of the metals, which combine with the chlorine,\\nsetting free the gold. A brown precipitate of metallic gold is\\nimmediately obtained on adding a solution of ferrous sulphate\\nto a solution of auric chloride. Auric chloride dissolves in\\nether, which removes it from its aqueous solution when the\\ntwo liquids are agitated together.\\nIf a solution of auric chloride be added to a mixture of\\nstannous and stannic chlorides in solution, a flocculent precipi-", "height": "4798", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0383.jp2"}, "382": {"fulltext": "376 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ntate of a purple color, more or less pure according to the con-\\ncentration of the solutions and the proportions of the mixture,\\nwill be formed. It is purple of Cassius, a compound employed\\nin painting on glass and porcelain. It contains tin, gold, oxy-\\ngen, and hydrogen, but its constitution is not well known.\\nAuric chloride forms crystalline compounds with the alkaline\\nchlorides. When a mixture of chloride of gold and sodium\\nchloride is evaporated until a pellicle forms on its surface, yellow\\ncrystals containing NaCl. AuCl 3 -f- 2H 2 0, are formed on cooling.\\nGilding 1 Several processes are used for gilding metals, such\\nas silver and copper. The objects may be gilded by amalga-\\nmation, or by galvanic deposition.\\nGilding by Amalgamation. Gold readily alloys with mer-\\ncury, and the amalgam is used for gilding objects of silver and\\ncopper. The pieces are heated to destroy greasy matters, and\\nare then cleaned by dipping them into dilute sulphuric acid,\\nafter which they are washed and dried with saw-dust. They\\nare then rubbed with a brush of brass wires dipped into a solu-\\ntion of mercurous nitrate, and then with a brush impregnated\\nwith an amalgam of one part of gold and eight parts of mer-\\ncury. They are afterwards heated to volatilize the mercury,\\nan operation dangerous to the health of the workmen, and\\nwhich should be conducted in a furnace having a good draught.\\nThe pieces thus gilded are dull they become lustrous after\\nsuitable washings and polishings.\\nElectro- Gilding. \u00e2\u0080\u0094The copper objects, previously heated and\\ncleaned by dilute sulphuric acid, are plunged for a few seconds\\ninto dilute nitric acid and then wiped dry. They are then\\nconnected with the negative pole of a battery and dipped into\\na bath composed of 1 part of cyanide of gold, 10 parts of potas-\\nsium cyanide, and 100 parts of water. A plate of gold plunged\\ninto the same bath constitutes the positive pole. When the\\ncurrent passes, the objects become covered with a uniform and\\nadherent coating of gold. As the metal is precipitated from\\nthe solution, it is replaced by an equivalent quantity from that\\nwhich constitutes the positive pole, and which dissolves. The\\nbath thus retains a constant composition. The same process\\nis applicable to electro-silvering.\\nAssaying of Gold Alloys. Gold is assayed by cupellation.\\nThe alloy is first melted with silver, so that the quantity of the\\nlatter metal present may be at least triple that of the gold.\\nThis alloy is submitted to cupellation, an operation which", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0384.jp2"}, "383": {"fulltext": "BISMUTH. 377\\npresents no difficulty, for silver rich in gold does not spit.\\nThe button is hammered out to a thin sheet, reheated and\\nformed into a little cornet, which is introduced into a small\\nflask and heated with nitric acid of 22\u00c2\u00b0 Baume. After several\\nminutes boiling the greater part of the silver is dissolved the\\nliquid is then decanted and replaced by more concentrated nitric\\nacid. All of the silver dissolves and the gold remains in the\\nform of a but slightly coherent cornet. It is washed, heated to\\nredness in a crucible to give it coherence, and finally weighed.\\nBISMUTH.\\nBi 207.5\\nExtraction. This metal is found native in a quartzy gangue.\\nIt is extracted by simply heating the mineral in cast or sheet\\niron tubes, which are arranged in an inclined position in a fur-\\nnace. The bismuth melts and runs out at an opening in the\\nlower end of the tubes.\\nThe bismuth of commerce is never pure it contains traces\\nof other metals, nearly always of arsenic and sometimes of\\nsulphur. It is purified by pulverizing it, mixing it with 2V\\nits weight of potassium nitrate, and heating the mixture to\\nredness in a clay crucible. The foreign metals more oxidiza-\\nble than the bismuth are thus converted into oxides, the ar-\\nsenic into arsenate of potassium, and the sulphur into potassium\\nsulphate. This treatment may be repeated a second time if\\nnecessary.\\nProperties. Bismuth is a whitish-gray metal, having a\\nreddish tinge. Its fracture is crystalline and laminated. Its\\ndensity is 9.83, and it melts at 264\u00c2\u00b0. On cooling, it crystal-\\nlizes in rhombohedra, of which the surfaces become covered\\nwith a thin film of oxide, causing a beautiful iridescent play\\nof colors like that on a soap-bubble.\\nBismuth increases in volume on solidifying. It volatilizes at\\na white heat. It is unaltered by the air at ordinary tempera-\\ntures, but at a red heat it absorbs oxv^en and burns, formins:\\nbismuth oxide. Its best solvent is nitric acid, which converts\\nit into nitrate.\\nThe various compounds of bismuth present great analogy to\\nthose of antimony, next to which this metal might be placed\\nin the group including nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony,\\nand bismuth.\\n32*", "height": "4789", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0385.jp2"}, "384": {"fulltext": "378 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThis analogy is shown in the following synoptic table\\nBid 3 SbCl 3\\nBismuth trichloride. Antimony trichloride.\\nBi 2 3 Sb 2 3\\nBismuth trioxide. Antimony trioxide.\\nBi 2 5 Sb 2 5\\nBismuthic anhydride. Antimonic anhydride.\\nBi 2 0* Sb 2 4\\nBismuth bismuthate. Antimony antimonate.\\nBi 2 S 3 Sb 2 S 3\\nBismuth trisulphide. Antimony trisulphide.\\nOtherwise, bismuth is related to the metals proper, not only\\nby its properties, but by the facility with which it forms defi-\\nnite salts. It is triatomic in its more important combinations,\\nthe oxide, chloride, and nitrate.\\nBISMUTH TRIOXIDE.\\nThis body is obtained by decomposing the nitrate by heat.\\nIt is a straw-yellow powder, fusible at a red heat, and yielding\\non cooling a dark-yellow, vitreous mass. It attacks clay cruci-\\nbles even more rapidly than litharge.\\nA hydrated oxide of bismuth is formed when the nitrate or\\nsubnitrate is treated with potassium hydrate or ammonia. It\\nis a white powder, insoluble in an excess of alkali, and when\\nboiled with potassa, is converted into the crystalline anhydrous\\noxide.\\nBISMUTH TRICHLORIDE.\\nBiCl 3\\nFinely-divided bismuth will burn in chlorine, being con-\\nverted into chloride. The latter is prepared by directing a\\ncurrent of chlorine upon melted bismuth contained in a retort.\\nThe chloride distils and solidifies in the receiver to a fusible,\\ncrystalline, and deliquescent mass, formerly known as butter\\nof bismuth. A crystallized, hydrated chloride of bismuth may\\nalso be obtained by evaporating a solution of bismuth in nitro-\\nhydrochloric acid.\\nBismuth chloride dissolves in water charged with hydro-\\nchloric acid, but is decomposed when treated with pure water", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0386.jp2"}, "385": {"fulltext": "BISMUTH NITRATE. 379\\nin the latter case an oxychloride is formed and precipitated as\\na fine, white powder, hydrochloric acid being at the same time\\nformed.\\n2BiCP 2H 2 2BiOCl 4HC1\\nBismuth oxychloride is known as pearl-white. It contains\\nBiOCl.\\nBISMUTH NITRATE.\\nBi(N0 3 3\\nBismuth dissolves readily in nitric acid, and the concentrated\\nsolution deposits large, four-sided prisms, which are colorless\\nand deliquescent. They contain Bi(N0 3 3 3H 2 0. They\\nare very soluble in water acidulated with nitric acid, but if this\\nsolution be poured into a large excess of water, a pulverulent,\\nwhite precipitate is formed, and increases in volume if very\\ndilute ammonia be gradually added to the liquid in order to\\npartly neutralize the free acid.\\nThis precipitate is much employed in medicine in cases of\\nchronic diarrhoea under the name of subnitrate of bismuth.\\nIts composition is generally expressed by the formula BiNO 4\\nH 2 (BiO) NO 3 H 2 0.\\nIt may be regarded as bismuthyl nitrate, that is, nitric\\nacid, HNO 3 in which the monobasic atom of hydrogen is re-\\nplaced by the monatomic group BiO. Or it may be considered\\nas a derivative of orthonitric acid, H 3 N0 4 corresponding to\\northophosphoric acid, H 3 P0 4 (page 191).\\nBoiling water removes still more nitric acid from this sub-\\nnitrate, leaving a residue, which is used as a cosmetic, known as\\nblanc de fard.\\nCharacters of Solutions of Bismuth. When mixed with\\nit large quantity of water, bismuth solutions give white pre-\\ncipitates of sub-salts. Hydrogen sulphide, and the soluble\\nsulphides form a brown precipitate of bismuth sulphide, insolu-\\nble in an excess of ammonium sulphide. The alkaline hydrates\\nand carbonates give white precipitates, insoluble in an excess\\nof the reagent.\\nBismuth solutions are not precipitated by either sulphuric\\nor hydrochloric acid.\\nWhen heated with sodium carbonate in the reducing flame of\\nthe blow-pipe, compounds of bismuth yield a metallic globule,\\nvery brittle after cooling.", "height": "4785", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0387.jp2"}, "386": {"fulltext": "380 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe following elements, from aluminium to manganese,\\nappear to be either trivalent or tetravalent in a series of com-\\npounds in which two atoms combined together form a hexa-\\nvalent couple (R-R) vi The chlorides of this series may\\nconsequently present either the general formula RCP or R 2 C1 6\\nwhile the oxides are represented by R 2 3 In addition, iron,\\nnickel, cobalt, and manganese form series of compounds in\\nwhich the metal appears to be diatomic as types of these\\ncompounds we may consider ferrous oxide, FeO, and ferrous\\nsulphate, FeSO 4 The oxides of this latter class are strongly\\nbasic the sesquioxides are also basic, but in the presence of\\nmore energetic bases may act as weak acids. Iron and man-\\nganese also form oxides of the composition FeO 3 and MnO 3\\nwhich act as the anhydrides of acids.\\nALUMINIUM.\\nAl 27.04\\nThis metal long remained a chemical curiosity, and has only\\nbecome common within a few years. It was discovered in\\n1827 by Wohler, and in 1854, H. Saint-Claire Deville suc-\\nceeded in producing it on a large scale by decomposing alu-\\nminium and sodium double chloride by sodium.\\n2AlCl 3 ,NaCl 6Na 8NaCl 2A1\\nAluminium is now produced most cheaply by the electrical\\ndecomposition of fused aluminium fluoride. Cryolite, a double\\nfluoride of aluminium and sodium, is fused, and during the de-\\ncomposition aluminium oxide is gradually introduced. This\\nis dissolved by the molten bath, new fluoride being formed,\\nwhile the oxygen disengaged combines with the carbon anode\\nof the bath. The process is known as the Hall process.\\nCowles Bros, introduced an electric furnace process which\\npermits the very cheap manufacture of aluminium bronze, a\\nvaluable alloy of aluminium and copper, resembling gold.\\nCorundum is decomposed by a powerful electrical current in\\npresence of carbon and copper in a narrow rectangular fur-\\nnace carbon monoxide escapes, while the aluminium alloys\\nwith the copper.\\nAluminium is a white metal, with a somewhat bluish lustre\\nwhen polished. It is ductile, malleable, very sonorous and a\\ngood conductor of heat and electricity. It is as light as glass", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0388.jp2"}, "387": {"fulltext": "ALUMINIUM OXIDE ALUMINIUM CHLORIDE. 381\\nand porcelain, its density being only 2.56. It melts at 700\u00c2\u00b0,\\nand is not volatile.\\nAluminium is unaltered by the air, even by moist air. When\\nheated in thin sheets in a current of oxygen, it burns and is\\nconverted into alumina. Nitric and sulphuric acids scarcely\\nattack it. Hydrochloric acid dissolves it rapidly, disengaging\\nhydrogen. It is immediately attacked by boiling solutions of\\npotassium or sodium hydrates; hydrogen is disengaged and\\nalkaline aluminates are formed.\\nALUMINIUM OXIDE, OR ALUMINA.\\nA1 2 3\\nCorundum, a very hard precious stone, consists of anhydrous\\nalumina. It is named oriental ruby when it has a red color\\nsapphire when it is blue, and oriental topaz when it has a\\nyellow tint. Emery is a sort of opaque corundum it is gran-\\nular and colored by a small quantity of oxide of iron.\\nWhen ammonium carbonate is added to a solution of alum,\\ncarbon dioxide is evolved, and a gelatinous precipitate of hy-\\ndrated alumina is formed.\\nThe precipitate dissolves readily in caustic potassa. When\\nheated, it loses water and is converted into anhydrous alumina\\nthe latter is undecomposable by heat it fuses only in the flame\\nof the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe. Graudin has succeeded in pro-\\nducing fine precious stones that cannot be cut by the file, and\\nat least as hard as rock-crystal, by melting Limoge emerald\\n(anhydrous alumina) with various substances, such as sand,\\nkaolin, talc, and lime, which are added as fluxes.\\nAlumina cannot be reduced by charcoal at the highest tem-\\nperatures it can only be reduced by the joint action of char-\\ncoal and chlorine aluminium chloride is then formed.\\nALUMINIUM CHLORIDE.\\nA1C1 3 or A1 2 C1 6\\nWhen a current of chlorine is passed over an incandescent\\nmixture of alumina and charcoal, aluminium chloride and\\ncarbon monoxide are formed (Oersted).\\nAPO 3 3C CI 6 3CO 2A1CP\\nAluminium chloride thus formed is a white, crystalline sub-\\nstance, sometimes having a light-yellow color. It is fusible, and", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0389.jp2"}, "388": {"fulltext": "382 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nvolatilizes in the air at a temperature little above 100\u00c2\u00b0. When\\nexposed to the air it gives off white fumes and attracts moist-\\nure. It dissolves in water with production of heat.\\nA solution of aluminium chloride may be obtained by dis-\\nsolving gelatinous alumina in hydrochloric acid. When this\\nsolution is evaporated, it decomposes as soon as it attains a\\ncertain degree of concentration, disengaging hydrochloric acid,\\nand leaving alumina.\\nAluminium chloride readily combines with sodium chloride,\\nforming a double chloride, AlCP.NaCl, fusible towards 200\u00c2\u00b0.\\nALUMINIUM SULPHATE.\\nAl 2 (SO*) 3 18H 2\\nThis is obtained in the arts by decomposing non-ferruginous\\nclays with sulphuric acid. It crystallizes with difficulty in\\nneedles and in thin, pearly scales. In this state it contains 18\\nmolecules of water of crystallization. It dissolves in 2 parts\\nof cold water. When heated, it first loses its water, and at a\\nhigher temperature it gives off sulphuric anhydride, leaving a\\nresidue of alumina.\\nAP(SO) 3 3S0 3 APO 3\\nIt is seen that aluminium sulphate represents 3 molecules\\nof sulphuric acid, in which the 6 atoms of hydrogen have been\\nreplaced by the hexatomic couple AP.\\nepsom rso\\nH 2 SO I APO 3 3H 2 (AP) vi SO 4\\nH 2 S0 4 (SO*\\nALUMINIUM AND POTASSIUM DOUBLE SUL-\\nPHATE, OR ALUM.\\nAl 2 (SO*) 3 .K 2 SO\u00c2\u00b1 24H 2\\nIf a concentrated solution of aluminium sulphate be added\\nto a concentrated solution of potassium sulphate, and the mix-\\nture be stirred with a glass rod, a crystalline deposit soon forms\\nfrom the union of the two salts to form a double sulphate\\nwhich is alum.\\nThis salt is not very soluble in cold water, but dissolves\\nabundantly in boiling water, and is deposited on cooling in", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0390.jp2"}, "389": {"fulltext": "ALUM. 383\\nvoluminous, transparent octahedra. When heated, these crys-\\ntals melt in their water cf crystallization (24 molecules), and\\nin losing this water, the melted mass swells up considerably.\\nAlum may be obtained crystallized in cubes, and it is prepared\\nin this form in the neighborhood of Civita-Yecchia by working\\na mineral which contains the elements of alum with a large\\nexcess of alumina. The mineral is known as aluminite. and the\\ncubical alum is called Roman alum.\\nThis cubical variety may be prepared in the laboratory by\\nadding a small quantity of potassium carbonate to a hot solu-\\ntion of ordinary alum, so that the precipitate first formed will\\nbe redissolved on agitating the liquid. On cooling, cubical\\ncrystals are deposited which are ordinarily opaque. These are\\nformed under the influence of a small quantity of basic sul-\\nphate (aluminium sulphate combined with an excess of alu-\\nmina) contained in the liquid, and which probably enters into\\nthe constitution of the crystals. With this slight difference,\\noctahedral alum and cubical alum present the same composi-\\ntion, which is expressed by the formula AP( S0 4 3 .K 2 S0 4 -f-\\n24H 2 0.\\nAmmonia alum is obtained by adding ammonium sulphate\\nto solution of aluminium sulphate. It possesses a constitution\\nanalogous to that of ordinary alum, with which it is isornor-\\nphous. It contains\\nAP(S0 4 3 .(NH*) 2 S0 4 24H 2\\nIt is often substituted in the arts for potassium alum, being\\ncheaper than the latter.\\nWhen strongly calcined, it leaves a residue of pure alumina.\\nOther alums are known in which iron, manganese, and chro-\\nmium play the part taken by aluminium in ordinary alum.\\nThese alums are all isomorphous (Mitscherlich). By the ac-\\ntion of sulphuric acid on the sesquioxides of the above metals,\\nsulphates are formed analogous to aluminium sulphate, and of\\nwhich the composition is expressed by the general formula\\n(R 2 vi (S0 4 3 With the sulphates M 2 S0 4 they form alums, all\\nof which crystallize in regular octahedra. and which can be\\nmixed in one and the same crystal without the form of the\\nlatter being affected by the mixture.\\nThe following are the most important of these compounds\\nManganese alum Mn 2 (S0 4 3 .K 2 SO\u00c2\u00b1 24H 2\\nIron alum Fe 2 (SO\u00c2\u00b1) 3 .K 2 SO 24H 2\\nChromium alum Cr 2 (SO) 3 .K 2 SO\u00c2\u00b1 24H 2", "height": "4795", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0391.jp2"}, "390": {"fulltext": "384 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIt is seen that each of these presents an atomic composition\\nsimilar to that of ordinary alum.\\nThe aluminium compounds are widely disseminated in nature.\\nFeldspar, or orthoclase, is a double silicate of aluminium and\\npotassium. The latter metal is replaced by sodium in albite,\\nand by calcium in anorthite and labradorlte.\\nMany other minerals contain aluminium silicate combined\\nwith alkaline or earthy silicates such are leucite, garnet,\\nidocrase, mica, etc. The zeolites are silicates of aluminium\\ncontaining water of crystallization.\\nClay is a hydrated silicate of aluminium it results from the\\ndisintegration of feldspar by the action of water and air, the\\nalkaline silicate being gradually dissolved and eliminated. The\\npurest clay is kaolin, or porcelain clay it contains alumina,\\nsilica, and water in the proportions indicated by the formula\\n2Si0 2 ,AP0 3 ,2H 2 0.\\nPlastic clays are those which form a binding paste when\\nmixed with water, and acquire great hardness after being\\nbaked, without fusing. They are used for the manufacture of\\npottery, refractory fire-bricks, and crucibles. Fuller s earth is\\na clay which forms with water a paste that is but slightly adhe-\\nrent it is employed in scouring and fulling cloth.\\nMarls are intimate mixtures of clay and chalk they are\\nemployed in agriculture.\\nPottery. Clay is the basis of all pottery. Other matters,\\nsuch as sand, powdered feldspar or quartz, etc., are generally\\nadded, for while they diminish the plasticity of the clay, they\\nalso diminish its shrinkage on baking. Pottery is classified as\\nsemivitrified pottery, such as porcelain and stoneware porous\\npottery, such as faience and bisque; and common pottery or\\nterra-cotta.\\nPorcelains. These are manufactured from kaolin, to which\\nsand is added to prevent shrinkage, and feldspar, which causes\\nthe ware to undergo a partial fusion, and renders it translucent.\\nThese materials are finely pulverized, mixed with water, and\\nthe paste is kneaded for a long time in order to render it homo-\\ngeneous. Pieces fashioned in this paste are submitted to a pre-\\nliminary baking, which gives them a certain degree of coherence.\\nThe porous porcelain thus obtained must be coated with a var-\\nnish which will melt and spread upon its surface this glaze is", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0392.jp2"}, "391": {"fulltext": "CERIUM, LANTHANUM, AND DIDYMIUM. 385\\nformed of a mixture of quartz and kaolin reduced to an impal-\\npable powder the latter is suspended in water, into which the\\npieces are dipped. They are then subjected to a second baking\\nin ovens where the temperature is sufficiently elevated to fuse\\nthe glaze and partially vitrify the paste.\\nCeramic Stonewares. These are manufactured from the\\nsame materials as porcelain, but less pure they are therefore\\nslightly colored. They are baked at a high temperature, and\\nare glazed by throwing common salt upon the incandescenl\\nobjects in the furnace hydrochloric acid is disengaged, and a\\ndouble silicate of aluminium and sodium is formed, which fuses\\nand spreads upon the surface of the ware.\\nFaiences are made from plastic clay mixed with quartz re-\\nduced to an impalpable powder. Articles formed of this paste\\nare submitted to a preliminary baking, and are then coated with\\na fusible glaze, composed of quartz, potassium carbonate, and\\noxide of lead. A second baking causes the pieces to become\\ncovered with an impermeable, vitreous layer of silicate of lead\\nand potassium. This glaze is transparent for ordinary ware\\nit is rendered opaque by the addition of oxide of tin. It is\\na true enamel.\\nCommon pottery, which serves for culinary purposes, is made\\nfrom ferruginous clay, mixed with sand and marl. The glazing\\nis composed of a double silicate of aluminium and lea^.\\nCERIUM, LANTHANUM, AND DIDY-\\nMIUM.\\nThese rare metals are found associated as silicates in the\\nmineral cerite, and as phosphates in monazite. Their separa-\\ntion is a matter of some difficulty. The mineral is treated\\nwith sulphuric acid, by the aid of heat, and the solution ob-\\ntained after filtering from the separated silica is precipitated\\nby ammonium oxalate. A mixture of the oxides is obtained\\nwhen the oxalates are calcined these oxides are converted\\ninto nitrates and these again into double nitrates with am-\\nmonium nitrate. By repeated and systematic fractional crys-\\ntallization a clean separation of the elements is effected. The\\nsame process also serves to break up didymium, long supposed\\nto be an element, into its components, neodymium and praseo-\\ndymium (Auer v. Welsbach).\\nB 3 33", "height": "4800", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0393.jp2"}, "392": {"fulltext": "386 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe metals have been isolated by decomposing their chlorides\\nby electricity.\\nThey possess about the hardness of lead, and a color and lustre\\nresembling iron didymium is rather more yellow. Their den-\\nsity is comprised between 6.05, that of lanthanum, and 6.7, of\\ncerium. They are readily oxidized, and burn brilliantly when\\nheated in the air.\\nThe cerium metals are triatomic, cerium itself also tetra-\\ntomic. It forms the oxides Ce 2 3 and CeO 2 Lanthanum\\noxide has the composition La 2 3 neodymium oxide is Nd 2 3\\nwhile praseodymium forms two oxides, Pr 2 3 and Pr 4 7 The\\nchlorides correspond to the formula BC1 3 The cerous com-\\npounds are mostly colorless eerie compounds are yellow.\\nLanthanum salts are colorless, while the pink color of didy-\\nmium salts is the resultant of a mixture of reddish-violet\\n(neodymium) and apple-green (praseodymium).\\nThe oxides of lanthanum and cerium, as well as several\\nother oxides (zirconia, thoria), are employed in the Welsbach\\nburner, in which a fine gauze cylinder of such oxides is ren-\\ndered incandescent by the heat of a non-luminous gas-flame.\\nGALLIUM.\\nGa 69.9\\nIn 1869, Mendelejeff predicted the existence of an unknown\\nmetal whose chemical relations should resemble those of alumin-\\nium, and whose atomic weight should be about 70. In 1876,\\nLecoq de Boisbaudran, while pursuing spectroscopic investiga-\\ntions, and in a line of research very different from that of Men-\\ndelejeff, discovered the missing element in a zinc blende. Since\\nthen it has been found in small quantity in many blendes one\\nof the richest, found in Westphalia, contains only one sixty-\\nthousandth of its weight.\\nIn order to extract the gallium, the ore is roasted, and the\\nproduct dissolved in sulphuric acid. An acid liquor is thus\\nobtained, containing principally sulphate of zinc, with sulphates\\nof iron, aluminium, indium, etc., and a trace of gallium sul-\\nphate.\\nThe following reactions are employed by Lecoq de Bois-\\nbaudran and Jungfleisch for the separation of the gallium", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0394.jp2"}, "393": {"fulltext": "INDIUM. 387\\n1. When the liquid is neutralized, the ferric oxide, alumina,\\nand gallium oxide, which is a sesquioxide, are precipitated.\\nThe precipitate is redissolved in sulphuric acid, and the same\\noperation repeated after converting the ferric oxide into ferrous\\noxide, which remains dissolved in the neutral liquid. By this\\nmeans the greater part of the iron is removed.\\n2. Gallium oxide dissolves, like alumina and zinc oxide, in\\nan excess of potassium hydrate when this solution is saturated\\nwith hydrogen sulphide, the zinc is precipitated as sulphide,\\nwhile the gallium and aluminium remain in solution. The\\ngreater part of the zinc is thus separated.\\n3. When water is added to a boiling solution of gallium\\nsulphate, the latter is precipitated as subsulphate, while alumi-\\nnium sulphate remains in solution.\\n4. Gallium oxide dissolves in an excess of ammonia alumina\\ndoes not.\\n5. Gallium separates in the metallic state when a voltaic\\ncurrent is passed through an alkaline solution of gallium oxide.\\nPhysical Properties. Gallium has a metallic lustre recalling\\nthat of nickel. It readily crystallizes in forms derived from a\\nright rhombic octahedron, generally in magnificent laminae. Its\\ndensity is 5.96. It melts at 29.5\u00c2\u00b0, and has a tendency to re-\\nmain in a state of superfusion. It is not volatile.\\nThis collection of properties gives to gallium a special place\\namong the metals.\\nChemical Properties. These are but little known at present.\\nGallium is oxidized but little, if at all, when heated in the air\\nor in oxygen. It forms a sesquioxide. Ga 2 3 which resembles\\nalumina in that it forms alums. Gallium alum was obtained\\nby Lecoq de Boisbaudran.\\nGallium combines directly with chlorine, forming a solid,\\ncrystalline, and very volatile chloride.\\nINDIUM.\\nIn 113.4\\nThis metal was discovered in 1863 by Reich and Richter\\nin the zinc blendes of Freiberg (Saxony). It appears to exist\\nin the majority of zinc blendes, and accompanies the zinc which", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0395.jp2"}, "394": {"fulltext": "388 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nis extracted from those minerals. It is ordinarily obtained\\nfrom commercial zinc, which, however, contains only very\\nsmall quantities of it.\\nIndium is a brilliant metal, possessing almost the lustre of\\nsilver. It is soft and ductile. It melts at 176\u00c2\u00b0, and is vola-\\ntile, but less so than zinc and cadmium. It approaches these\\nmetals in its general chemical properties, but is more electro-\\nnegative, both of the latter metals precipitating it from its\\nsolutions. Its position in the periodic system relates it to gal-\\nlium and aluminium on the one hand, and to zinc and cad-\\nmium on the other.\\nIndium is characterized by several spectroscopic lines,\\namong which are a very brilliant blue and a less marked vio-\\nlet line.\\nTwo oxides of indium have been described, a sesquioxide,\\nln 2 3 and a suboxide, InO. The first is obtained by cal-\\ncining the nitrate it is yellow. When heated to 300\u00c2\u00b0 in a\\ncurrent of hydrogen, it is partially reduced, yielding a black\\nsuboxide.\\nIndium chloride, In CI 3 is formed when indium is heated\\nin a current of chlorine. It is a snow-white, volatile solid.\\nLike aluminium and gallium, indium forms double sul-\\nphates, or alums the ammonium double sulphate has the\\ncomposition In 2 (S0 4 3 .(NH*) 2 S0 4 -f 24H 2 0.\\nRAKE EARTHS.\\nIn 1794, Gadolin, a Finn, discovered in the mineral gado-\\nlinite, which bears his name, an oxide, which was named yttria.\\nIn 1843, Mosander concluded from researches on this earth\\nthat it contained at least three oxides, the metallic radicals of\\nwhich were introduced into the list of elements under the\\nnames erbium, terbium, and ytterbium or yttrium.\\nUntil recently little was known concerning these oxides, but\\nthe investigations of Crookes, Delafontaine, Lawrence Smith,\\nMarignac, Cleve, and Nilson have shown that the earths\\nformerly known as erbia and yttria are much more complex\\nthan was supposed. The oxides of at least six metals have\\nbeen isolated, and it is possible that the series may be com-\\npleted by the separation of others.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0396.jp2"}, "395": {"fulltext": "iron. 389\\nThese elements exist in gadolinite, tuxenite, orthite, thorite,\\nand particularly in the samarskite of North Carolina, in which\\nthey occur as niobates and tantalates. Their quantity is so\\nsmall, and the separation of their oxides is attended by so\\ngreat difficulty, that, excepting yttrium, the elements have not\\nyet been isolated. Their oxides, and in some cases a number\\nof salts, have been examined, and spectroscopic analysis has\\naided in setting aside all doubt as to the existence of the\\nelements.\\nThe following atomic weights of these elements are calcu-\\nlated to agree with the formula R 2 3 for the oxides\\nScandium, discovered by Nilson and studied by Cleve, has an atomic\\nweight of about 44; the oxide is white. The existence of scandium was\\npredicted by Mendelejeff under the name ekaboron.\\nSamarium. Atomic weight 149. This element was named by Lecoq\\nde Boisboudran, and appears to be identical with decipium, of which Dela-\\nfontaine announced the existence in 1878 j its oxide is white.\\nHolmium. Atomic weight about 162 (Cleve).\\nErbium. Atomic weight 166; forms a pink oxide and rose-colored\\nsalts (Cleve).\\nThulium. Atomic weight 170.4; a white oxide.\\nYttrium. Atomic weight 89.6. The metal hns been prepared by\\nelectrolysis of the chloride, and also by reduction of the latter by sodium\\nand magnesium. It is a gray powder. Yttria is a white oxide.\\nYtterbium. Atomic weight 172.6.\\nIRON.\\nFe (Ferrum) 55.88\\nNatural State and Metallurgy. Iron is the most impor-\\ntant of the metals. Its preparation and working are difficult,\\ntherefore it was not the first metal used by civilized man. The\\nbronze age preceded the iron age, and those who first employed\\nthe latter metal probably extracted it from the masses which\\nfall from time to time upon the surface of the earth, and are\\nknown as meteorites. Their principal constituent is metallic\\niron, which is alloyed with nickel, cobalt, and chromium.\\nIron is employed in three principal forms soft or malleable\\niron, cast iron, and steel. Soft iron is almost pure iron cast\\niron is a combination of iron with carbon and silicon steel\\nalso contains carbon, but in smaller proportion than cast iron.\\nThe principal ores of iron are the magnetic, or black oxide,\\n33*", "height": "4788", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0397.jp2"}, "396": {"fulltext": "390\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nFe 3 4 red hematite, Fe 2 3 and spathic iron or ferrous carbon-\\nate, FeCO 3 The various hydrates of the sesquioxide (oolitic\\niron, brown hematite, etc.) and ferrous carbonate mixed with\\nclay (bog-iron ore), are more abundant than the preceding, but\\nare not as rich and are less valuable.\\nAll of these minerals are oxidized. If the ore contain sul-\\nphur, that element is first driven out by roasting. The metal-\\nlurgy of iron then consists in reducing the oxide with carbon,\\nand separating the reduced iron from the earthy matter, which\\nis generally silicious. Two methods are employed for this\\npurpose. The first consists in heating the rich ores with\\ncharcoal alone part of the oxide of iron then combines with\\nthe gangue, forming a very fusible slag (double silicate of\\naluminium and iron). This is the Catalan method. The\\nother consists in mixing the ore with coal and calcium carbon-\\nate the gangue then com-\\nbines with the lime, forming\\na double silicate of lime and\\naluminium, which fuses only\\nat a very high temperature.\\nUnder these conditions the\\niron unites with a portion\\nof the carbon, forming cast\\niron. This is the blast-fur-\\nnace method.\\nCatalan Method. This is\\nonly applicable to very rich\\nores and in countries where\\ncombustibles are expensive,\\nas in Spain, the Pyrenees,\\nand in Corsica.\\nFig. 116 represents a sec-\\ntion of a Catalan furnace it\\nis a trough-shaped masonry\\nfurnace with a hearth. The\\nmaterials are placed in two\\npiles, side by side, upon a layer of well-ignited charcoal one pile\\nconsists of charcoal and is next the tuyere the other is the\\nore, equal to half the quantity of charcoal, and is placed oppo-\\nsite. The combustion is sustained by the blast from a tuyere,\\nD, which reaches the border of the hearth. The carbon\\ndioxide here formed is converted into carbon monoxide by the", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0398.jp2"}, "397": {"fulltext": "IRON.\\n391\\nmass of incandescent charcoal, and the latter gas reduces the\\nore, again passing into the state of dioxide. Metallic iron is\\nthus formed, and at the same time a portion of the ferric\\noxide is reduced to ferrous oxide, and combines with the\\ngangue, forming a double, alumino-ferrous silicate, which is very\\nfusible and constitutes the slag. The reduced iron collects in\\nthe bottom of the hearth in the form of a spongy mass, which\\nis agglutinated and forged under the hammer.\\nFig. 117.\\nBlast-furnace Process. All iron ores may be treated by this\\nmethod. They are crushed and introduced with alternate\\nlayers of limestone and coal into the blast-furnace, (Fig. 117).\\nThe latter has the form of two cones, the bases of which are", "height": "4791", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0399.jp2"}, "398": {"fulltext": "392 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\njoined together. It is closed at the bottom, and hot air is in-\\njected through tuyeres to sustain the combustion. It is open at\\nthe top, where it is continually charged with fresh materials, as\\nthe incandescent mass sinks in the furnace and the molten mate-\\nrials are drawn off below. The latter first collect in a cavity\\nplaced below the vent of the tuyere, and separate on this\\nhearth into metal, which sinks to the bottom, and slag, which\\nfloats and is drawn off periodically through an opening called\\nthe slag-hole. When the crucible is full of molten metal, the\\nlatter is run off into channels made in sand upon the floor of\\nthe casting-room. In these rough moulds it solidifies in bars\\nhaving a semicircular section, which are called pigs.\\nThe reactions which take place in the blast-furnace are of\\ngreat interest. At the lower part, where the temperature is\\nthe highest, carbon dioxide is produced by the combustion of\\nthe coal farther up, in the widest portion, this gas is reduced\\nto carbon monoxide by the incandescent coal still higher,\\nwhere the furnace begins again to contract, and where the\\ntemperature is dull red, the carbon monoxide reduces the oxide\\nof iron, and a spongy mass of metallic iron is there formed.\\nIn descending, this iron unites with part of the carbon, and\\nat the same time the silica of the gangue combines with the\\nlime, forming a silicate which fuses and constitutes the slag.\\nA small quantity of silica is reduced in the hottest part of\\nthe furnace, and the silicon formed combines with the cast iron.\\nCast iron is converted into soft iron by refining this opera-\\ntion consists in removing from the cast iron the greater part\\nof its carbon. For this purpose it is melted in contact with\\nthe air the carbon, silicon, and a small proportion of iron are\\noxidized, forming a basic silicate, of which the excess of oxide\\nis finally reduced by the carbon of the cast iron. The latter\\nthus becomes less fusible, and is converted into a spongy mass\\nof soft iron. Several of these masses are united and the scoriae\\nexpressed from them by the blows of a steam-hammer. Or the\\nmetal is melted on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace under\\na layer of ferruginous scoriae and scales of oxide of iron the\\noxygen of these materials burns the carbon out of the cast iron,\\nthe whole mass being vigorously stirred. The latter operation\\nis called puddling.\\nPreparation of Pure Iron. Pure iron may be obtained by\\nreducing ferric oxide by hydrogen at a temperature near red-\\nness, or by passing hydrogen over anhydrous ferrous chloride", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0400.jp2"}, "399": {"fulltext": "iron. 393\\ncontained in an incandescent porcelain tube. Hydrochloric\\nacid is formed and evolved, and the iron remains as a gray,\\nspongy mass, having a metallic lustre where it has been in\\ncontact with the porcelain (Peligot).\\nProperties of Soft Iron. Forged or bar iron is not pure.\\nIt contains a small quantity of carbon, and traces of silicon, sul-\\nphur, phosphorus, and even nitrogen. The purest soft iron is\\nthat used for the teeth of carding-machines and for piano-strings.\\nThe density of forged iron varies from 7.4 to 7.9. It is\\nvery tenacious, ductile, and malleable. When rolled out, it is\\ncalled sheet iron. Tin plate is sheet iron covered with a layer\\nof tin. Galvanized iron is coated with a surface of zinc.\\nIron melts only at the highest heats of a wind-furnace.\\nWhen softened by a white heat, it may be soldered to itself, or\\nwelded, a very important property for the working of the metal.\\n0.05 per cent, of aluminium greatly lowers the melting point\\nof iron, so that the presence of this quantity of aluminium per-\\nmits iron castings to be made that otherwise would be impos-\\nsible. They are called mitis castings.\\nIron is attracted by the magnet it is magnetic but it is\\nnot, like steel, capable of retaining magnetism when removed\\nfrom the magnetic influence.\\nIt is not altered by dry air at ordinary temperatures, but at\\na red heat it absorbs oxygen and is converted into scales of black\\noxide of iron. Iron may be obtained as an impalpable powder\\nby reducing finely-divided ferric oxide in a current of hydrogen\\nat as low a temperature as possible. In this state it takes fire\\nwhen exposed to air at ordinary temperatures it is pyrophoric.\\nIron rapidly becomes oxidized in moist air it becomes cov-\\nered with a layer of rust, which is ferric hydrate. It is con-\\nsidered that the oxidation of iron moistened with water is first\\nset up by the oxygen dissolved in the water it continues\\nwith greater energy as soon as a light coat of ferric hydrate\\nhas been formed on the metal. The hydrate forms a voltaic\\ncouple with the iron itself, by which the water is decomposed\\npart of the hydrogen displaced by the iron combines with the\\nnitrogen of the air, forming ammonia; indeed, rust always\\ncontains a small proportion of ammonia.\\nIron decomposes water at a red heat, setting free the hydro-\\ngen. It dissolves readily in hydrochloric acid, liberating impure\\nand fetid hydrogen. If dilute nitric acid be poured upon iron\\ntacks, the metal is at once attacked, with an abundant disen-\\ngagement of red vapors.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0401.jp2"}, "400": {"fulltext": "394 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nOn the other hand, the same metal is not attacked by very\\nconcentrated nitric acid (monohydrated), and after having been\\nexposed to the strong acid, the tacks may be put into dilute acid,\\nand the latter will then be found to have no eifect.\\nBy the action of the concentrated acid, the iron becomes\\npassive; its surface is covered with a thin layer of gas which\\nprotects it. But if it be touched at any point with a copper\\nwire while in the dilute acid, chemical action will instantly be\\nre-established.\\nCast Iron and Steel. The properties and appearance of cast\\niron differ with the proportions of carbon and silicon which it\\ncontains. The iron does not form definite compounds with\\nthese bodies; they seem to be dissolved by the cast iron when\\nit is liquid. When cast iron containing much carbon is quickly\\ncooled, it becomes hard, brittle, whiter than soft iron, and seems\\nhomogeneous. This is white iron. When slowly cooled, a large\\nproportion of the carbon is deposited as laminae of graphite,\\nand the less homogeneous iron then possesses a certain degree\\nof malleability it is gray iron.\\nSome cast irons contain sulphur and phosphorus, and re-\\nmain white even after very slow cooling. Others are lamellar\\nand glittering they contain manganese and are rich in carbon\\n(spiegeleisen and ferromanganese).\\nThe proportion of carbon contained in cast iron varies from\\n2 to 5.5 per cent. Steel contains less carbon, from 0.7 to 2\\nper cent. The quantities of carbon contained in steel and even\\nin cast iron render it difficult to suppose that these products\\nare veritable carbides of iron.\\nSteel may be obtained by a partial decarbonization of cast\\niron. Manganiferous iron is especially applicable for this prep-\\naration. It is submitted to a partial refining, being maintained\\nin the liquid state for some hours under a layer of scoriae rich\\nin oxide of iron. A part of the carbon is burned out by the\\noxygen of this oxide natural steel is thus obtained.\\nSoft iron may be converted into steel. The operation is con-\\nducted in cases of refractory fire-clay, into which bars of iron,\\nand charcoal-powder, mixed with a small quantity of ashes and\\ncommon salt, are introduced in alternate layers. The bars being\\nthus isolated in a bed of charcoal, the cases are closed and\\nheated to redness in a furnace. The incandescent metal absorbs\\ncarbon, and at the termination of the operation is found con-\\nverted into steel by cementation.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0402.jp2"}, "401": {"fulltext": "IRON.\\n395\\nThe most homogeneous and most valuable steel is cast steel.\\nIt is obtained by fusing crude steel in crucibles in a wind-fur\\nnace.\\nBessemer has introduced an important improvement in the\\nmanufacture of steel. His process, which bears his name, con-\\nsists in adding variable quantities of a properly-constituted cast\\niron to molten and perfectly refined soft iron.\\nIn this process, the iron to be converted into steel is decar-\\nbonized by a current of air which is forced through the molten\\nmetal by strong press-\\nure. The operation is\\nconducted in an appa-\\nratus represented in\\nFig. 118, which is\\ncalled the converter. It\\nhas an ovoid form, is\\nconstructed of strong\\nplate iron, and is well-\\nlined with refractory\\nfire-bricks. It is ar-\\nranged on trunnions, so\\nthat an oscillating move-\\nment may be given to it.\\nThe air arrives under\\npressure by the tuyeres\\nwhich open into the bot-\\ntom of the converter.\\nThe latter is first filled\\nwith incandescent coke,\\nwhich is brought into active combustion by the blast. When\\nthe interior of the converter is heated to whiteness, the coke\\nis emptied out and replaced by the molten cast iron, the con-\\nverter being inclined to prevent the entrance of the metal into\\nthe tuyeres. The blast is then again turned on. and the com-\\npressed air bubbling through the molten metal burns out all\\nof the carbon. A flame of great brilliancy rushes from the\\norifice of the apparatus, and the aspect of this flame indicates\\nprecisely the progress of the operation and its termination.\\nAt this moment the apparatus is inclined, the blast arrested,\\nand a sufficient quantity of melted cast iron or sjiiegeleisen. a\\ncrystalline cast iron rich in carbon, is added to the now refined\\niron to convert the whole into steel; about 7 per cent, of spie-", "height": "4793", "width": "3031", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0403.jp2"}, "402": {"fulltext": "396 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ngeleisen is required. The steel is then run out into suitable\\nmoulds.\\nThe valuable qualities of steel are well known. It is suscep-\\ntible of a high polish it is ductile and malleable like iron, and\\ncan also be forged. At the temperature at which malleable\\niron becomes soft, steel melts. It becomes hard and brittle\\nwhen it is suddenly cooled after having been heated to redness.\\nThis operation, which is called tempering, develops new quali-\\nties in the steel, elasticity and hardness. It assumes these\\nproperties in different degrees, according to the rapidity of the\\ncooling, and the difference between the temperature to which\\nit has been heated and that to which it is cooled. The greater\\nthis difference, and the more rapid the cooling, the harder will\\nthe steel become. Slow cooling makes it soft and malleable.\\nWhen tempered steel is heated, and allowed to cool slowly,\\nit partly or entirely loses its hardness. It loses it entirely if\\nit be heated to the temperature to which it was exposed before\\ntempering. Its temper is drawn incompletely, that is, it re-\\ntains a certain amount of hardness and elasticity, if it be re-\\nheated to inferior temperatures. The qualities which it will\\nassume after cooling may be predicted from the various tints\\ndeveloped on its surface during the heating. Each of these\\ntints corresponds to a determined temperature.\\nStraw-yellow corresponds to 220\u00c2\u00b0\\nBrown 255\u00c2\u00b0\\nLight blue 285-290\u00c2\u00b0\\nIndigo-blue 295\u00c2\u00b0\\nSea-green 331\u00c2\u00b0\\nOXIDES OF IRON.\\nThree oxides of iron are known:\\nFerrous oxide FeO\\nFerric oxide Fe 2 3\\nFerroso-ferric oxide Fe 3 4\\nFremy discovered the existence of a ferric acid, of which\\nthe composition is not certainly established.\\nFerrous Oxide, FeO. Debray obtained this oxide by heat-\\ning ferric oxide in a current of gas formed of equal volumes\\nof carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Ferrous oxide re-\\nmains as a black powder.\\nFe 2 3 CO 2FeO CO 2\\nFerrous hydroxide, Fe(OH) 2 is formed as a white precipi-\\ntate when an alkaline hydroxide is added to the solution of", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0404.jp2"}, "403": {"fulltext": "OXIDES OF IRON. 397\\na ferrous salt. In presence of air it absorbs oxygen rapidly\\nand becomes dark in color.\\nFerric Oxide, Fe 2 3 This is found anhydrous in nature\\nin red hematite and specular iron. It may be prepared by\\ncalcining ferrous sulphate, or green vitriol. This salt first\\nloses its water, and then at a red heat decomposes into sul-\\nphuric anhydride, sulphurous oxide, and ferric oxide.\\n2FeSO SO 3 SO 2 Fe 2 3\\nA red powder is thus obtained, which is known as colcothar,\\nor jeweller s rouge.\\nThis oxide is amorphous, while red hematite is crystallized in\\nacute rhombohedra. H. Deville has succeeded in converting\\nthe amorphous oxide into the crystallized by heating the former\\nto redness in a very slow current of hydrochloric acid.\\nRust is ferric hydrate, a combination of ferric oxide with\\nwater, and ordinarily presents the composition 2Fe 2 3 -f-3H 2 0.\\nSuch a hydrate is also encountered in nature as brown\\nhematite. Another natural hydrate, containing Fe 2 3 -f- H 2 0.\\nis known under the name of gathite.\\nAmmonia or potassium hydrate will at once produce a volu-\\nminous and flocculent. rust-colored precipitate in a solution of\\nferric chloride. This precipitate constitutes a ferric hydrate.\\nBut if an excess of tartaric acid be added to the solution of\\na ferric salt, the liquid may be saturated with potassium hy-\\ndrate and will still remain clear, no precipitate of ferric hydrate\\nbeing formed.\\nAdvantage is taken of this property in analysis for the sepa-\\nration of ferric oxide from other oxides which tartaric acid does\\nnot retain in solution in an alkaline liquid.\\nIf a solution of ferric acetate be poured into a dialyser\\n(page 209), and the water in the exterior vessel be frequently\\nchanged, the salt will finally be entirely decomposed. Acetic\\nacid will pass through the membrane, while ferric hydrate will\\nremain dissolved in the water in the dialyser (Graham).\\nFerroso-ferric Oxide, Fe 3 4 This compound, also called\\nmagnetic oxide of iron, occurs native as magnetite, and con-\\nstitutes the black scales which form on the surface of iron\\nwhen it is heated to redness in the air it may be regarded\\nas a compound of ferrous and ferric oxides.\\nFeO Fe 2 3 Fe s O\\n34", "height": "4790", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0405.jp2"}, "404": {"fulltext": "398 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nSULPHIDES OF IRON.\\nSeveral sulphides of iron are known.\\nThe disulphide, or pyrites, FeS 2 a largely-diffused mineral,\\nis the most important of these sulphides. It occurs in two\\ndistinct forms\\nPyrite, which crystallizes in brilliant cubes, or pentag-\\nonal dodecahedra, having a yellow color and a metallic\\nlustre.\\nMarcasite, which forms rhombic prisms, variously modi-\\nfied, and presents a dull, greenish-yellow color. This variety\\nis much more alterable than the other, and possesses a great\\ntendency to attract oxygen from the air and become converted\\ninto sulphate. When heated in closed vessels, pyrites loses a\\npart of its sulphur.\\nA combination of monosulphide and sesquisulphide of iron\\nis encountered in nature it crystallizes in regular hexagonal\\nprisms and is called magnetic pyrites.\\nMonosulphide of Iron, FeS, is found in small quantity in\\nmany meteorites. It is ordinarily obtained by heating to red-\\nness in a covered crucible a mixture of three parts of iron-\\nfilings and two parts of sulphur. When the mixture has\\nfused, it is poured out and solidifies to a brittle, blackish mass,\\nhaving a metallic reflection. In this state, it is used for the\\npreparation of hydrogen sulphide.\\nCHLORIDES OF IRON.\\nFerrous Chloride, FeCl 2 is obtained anhydrous by the action\\nof dry hydrochloric acid gas upon metallic iron. It forms white\\npearly scales. When iron is treated with aqueous hydrochloric\\nacid, it dissolves, and hydrogen is disengaged. The green,\\nfiltered liquid deposits, when sufficiently concentrated, bluish-\\ngreen, oblique rhombic prisms. This is hydrated ferrous chlo-\\nride, FeCl 2 4H 2 0.\\nFerric Chloride, FeCl 3 is formed when a current of chlo-\\nrine is passed over iron-turnings heated in a glass or porcelain\\ntube. The two bodies combine with incandescence, and if\\nthe chlorine be in excess, ferric chloride will be obtained as a\\nbrilliant black, crystalline sublimate. The vapor density of\\nferric chloride above 700\u00c2\u00b0 corresponds to FeCl 3 but at lower\\ntemperatures its composition is probably Fe 2 Cl 6", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0406.jp2"}, "405": {"fulltext": "FERROUS SULPHATE. 399\\nThis body is very soluble in water and forms a yellow-brown\\nsolution. The latter may be obtained by dissolving ferric oxide,\\nsuch as powdered hematite, in hot hydrochloric acid, or by\\npassing chlorine into a solution of ferrous chloride. Ferric\\nchloride is also soluble in alcohol.\\nFERROUS SULPHATE.\\nFeSO* 7H 2\\nThis salt has long been known under the names green\\nvitriol and copperas. It is obtained by exposing iron pyrites\\nto the air, or roasting that mineral at a moderate heat. It is\\ngenerally prepared by dissolving iron in dilute sulphuric acid,\\nand it is a residue from the preparation of hydrogen sulphide\\nby means of iron sulphide and dilute sulphuric acid.\\nIt crystallizes in oblique rhombic prisms, containing 7 mol-\\necules of water of crystallization. When exposed to the air,\\nthese crystals effloresce slightly, and at the same time their\\nsurface becomes yellow from absorption of oxygen and the\\nformation of ferric subsulphate.\\n2FeS0 4 Fe 2 0(S0 4 2 Fe 2 3 .2S0 3\\nWhen heated, they lose their water, of which six molecules\\nare disengaged at 114\u00c2\u00b0, and the seventh only at 300\u00c2\u00b0. At a\\nhigher temperature the salt decomposes into sulphurous oxide,\\nand a ferric subsulphate different from the preceding.\\n2FeS0 4 SO 2 (Fe 2 2 )S0 4\\nThe crystals of ferrous sulphate are freely soluble in water.\\n100 parts of the salt dissolve in 164 parts of water at 10\u00c2\u00b0, and\\nin 30 parts of boiling water. The green solution absorbs oxy-\\ngen from the air, becomes troubled, and deposits yellow ferric\\nsubsulphate.\\nOther hydrates of ferrous sulphate are known. According\\nto Mitscherlich, a saturated boiling solution of the salt deposits\\nat 80\u00c2\u00b0 crystals containing four molecules of water. According\\nto Marignac, when a solution of ferrous sulphate containing\\nfree sulphuric acid is evaporated in a vacuum, crystals are first\\ndeposited which contain 7 molecules of water, then a sulphate\\nFeSO 4 5H 2 0, and finally, FeSO 4 4H 2 0!\\nThe sulphate FeSO 4 5H 2 0, is isomorphous with crystal-\\nlized cupric sulphate (blue vitriol), and like it crystallizes in\\ntriclinic prisms.", "height": "4784", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0407.jp2"}, "406": {"fulltext": "400 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nFERRIC SULPHATE.\\nFe 2 (SO*) 3\\nThis salt is obtained by heating ferrous sulphate with nitric\\nand sulphuric acids; the brown solution is evaporated, and the\\nresidue well dried.\\n2FeS0 4 H 2 S0 4 H 2 Fe 2 (S0 4\\nFerric sulphate is a slightly -yellowish, white mass, which\\ndissolves completely, but very slowly, in water. The solution\\nis yellow-brown, and has an acid reaction.\\nWhen concentrated by evaporation, it deposits a deliquescent,\\nyellowish, crystalline mass, which constitutes hydrated ferric\\nsulphate.\\nThere are several ferric sub sulphates those which have\\nbeen mentioned above result from the action of one molecule\\nof ferric oxide upon one or two molecules of sulphuric acid,\\nthe neutral sulphate resulting from the action of one molecule\\nof ferric oxide upon three molecules of sulphuric acid.\\nIPSO 4 Fe 2 3 H 2 (Fe 2 2 SO\\nFerric monosulphate.\\nh*|o* Fe 2 3 2H2 (Fe2 )iv so*\\nFerric disulphate.\\nH 2 S0 4 SO 4\\nIPSO 4 Fe 2 3 3H 2 (Fe 2 SO 4\\nH 2 S0 4 (SO 4\\nFerric trisulphate (normal sulphate).\\nFERROUS CARBONATE.\\nFeCO 3\\nSpathic iron ore, which crystallizes in rhombohedra, is fer-\\nrous carbonate. When a solution of sodium carbonate is added\\nto a solution of ferrous sulphate, a greenish- white precipitate\\nis obtained, which rapidly becomes colored in the air, absorb-\\ning oxygen and losing carbonic acid. When recently precipi-\\ntated, it dissolves in a large excess of carbonic acid.\\nCharacters of Ferrous Salts. The solutions of these salts\\nare green they are not precipitated by hydrogen sulphide, but\\nammonium sulphide forms a black precipitate of ferrous sul-\\nphide. Potassium hydrate or ammonia produces a greenish-\\nwhite precipitate of ferrous hydrate, insoluble in an excess of", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0408.jp2"}, "407": {"fulltext": "COBALT. 401\\nthe reagent, and rapidly becoming colored in the air. Potas-\\nsium ferrocyanide (yellow prussiate of potash) forms with fer-\\nrous salts a light-blue precipitate. Potassium ferric vanide (red\\nprussiate) forms a dark -blue precipitate. Solution of gall-nuts\\ndoes not color ferrous salts.\\nCharacters of Ferric Salts. Hydrogen sulphide produces\\na precipitate of sulphur, reducing the salts to the ferrous state.\\nAmmonium sulphide precipitates them black. Potassium hy-\\ndrate and ammonia form red-brown precipitates of ferric hy-\\ndrate, insoluble in an excess of the reagent. Potassium ferro-\\ncyanide forms a dark-blue precipitate which is Prussian blue.\\nPotassium ferricyanide produces a dark-brown color without\\nprecipitation. Potassium sulphocyanate gives a blood-red color.\\nSolution of gall-nuts forms a bluish-black precipitate which\\nconstitutes ink.\\nCOBALT.\\nCo 50.37\\nCobalt was discovered by Brandt in 1735. It is found as\\nsmalt ite in the arsenide, CoAs 2 and as cobalt glance in the\\nsulph-arsenide, CoAsS. Its ores are worked principally for the\\nproduction of a dark-blue, vitreous mass, a combination of cobalt\\nsilicate and potassium silicate, known as smalt or azure blue.\\nThe metal is prepared in the laboratory by calcining its oxa-\\nlate in a covered crucible.\\nCoC 2 0* Co 2C0 2\\nCobalt oxalate. Carbon dioxide.\\nIt may be obtained as a metallic button by heating the pul-\\nverulent metal in a lime crucible in a wind-furnace. The lime\\ncrucible is placed in another crucible of refractory clay, and\\nthe space between the two is filled up with fragments of quick-\\nlime (H. Sainte-Claire Deville).\\nPure cobalt is silvery-white. It is very malleable its den-\\nsity is 8.6, and it is magnetic. At ordinary temperatures it is\\nunaffected by the air, but at a red heat it is converted into oxide.\\nOxides of Cobalt. A monoxide. CoO, and a sesquioxicie,\\nCo 2 3 are known, and several intermediate oxides.\\nThe monoxide may be obtained by calcining cobalt carbonate\\nin closed vessels. It is a greenish-gray or olive-green powder,\\nwhich is reduced by hydrogen, charcoal, and carbon monoxide\\nat a red heat.\\naa 34*", "height": "4786", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0409.jp2"}, "408": {"fulltext": "402 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nWhen heated with borax before the blow-pipe, it dissolves,\\nforming a blue glass. It is used for giving a blue color to\\nglass and porcelain.\\nWhen an excess of potassium hydrate is added to the solu-\\ntion of a salt of cobalt, and the mixture boiled, a pink pre-\\ncipitate of cobalt hydrate, Co(OH) 2 is formed.\\nCobalt sesqidoxide, Co 2 3 is prepared by passing a current\\nof chlorine through water, holding in suspension the rose-\\ncolored hydrate above mentioned.\\n2CoO H 2 CI 2 Co 2 3 2HC1\\nThe sesquioxide is deposited as a black powder, which may\\nbe dried by carefully heating it.\\nCobalt Chloride, CoCl 2 When pulverulent cobalt is heated\\nin a current of chlorine, it takes fire and is converted into a\\nchloride, which sublimes in blue scales. A solution of this\\nchloride may be obtained by dissolving either monoxide or car-\\nbonate of cobalt in hydrochloric acid. The neutral solution is\\ncurrant-red, and on evaporation deposits hydrated crystals of\\nthe same color. But when it is concentrated, after having\\nadded hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, it becomes blue. This\\nchange of color, due to the formation of anhydrous chloride\\neven in the midst of the hot liquid, has caused the employ-\\nment of cobalt chloride as a sympathetic ink. Characters\\ntraced with the dilute solution, which is rose-colored, are invisi-\\nble on white paper, and appear blue only when the paper is\\nwarmed, again becoming invisible on cooling, by the absorption\\nof atmospheric moisture.\\nCobalt Sulphate, CoSO 4 7H 2 0.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This salt is found in\\nnature, crystallized in oblique rhombic prisms. It may be ob-\\ntained by dissolving the oxide or carbonate in dilute sulphuric\\nacid and concentrating the red solution. At ordinary temper-\\natures, the latter deposits red crystals, isomorphous with ferrous\\nsulphate. Between 40\u00c2\u00b0 and 50\u00c2\u00b0, it yields monoclinic crystals,\\ncontaining 6 molecules of water, and isomorphous with mag-\\nnesium sulphate of analogous composition.\\nCharacters of Cobalt Salts. The cobaltous salts are the\\nmore important. Their solutions are rose or currant-red, but\\nwhen concentrated and hot they become blue, especially when\\nan excess of acid is present. Hydrogen sulphide does not pre-\\ncipitate solutions of cobalt salts. Ammonium sulphide forms\\na black precipitate, Potassium hydrate gives a blue precipitate", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0410.jp2"}, "409": {"fulltext": "NICKEL. 403\\nof a basic salt, which, in presence of an excess of potassa, is\\nconverted into hydrate of cobalt, having a dirty rose color.\\nAmmonia forms a blue precipitate, soluble in excess.\\nWhen heated with borax in the blow-pipe flame, the salts\\nof cobalt yield beads of a pure blue color.\\nNICKEL.\\nNi 58.72\\nThis metal was discovered by Cronstedt in 1751.\\nNatural State and Extraction. Nickel is a constituent\\nof many minerals. It occurs as kupfernickel or nickeline, NiAs,\\nas nickel glance, NiAsS, as millerite, NiS, and in silicates such\\nas the garnierite of New Caledonia. It is also a common\\nconstituent of cobalt ores, and of magnetic pyrites. Nickel-\\niferous pyrites are mined in enormous quantities at Sudbury,\\nin Canada. The commercial extraction of nickel is effected\\nby various processes, more or less complicated, according to\\nthe nature of the ore. The silicate yields a product which is\\nfree from cobalt. The oxides are readily reducible by carbon.\\nPerfectly pure nickel is best obtained electrolytically.\\nProperties. Pure nickel is grayish-white with a yellowish\\ntinge. It is malleable, ductile, and very tenacious. Its den-\\nsity is 8.279, and may be increased to 8.666 by hammering.\\nIt is less fusible than iron and more fusible than manganese.\\nIt is magnetic at ordinary temperatures, but loses this property\\nat about 250\u00c2\u00b0. It is unaltered by the air at ordinary tempera-\\ntures, but absorbs oxygen at a red heat. It dissolves slowly\\nin dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, rapidly in nitric\\nacid. In contact with concentrated nitric acid it becomes\\npassive like iron. Finely divided nickel combines with carbon\\nmonoxide at 100\u00c2\u00b0, forming nickel carbonyl, Ni(CO) 4 (p. 219).\\nNickel is used in various alloys. German silver contains\\n50 per cent, copper, 25 nickel, and 25 zinc. The five-cent\\ncoins of the United States contain 25 per cent, nickel and\\n75 copper. An alloy of nickel with steel is at present ex-\\ntensively used for armor plates.\\nPure nickel is deposited as a brilliant metallic layer by the\\nelectrolysis of a solution of nickel and ammonium double sul-\\nphate, and this solution is used in nickel-plating.\\nNickel Oxides. A monoxide, NiO, and a sesquioxide,\\nNi 2 3 are known. The monoxide is an ash-gray powder,", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0411.jp2"}, "410": {"fulltext": "404 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nobtained by strongly calcining the nitrate or carbonate. On\\nadding potassium hydrate to a nickel salt, an apple-green pre-\\ncipitate of nickel hydrate, Ni(OH) 2 is formed.\\nNickel sesquioxide may be obtained by moderately calcining\\nthe nitrate. It is black. When chlorine gas is passed into\\nwater holding nickel hydrate in suspension, a dark-brown pow-\\nder is obtained, which is a hydrate of the sesquioxide. This\\nhydrate may also be made by precipitating a nickel salt with\\npotassium hydrate mixed with an alkaline hypochlorite.\\nWhen strongly calcined, nickel sesquioxide abandons part of\\nits oxygen and is changed into monoxide. Treated with hydro-\\nchloric acid, it yields nickel chloride, and chlorine is disengaged.\\nNi 2 3 6HC1 2MC1 2 3H 2 CI 2\\nNickel Chloride, NiCl 2 This salt may be obtained anhy-\\ndrous by the action of chlorine on nickel-filings it is volatile\\nat a dull-red heat, and sublimes in golden-yellow scales. The\\nhydrated chloride is formed by the action of boiling water on\\nthe anhydrous salt, or by the action of hydrochloric acid on the\\noxide or carbonate. Its solution is green, and after proper\\nconcentration deposits beautiful green crystals which contain\\nNiCl 2 6H 2 0.\\nNickel Sulphate, NiSO 7H 2 0.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 The sulphate is depos-\\nited in fine, emerald-green, orthorhombic prisms, isomorphous\\nwith magnesium sulphate, when its solution is allowed to evap-\\norate spontaneously below 15\u00c2\u00b0. There is another hydrate con-\\ntaining 6H 2 0, which is dimorphous. When deposited between\\n20 and 30\u00c2\u00b0, it crystallizes in square octahedra, but when its\\nsolution is made to crystallize between 60 and 70\u00c2\u00b0, monoclinic\\ncrystals are obtained, isomorphous with the corresponding\\nsulphates of magnesium, zinc, and cobalt.\\nNickel sulphate dissolves in 3 times its weight of water at 10\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCharacters of Nickel Salts. The nickel salts when hy-\\ndrated or in solution have a fine emerald-green color. When\\nanhydrous they are yellow.\\nHydrogen sulphide does not precipitate them from acid solu-\\ntions. Ammonium sulphide throws down a black precipitate.\\nPotassium hydrate and potassium carbonate form apple-green\\nprecipitates.\\nIn neutral solutions, ammonia gives a green precipitate of\\nnickel hydrate, which dissolves in an excess of ammonia, form-\\ning a blue solution,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0412.jp2"}, "411": {"fulltext": "MANGANESE. 405\\nMANGANESE.\\nMn=54.8\\nManganese is obtained by reducing manganese fluoride or\\nchloride with sodium, or manganous oxide with aluminium.\\nIt is white, hard, and brittle. Its density is about 7.4, and\\nit melts only at a high white heat. It is unaffected by air or\\nmoisture at ordinary temperatures, but decomposes water and\\nis superficially oxidized at 100\u00c2\u00b0. It dissolves readily in dilute\\nmineral acids.\\nManganese has a remarkable affinity for carbon decom-\\nposing carbon monoxide at high temperatures and forming\\nmanganous oxide and manganese carbide. For this reason\\nthe metal cannot be obtained by reducing the oxide with car-\\nbon, a carbide always resulting from this operation.\\nManganese enters into the important alloys ferromanganese\\nand spiegeleisen, which are made directly in the blast furnace.\\nManganese bronze contains about 10 per cent, manganese and\\n90 per cent, copper. Manganese steel contains about 12 per\\ncent, manganese.\\nMANGANESE OXIDES.\\nManganese forms six compounds with oxygen\\nManganous oxide MnO\\nManganoso-manganic oxide Mn 3 4\\nManganic oxide Mn 2 3\\nManganese dioxide MnO 2\\nManganic anhydride MnO 3\\nPermanganic anhydride Mn 2 7\\nManganous oxide is formed when manganous carbonate is\\nstrongly heated in a current of hydrogen, or by reducing one\\nof the higher oxides in a current of hydrogen or carbon mon-\\noxide. It is a grayish-green powder which slowly absorbs\\noxygen at ordinary temperatures, and takes fire at a tempera-\\nture below redness, forming the red oxide Mn 3 4\\nThe latter body is also formed by the calcination of the\\ndioxide. It is analogous to the magnetic oxide of iron, and\\nconstitutes the mineral known as hausmannite.\\nManganic oxide, Mn 2 3 occurs in nature in tetragonal\\npyramids as hraunite.", "height": "4798", "width": "3028", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0413.jp2"}, "412": {"fulltext": "406 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nMANGANESE DIOXIDE.\\n(BINOXIDE OR PEROXIDE OF MANGANESE.)\\nMnO 2\\nThis important body is found abundantly in nature it con-\\nstitutes the mineral pyrolusite. It may be obtained pure and\\nanhydrous by exposing a concentrated solution of manganous\\nnitrate to heat and gradually raising the temperature to 155\u00c2\u00b0.\\nNitrous vapors are evolved, and a brilliant brown-black mass is\\nobtained, which is the dioxide.\\nMn(N0 3 2 MnO 2 2N0 2\\nIt loses one-third of its oxygen when heated to redness, and\\nis converted into the red oxide. When heated with concen-\\ntrated sulphuric acid, it loses half of its oxygen, manganous\\nsulphate being formed.\\nMnO 2 H 2 S0 4 MnSO 4 H 2 O\\nWith hydrochloric acid it yields water, chlorine, and manga-\\nnous chloride.\\nA hydrate of manganese dioxide is formed when an excess\\nof chlorine is directed into water holding in suspension man-\\nganous hydrate or carbonate. This hydrate is a dark-brown\\npowder.\\nManganese dioxide is largely employed for the preparation\\nof oxygen and chlorine. It is used to decolorize glass black-\\nened by carbonaceous matters or rendered green by a trace of\\niron.\\nMANGANIC ACID.\\nWhen manganese dioxide is heated with potassium hydrate\\nin a silver crucible, and the calcined mass is exhausted with\\nwater, the latter dissolves out potassium manganate. A dark-\\ngreen liquor is thus obtained which, when evaporated in vacuo,\\ndeposits a crystalline mass. These crystals may be drained on\\na porous porcelain plate, and green needles of potassium man-\\nganate, K 2 Mn0 4 remain. The salt is isomorphous with the\\nsulphate K 2 S0 4\\nWhen the green solution is boiled, it becomes red and deposits\\nbrown flakes of hydrated manganese dioxide the red liquor is\\na solution of potassium permanganate, this salt being formed at", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0414.jp2"}, "413": {"fulltext": "PERMANGANIC ACID MANGANOUS SULPHATE. 407\\nthe expense of the manganate. which breaks up into hydrated\\ndioxide, potassium hydrate, and permanganate.\\n3K 2 MnO 3H 2 ffMnW Mn0 2 .H 2 4KOH\\nPotassium Potassium Hydrated manganese\\nmanganate. permanganate. dioxide.\\nAn analogous decomposition takes place when an acid is\\nadded to the green solution of manganate; a manganous salt\\nand permanganic acid are formed, and the latter colors the\\nliquid red.\\nPERMANGANIC ACID.\\nPotassium permanganate, KMnO*, is an important salt. It\\nis prepared by heating to dull redness a mixture of manga-\\nnese dioxide, potassium hydroxide, and potassium chlorate.\\nAfter cooling, the product is exhausted with boiling water,\\nand when the liquid has assumed a purple color, it is de-\\ncanted, and, after neutralization by nitric acid, is evaporated\\nat a gentle heat. On cooling, it deposits crystals that may\\nbe dried on a porous tile.\\nPotassium permanganate crystallizes in almost black needles,\\nhaving a metallic reflection. It dissolves in 15 or 16 parts of\\ncold water, and its solution has a magnificent, intense purple\\ncolor.\\nIf solution of sulphurous acid be added to potassium per-\\nmanganate solution, the latter is instantly decolorized, and the\\nliquid contains only potassium sulphate and manganese sulphate.\\nIf a drop of the solution of potassium permanganate be\\nplaced upon a sheet of paper, it loses its color and a brown\\nstain of hydrated manganese dioxide is produced.\\nThese experiments indicate the oxidizing properties of the\\npermanganate. In the first, sulphurous acid was oxidized in\\nthe second, it was paper, of which the carbon and hydrogen\\nremoved the oxygen from the permanganate, which was thus\\nreduced to dioxide.\\nMANGANOUS SULPHATE.\\nMnSO 4 7H 2\\nThis salt may be prepared by dissolving manganous carbon-\\nate in sulphuric acid. The properly concentrated rose-colored\\nsolution deposits, between and 6\u00c2\u00b0, oblique rhombic prisms,\\nisomorphous with green vitriol and containing 7 molecules of\\nwater.", "height": "4790", "width": "3025", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0415.jp2"}, "414": {"fulltext": "408 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nBetween 7 and 20\u00c2\u00b0, manganous sulphate crystallizes with 5\\nmolecules of water, like cupric sulphate, with which it is then\\nisomorphous.\\nBetween 20 and 30\u00c2\u00b0, it is deposited in oblique rhombic\\nprisms, according to Marignac, which contain only 4 molecules\\nof water.\\nAll of these crystals are pink-colored, and their color is\\ndeeper as they contain more water of crystallization. They are\\nvery soluble in water.\\nMANGANOUS CARBONATE.\\nMnCO\u00c2\u00bb\\nThe residues from the preparation of chlorine may be used\\nfor making this salt. They are evaporated, without filtering,\\nin a porcelain capsule, with frequent stirring, and the dry\\nresidue is calcined with an excess of manganese dioxide. The\\nferric chloride which was mixed with the manganous chloride\\nis decomposed or volatilized during this operation. Ferric\\noxide remains, mixed with the excess of manganese dioxide\\nand the manganous chloride, which resists the heat. The latter\\nis extracted by exhausting the mass with boiling water. A\\nrose-colored solution is thus obtained which often contains a\\nsmall quantity of cobalt chloride. The latter is precipitated\\nas sulphide by adding little by little a solution of sodium sul-\\nphide. As soon as the precipitate, which is at first blackish,\\nbegins to assume a flesh tint, the liquid is filtered and precipi-\\ntated by sodium carbonate.\\nManganese carbonate constitutes a white powder with a pale\\nrose tint. When heated in contact with air, it gives up car-\\nbonic acid gas and is converted into red oxide of manganese.\\nCharacters of Manganese Salts. The salts of manganese\\nare colorless or have a light pink color. Their solutions are\\nnot precipitated by hydrogen sulphide. Ammonium sulphide\\ngives a flesh-colored precipitate sodium carbonate, a dirty\\nwhite. Potassium hydrate produces a dirty white precipitate\\nof manganous hydrate, which rapidly becomes brown by ab-\\nsorbing oxygen from the air.\\nWhen heated in the blow-pipe flame with a small quantity\\nof potassium hydrate or nitrate, the salts of manganese give a\\nbead which dissolves in water with a green color (manganate).", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0416.jp2"}, "415": {"fulltext": "URANIUM. 409\\nURANIUM.\\nU 240\\nUranium is related to manganese and iron by certain com-\\npounds, and there are others which relate it to chromium, molyb-\\ndenum, and tungsten. The latter three elements combine with\\noxygen, forming the anhydrides of energetic acids, and their\\natoms may be regarded as hexatomic.\\nUranium is not found in abundance, although it is widely\\ndistributed. It occurs in pitchblende, a uranoso-uranic oxide,\\nuranite, a calcium uranyl-phosphate, and in other minerals,\\nassociated with copper, bismuth, arsenic, etc. Euxenite con-\\ntains niobate and titanate of uranium.\\nThe metal may be prepared by the action of sodium on a\\nmixture of uranium chloride, UC1 4 and potassium chloride, the\\nlatter being employed as a flux. The operation is conducted\\nin a porcelain crucible contained within a plumbago crucible,\\nand a high heat is necessary to fuse the reduced uranium.\\nSo obtained, uranium is of an iron or nickel color, not quite\\nas hard as steel, and has a density of 18.4. When heated in\\nthe air, it is oxidized with incandescence. It does not decom-\\npose water, but dissolves in dilute acids, disengaging hydrogen.\\nUranium Oxides. The principal oxides are UO 2 and\\nUO 3 besides which there exist several intermediate oxides,\\nand probably a uranic oxide, UO 4\\nUranium Dioxide, UO 2 was at first believed to be the free\\nmetal. It is a brown powder, and may be obtained by strongly\\nheating uranic oxide with charcoal or in a current of hydro-\\ngen. Prepared in the latter manner, the monoxide is pyro-\\nphoric. A corresponding hydrate is formed when solutions of\\nuranous salts are precipitated by alkaline hydrates.\\nUranic Oxide, UO 3 is obtained as a light-brown powder by\\nheating uranyl nitrate to 250\u00c2\u00b0. When heated to redness, it is\\nconverted into green uranoso-uranic oxide U 3 8 Uranic oxide\\ncombines with bases forming a series of salts of the general\\nformula R 2 U 2 7 in which II is one atom of a monatomic metal.\\nThe uranates are yellow, insoluble in water, but soluble in acids.\\nThe alkaline uranates may be obtained by precipitating a uranyl\\nsalt (see farther on) with an excess of alkaline hydrate.\\nSodium Uranate, Na 2 U 2 7 is known in commerce as uranium\\nyellow, and is used for painting on porcelain, and for coloring\\na yellow glass which is highly fluorescent. It is prepared in\\ns 35", "height": "4796", "width": "3015", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0417.jp2"}, "416": {"fulltext": "410 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nthe arts by heating in a reverberatory furnace a mixture of lime\\nand pitchblende. The calcium uranate so formed is decom-\\nposed by sulphuric acid, and the uranyl sulphate obtained is\\ntreated with sodium carbonate. On adding very dilute sul-\\nphuric acid, uranium yellow is precipitated.\\nUranium Chlorides. There are three chlorides, UCP,\\nUCP, UCP, and an oxychloride, U0 2 C1 2 The tetrachloride is\\nformed by the action of chlorine on a heated mixture of char-\\ncoal and any oxide of uranium. It is a very deliquescent body,\\ncrystallizing in lustrous black or dark -green regular octahedra.\\nSalts of Uranium. These include the uranous salts, and\\nthose formed by the diatomic radical uranyl, UO 2 The former\\nsalts are green, and are converted by oxidizing agents into\\nthe corresponding uranyl salts which are yellow.\\nUranyl nitrate, U0 2 (N0 3 2 which may serve as a starting-\\npoint for the preparation of uranium compounds, may be\\nmade from pitchblende. The latter is pulverized, roasted, and\\ntreated with nitric acid. The solution is evaporated to dry-\\nness, the residue exhausted with water, and the liquid filtered.\\nThe yellowish-green filtrate is concentrated, and the confused\\ncrystalline mass which separates on cooling is drained and\\nrecrystallized, first, from hot water, then from ether, which\\ndissolves only the uranyl nitrate, leaving the impurities.\\nUranyl nitrate forms large, yellow, orthorhombic prisms.\\nHelium. When certain pitchblendes, notably Cleveite, are\\ntreated with dilute acids, a colorless gas is disengaged (Hille-\\nbrand). This until recently was believed to be nitrogen, but\\nexperiments by Ramsey and by Cleve have shown that it\\ncontains a new element, helium, whose existence had been\\nconjectured because of certain lines in the sun s spectrum.\\nCHROMIUM.\\nCr 52\\nChromium was discovered in 1797, by Vauquelin, in a min-\\neral from Siberia known as crocoite, and which is chromate of\\nlead. It forms one of the elements of chrome iron ore, a com-\\nbination of chromium oxide with ferrous oxide, Cr 2 3 .FeO,\\nwhich corresponds to magnetic oxide of iron, Fe 2 3 .FeO.\\nChromium has only recently been obtained in the reguline", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0418.jp2"}, "417": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF CHROMIUM AND OXYGEN. 411\\nstate and in notable quantity by Moissan. He reduced the\\nsesquioxide with carbon in the electrical furnace, thus obtain-\\ning a metal rich in carbon. The latter was eliminated as\\ncalcium carbide by fusing the mass successively with lime\\nand with calcium chromium oxide. So prepared, chromium\\nis a brilliant metal, its polished surface being whiter than\\niron. Its density is 6.92. It is infusible except in the elec-\\ntrical furnace. It is not very hard, though the carbides C 2 Cr 3\\nand CCr*, are exceedingly hard, and it is entirely non-mag-\\nnetic. At high temperatures it combines energetically with\\noxygen and with sulphur. It also forms definite compounds\\nwith carbon, silicon, and boron. Hydrochloric and sulphuric\\nacids dissolve it, especially by the aid of heat while it is unaf-\\nfected by strong nitric acid.\\nChromium has also been obtained by electrolysis of its\\nchloride, as well as by reduction of its oxide by metals like\\naluminium and magnesium.\\nCOMPOUNDS OF CHROMIUM AND OXYGEN.\\nThere are two well-defined compounds of chromium and\\noxygen, the green oxide, Cr 2 3 and chromic anhydride, CrO 3\\nChromium Oxide, Cr 2 3 is a green powder; it may be\\nobtained by calcining mercurous chromate.\\n2Hg 2 Cr0 4 4Hg O 5 CrO 3\\nAnother process consists in heating in a crucible a mixture\\nof 2 parts of potassium dichromate with a little more than 1\\npart of flowers of sulphur. After cooling, the mass is treated\\nwith water, which dissolves out potassium sulphate and leaves\\nchromium oxide.\\nChromium oxide is undecomposable by heat, and melts only\\nat the temperature of the forge. It forms several different\\nhydrates. When ammonia is added to the green solution of\\nchromic chloride, a green, flaky precipitate of chromic hydrate\\nis formed it is soluble in acids and in potassium hydrate.\\nChromic Anhydride, CrO 3 is prepared by gradually adding\\nto a cold saturated solution of potassium dichromate 1J times\\nits volume of sulphuric acid. The chromic anhydride, ordina-\\nrily called chromic acid, set free separates in needle-shaped\\ncrystals of a dark-red color, which should be drained and re-\\ncrystallized in a small quantity of warm water.\\nIt is deliquescent; its aqueous solution has a dark yellow-", "height": "4797", "width": "3021", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0419.jp2"}, "418": {"fulltext": "412 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nbrown color. It is an energetic oxidizing agent. Hydrochlo-\\nric acid converts it into chromic chloride, with evolution of\\nchlorine.\\n2O0 3 12HC1 Cr 2 Cl 6 6H 2 3CP\\nIf a concentrated solution of sulphurous acid be added to a\\nsolution of chromic acid, the liquid immediately becomes green\\nfrom the formation of chromic sulphate.\\nChromates. The most important chromates are those of\\npotassium and lead.\\nPotassium neutral chromate, K 2 Cr0 4 crystallizes in lemon-\\nyellow, right rhombic prisms, isomorphous with potassium sul-\\nphate. It is very soluble in water, to which it communicates\\nan intense yellow color. So great is its coloring property, that\\none part of chromate will sensibly color 40,000 parts of water.\\nPotassium dichr ornate, K 2 Cr 2 7 is prepared by heating to\\nredness 2 parts of chrome iron with 1 part of nitre. The mass\\nis exhausted with water, which dissolves out potassium neutral\\nchromate; acetic acid is added to this solution, precipitating\\nthe silica, which is derived from the crucible and remains in\\nthe solution as silicate, and removing one-half of the potassium\\nfrom the chromate, thus converting it into the dichromate.\\nThe latter crystallizes out on evaporation.\\nPotassium dichromate is a beautiful salt of an orange-red\\ncolor. It crystallizes in quadrangular tables derived from a\\ndissymetric prism.\\nIt dissolves in 8 or 10 parts of cold water and in a much\\nless quantity of boiling water.\\nA strong heat decomposes it into neutral chromate, chromium\\noxide and oxygen.\\n2K 2 Cr 2 7 2K 2 CrO Cr 2 3 O 3\\nWhen heated with sulphuric acid, it loses oxygen and is\\nconverted into chromic sulphate and potassium sulphate.\\nK 2 Cr 2 7 4H 2 S0 4 Cr 2 (S0 4 3 K 2 SO 4H 2 O 3\\nThe residue when exhausted with water yields a green solu-\\ntion, which deposits on evaporation beautiful octahedral crystals\\nof a violet-black color, constituting chrome alum.\\nCr 2 (S0 4 3 .K 2 S0 4 24H 2", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0420.jp2"}, "419": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF CHROMIUM AND CHLORINE. 413\\nSulphurous acid reduces potassium dichromate in the cold,\\nalso yielding chrome alum if sulphuric acid be added.\\nK 2 Cr 2 7 3S0 2 H 2 S0 4 Cr 2 (S0 4 3 .K 2 S0 4 -f H 2\\nThe constitution of potassium dichromate is represented by\\nthe formula\\nKOCrO 2\\nKOCrO 2\\nCOMPOUNDS OF CHROMIUM AND CHLORINE.\\nSeveral combinations of chromium and chlorine are known,\\nThe most important is the violet chloride, CrCl 3 correspond-\\ning to aluminium chloride and ferric chloride. It is prepared\\nby passing chlorine gas over an intimate and perfectly dry\\nmixture of chromium oxide and charcoal, heated to redness in\\na porcelain tube carbon monoxide is disengaged, and chromic\\nchloride sublimes into the cooler portion of the tube in brilliant\\npeach-blossom-colored scales.\\nThese crystals are almost insoluble in cold water, and dis-\\nsolve but slowly in boiling water. Hydrogen reduces them at a\\nred heat, with formation of hydrochloric acid, and a chloride,\\nCrCl 2 which crystallizes in white scales (Peligot).\\n2CrCP H 2 2HC1 2CrCl 2\\nIf a small quantity of the chloride CrCl 2 be added to hot\\nwater, holding in suspension the violet chloride CrCl 3 the\\nlatter will be instantly dissolved, forming a green solution.\\nChromyl chloride, Cr0 2 Cl 2 is obtained by heating a pre-\\nviously fused mixture of common salt and potassium di-\\nchromate with sulphuric acid abundant red vapors are disen-\\ngaged, and condense to a blood-red liquid. This body boils\\nat 116.8\u00c2\u00b0. Its density at 25\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.920 (Thorpe). On contact\\nwith water it decomposes into hydrochloric acid and chromic\\nanhydride.\\nCr0 2 CP H 2 CrO 3 2HC1\\n35*", "height": "4784", "width": "3016", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0421.jp2"}, "420": {"fulltext": "414 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nMOLYBDENUM.\\nMo 96\\nThis metal is prepared by reducing molybdic oxide, MoO 3\\nby a current of hydrogen at a high temperature. It is a white,\\nvery hard, and almost infusible metal, having a density of about\\n8.6. It forms five oxides, MoO, Mo 2 3 MoO 2 Mo 2 5 and MoO 3\\nand the chlorides MoCl 2 MoCl 3 MoCl 4 and MoCl 5\\nMolybdic Oxide, MoO 3 is obtained by roasting the native\\nsulphide, molybdenite, MoS 2 which occurs in black foliated\\nmasses closely resembling graphite, and capable of marking\\npaper in the same manner. The roasting is conducted at a\\ntemperature not above redness, and the resulting oxide is dis-\\nsolved in ammonia, and the solution filtered. On evaporation\\nand cooling, crystals of ammonium molybdate are obtained\\nwhich yield molybdic oxide when calcined in the air.\\nMolybdic oxide is a white, fusible, and volatile powder; it\\nis but slightly soluble in water the solution, however, being\\nacid. It is the anhydride of an acid which forms a somewhat\\ncomplicated series of salts, one of the most important being a\\nmolybdate of ammonium having the composition\\nMo 7 24 (NH*) 6 +4H 2 3(NH*) 2 Mo0 4 +4H 2 Mo0 4\\nThis is the compound which is formed when a solution of mo-\\nlybdic oxide in ammonia is evaporated. It is employed in the\\nlaboratory as a test for phosphorus. When its solution in nitric\\nacid is added to a warm solution containing phosphoric acid, a\\nyellow precipitate containing molybdic acid, ammonia, and phos-\\nphoric acid, is thrown down. This precipitate is insoluble in\\nnitric acid, but soluble in ammonia.\\nTUNGSTEN.\\nW (Wolframiura) 184\\nTungsten occurs in a number of minerals, associated princi-\\npally with tin ores. Wolfram is tungstate of iron and manga-\\nnese. Scheelite is calcium tungstate stolzite or scheelitine is\\ntungstate of lead.\\nThe metal may be obtained by calcining tungstic oxide, WoO 3\\nintimately mixed with charcoal, in a brasqued crucible or in a", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0422.jp2"}, "421": {"fulltext": "TUNGSTEN. 415\\ncurrent of hydrogen. It has been obtained only as a highly\\nrefractory, grayish powder, having a density of about 19. It\\nis not readily oxidized directly, except at high temperatures.\\nIt forms chlorides, WCP, WC1 4 WC1 5 and WC1 6 and oxides,\\nWO 2 WO*, and probably several intermediate ones.\\nTungstic Oxide, WO 3 occurs native in a yellow powder\\ncalled wolfram ochre. It may be prepared from scheelite or\\nfrom wolfram. The mineral is treated with nitro-muriatic acid,\\nand the undissolved residue, consisting of tungstic oxide, is\\ndissolved in ammonia. The filtered solution is evaporated to\\ndryness, and on calcination the ammonium tungstate leaves\\ntungstic oxide as pale yellow scales. It is fusible at a high\\ntemperature, insoluble in water and acids, soluble in alkaline\\nsolutions with formation of tungstates.\\nTungstic oxide is the anhydride of several acids forming\\nwell-marked salts.\\nNormal tungstic acid, H 2 WO*, is precipitated as an insolu-\\nble yellow powder when the solution of a tungstate is decom-\\nposed by an excess of hot acid.\\nThe alkaline normal tungstates have the general formula\\nR 2 W0 4 Besides these, there are highly complicated salts\\nderived from the condensation of several molecules of the\\nnormal salts. One of these, known as sodium paratungstate,\\nis prepared on a large scale by roasting wolfram with sodium\\nhydrate and exhausting the mass with water. Its composition\\nis Na 10 W 12 O 41 it is used as a mordant in dyeing, and has been\\nrecommended for rendering fabrics of vegetable origin non-\\ninflammable. The goods are treated with a solution containing\\ntwenty per cent, of sodium tungstate and three per cent, of\\nsodium phosphate.\\nThe remaining elements are tetratomic, some of them at the\\nsame time forming unsaturated compounds in which the me-\\ntallic atom may be diatomic, as in the oxides of tin, Sn iv 2\\nand Sn 0. Or two atoms of the metal may form a hexatomic\\ncouple, as in titanium sesquioxide, Ti 2 3\\nTin, titanium, zirconium, and thorium form a group of\\nwhich the chemical analogies become evident in a comparison\\nof the composition and relations of similar compounds, while\\nplatinum is the most important member of another group of\\nmetals which are associated together in nature, and which are\\nrelated by certain chemical and physical properties.", "height": "4791", "width": "3044", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0423.jp2"}, "422": {"fulltext": "416\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nTIN.\\nSn (Stannum) 118.8\\nNatural State and Extraction. The only mineral of tin\\nwhich is worked is the dioxide (cassiterite). It is found in\\nveins in the oldest formations, or disseminated in sand produced\\nby their disaggregation. The principal tin mines are in India,\\nin Malacca and the island of Banca, in Wales and in Saxony.\\nTin ore generally occurs mixed with various other minerals,\\nsuch as sulphide and sulph-arsenide of iron, sulphides of copper\\nand tin, etc. It is crushed and washed in order to remove\\nlight, earthy matters, and then roasted. The sulphides and\\nsulph-arsenides are thus oxidized and disintegrated, and the\\nproduct is submitted to a sec-\\nond washing which removes\\nthe lighter oxides, leaving the\\ncassiterite. The latter is then\\nheated with charcoal in a\\ncupola-furnace, represented in\\nFig. 119 it is a sort of pris-\\nmatic furnace, having a hearth\\nFig. 119.\\nat the bottom where the melted\\nmetal collects. Air is blown\\nin through the tuyere D. Car-\\nbon monoxide is formed, and\\nthis reduces the stannic oxide\\nthe tin collects on the hearth,\\nfrom which it is drawn into\\nthe basin I, where it is stirred\\nwith rods of green wood. The\\nsteam and gases produced by\\nthe carbonization of the wood, agitate the melted mass and bring\\nto the surface the foreign matter or dross, which is removed.\\nThe tin is then run into moulds.\\nThus obtained, tin generally contains small quantities of\\ncopper, iron, lead, antimony, and arsenic. It is purified by\\nslowly heating it on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace;\\nthe pure tin melts first and runs out of the furnace, while the\\nless fusible alloys remain upon the hearth. This method of\\npurification is called liquation.\\nProperties, Pure tin is a white metal, resembling silver in", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0424.jp2"}, "423": {"fulltext": "TIN. 417\\nits color and lustre. It melts at 228\u00c2\u00b0, and crystallizes when\\nslowly cooled. Crystals of tin, belonging to the type of the\\nright square prism, may also be obtained by galvanic precipi-\\ntation of the metal. Their density is 7.178. That of the\\nfused and slowly-cooled metal is 7.373 (H. Deville).\\nTin is ductile and malleable. When a bar of tin is bent,\\nit produces a peculiar noise called the cry of tin.\\nThe metal is unaltered by the air, but when fused, rapidly\\nbecomes covered with a grayish pellicle of oxide. Tin dis-\\nsolves in concentrated hydrochloric acid, disengaging hydrogen.\\nThe action is rapid when heat is applied.\\nIf ordinary nitric acid be poured upon granulated tin, an\\nenergetic action takes place immediately. The tin is converted\\ninto a white powder of dioxide, and torrents of red vapors are\\nevolved.\\nVery dilute nitric acid attacks tin almost without disengage-\\nment of gas. After some time the liquid will be found to con-\\ntain a small quantity of tin nitrate and ammonium nitrate.\\nThe ammonia is formed by the simultaneous reduction of water\\nand nitric acid by the tin.\\nHNO 3 H 2 20 2 NH 3\\nWhen tin is heated with a concentrated solution of either\\npotassium or sodium hydrate, hydrogen is disengaged, and an\\nalkaline stannate is formed.\\nUses of Tin. Tin enters into the composition of bronzes;\\nit is made into dishes and covers, and the thin foil in which\\nvarious substances, such as chocolate and tobacco, are enveloped.\\nTinning of kitchen vessels consists in covering them with a\\nthin coating of tin. This protects the copper or iron from the\\naction of the acids which enter into the composition of various\\narticles of food. The objects to be tinned are first well cleaned\\nby rubbing them with sand, and are then dipped into melted\\ntin. After separating the excess of metal, they are polished\\nby rubbing with cloths dipped in sal ammoniac.\\nTin-plate is sheet-iron covered with a thin layer of tin. The\\niron is first dipped into dilute sulphuric acid to remove the\\noxide; it is then rubbed with sand, and afterwards plunged\\nsuccessively into a bath of melted tallow and a bath of tin covered\\nwith tallow. On contact with the iron, the tin enters into com-\\nbination, forming a true alloy, which becomes covered with a\\ncoating of pure tin.\\nbb", "height": "4795", "width": "3035", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0425.jp2"}, "424": {"fulltext": "418 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nWhen the surface of tin-plate is washed with a mixture of\\nhydrochloric and nitric acids, the superficial coat of tin is dis-\\nsolved, and the crystallized alloy of tin and iron is exposed.\\nThis is called crystallized tin-plate.\\nCOMPOUNDS OF TIN AND OXYGEN.\\nTin forms two compounds with oxygen, stannous oxide, SnO,\\nand stannic oxide, SnO 2 The first is of but little importance.\\nIt is obtained by precipitating a solution of stannous chloride\\nby potassium hydrate, and boiling the precipitate, by which the\\nwhite, stannous hydrate first formed is converted into a black\\ncrystalline powder of stannous oxide. When this substance is\\nheated to 250\u00c2\u00b0, it decrepitates, increases in volume, and becomes\\nconverted into an olive-brown powder, which is dimorphous\\nwith the black oxide.\\nSTANNIC OXIDE.\\nSnO 2\\nThis body is found in nature in the form of beautiful, hard,\\ntransparent crystals of a yellowish-brown color, belonging to\\nthe type of the square prism.\\nThe white powder obtained when the metal is treated with\\nnitric acid is a stannic hydrate, which plays the part of an acid,\\nand was named by Fremy metastannic acid. He attributes to\\nit the composition 5(H 4 Sn0 4 It would be a polymer of\\nnormal stannic acid.\\n1 O 4 (OH) 4 Sn iv\\nWhen heated to 100\u00c2\u00b0, this hydrate loses half of its water;\\nat a red heat, it loses the remainder and is converted into stannic\\noxide.\\nWhen ammonia is added to an aqueous solution of stannic\\nchloride, a white, gelatinous precipitate is formed, constituting\\na hydrate.\\nH 2 Sn0 3 S gIJ0 3\\nThis is the stannic acid of Fremy. It dissolves readily in\\nhydrochloric acid, and the solution behaves as would an aqueous\\nsolution of stannic chloride.\\nH 2 Sn0 3 4HC1 SnCl 4 3H 2", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0426.jp2"}, "425": {"fulltext": "SULPHIDES OF TIN STANNOUS CHLORIDE. 419\\nIt reacts with the bases, forming stannates of which the\\ngeneral composition is expressed by the formula:\\nR 2 SnO\\n_ Sn I g\\nR 2 U\\nWhen heated to 140\u00c2\u00b0, or even when dried for a long time\\nin a vacuum, it becomes insoluble in acids.\\nSULPHIDES OF TIN.\\nTwo sulphides of tin are known a monosulphide, SnS, and\\na disulphide, SnS 2 The first is obtained by heating tin-filings\\nwith flowers of sulphur the product still contains an excess\\nof tin, and it is necessary to again heat it with a fresh quantity\\nof sulphur. It is a crystalline, lead-colored mass.\\nTin disulphide or stannic sulphide is prepared by first making\\nan amalgam of 12 parts of tin and 6 parts of mercury this is\\npulverized and the powder is mixed with 7 parts of flowers of\\nsulphur and 6 parts of sal-ammoniac. The mixture is intro-\\nduced into a matrass of hard glass and gradually heated to\\ndull redness on a sand-bath. Sulphur, sal-ammoniac, sulphide\\nof mercury, and stannous sulphide are condensed in the upper\\npart of the matrass, of which the interior becomes covered with\\na yellow crystalline mass of stannic sulphide. The presence\\nof sal-ammoniac and mercury, which volatilize in this opera-\\ntion, prevents an elevation of temperature, which would decom-\\npose the stannic sulphide. The latter is carried with their\\nvapors, and condenses in brilliant, gold-like scales, which are\\ngreasy to the touch. This body is known as mosaic gold. It\\nis decomposed by a red heat into stannous sulphide and sul-\\nphur. It is used for coating the cushions of electric machines,\\nto imitate gilding, and very extensively as a pigment.\\nSTANNOUS CHLORIDE.\\nSnCl 2\\nThis compound may be prepared anhydrous by heating tin\\nin hydrochloric acid gas. Hydrogen is evolved, and a white\\nor grayish mass remains, which has a greasy appearance, and\\nis almost transparent. It fuses at 250\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at about\\n600\u00c2\u00b0. This is stannous chloride.\\nWhen tin is dissolved in hot, concentrated hydrochloric acid\\nand the limpid solution is evaporated and allowed to cool,\\nbeautiful transparent crystals are obtained, which contain", "height": "4786", "width": "3034", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0427.jp2"}, "426": {"fulltext": "420 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nSnCP 2H 2 0. This is known in commerce as tin salt or tin\\ncrystals.\\nThe crystals of stannous chloride dissolve in a small quan-\\ntity of water, forming a limpid liquid, but when treated with\\na large quantity of water, they yield a cloudy liquid, which\\nholds in suspension a small quantity of white oxychloride.\\nThe atmospheric oxygen dissolved in the water takes part in\\nthis decomposition of stannous chloride, from which it removes\\npart of the metal, a corresponding quantity of stannic chloride\\n(tetrachloride) being formed.\\nStannous chloride reduces many oxygenized and chlorinated\\ncompounds. It decomposes the salts of silver and mercury,\\nsetting free the metal. It instantly decolorizes the purple\\nsolution of potassium permanganate.\\nIf a solution of stannous chloride be added to a solution of\\ncorrosive sublimate (mercuric chloride), a white precipitate of\\ncalomel (mercurous chloride) is instantly formed. By adding\\nan excess of stannous chloride, all of the chlorine may be re-\\nmoved from the mercuric chloride, and a gray precipitate of\\nmetallic mercury will be formed.\\nStannous chloride is employed as a mordant in dyeing.\\nSTANNIC CHLORIDE (TETRACHLORIDE OF TIN).\\nSnCl*\\nIf thin tin-foil be thrown into a jar of chlorine gas, the\\nmetal will take fire, and in presence of an excess of chlorine\\nwill be converted into anhydrous stannic chloride. This is\\nliquid, and gives off white fumes in the air. It was formerly\\nknown as fuming liquor of Libavius.\\nIt is prepared by passing dry chlorine upon tin contained in\\na small retort. The anhydrous chloride condenses in the re-\\nceiver in the form of a yellow liquid. It may be decolorized\\nby rectification with a small quantity of mercury, which removes\\nthe excess of chlorine.\\nTin tetrachloride boils at 120\u00c2\u00b0. Its density is 2.28. A\\nsmall quantity of water added to it is absorbed with a hissing\\nnoise, and the formation of a crystalline deposit of a hydrate,\\nSnCl 4 5H 2 0.\\nThese crystals may also be obtained by dissolving tin in aqua\\nregia and evaporating the solution, or, again, by passing chlo-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0428.jp2"}, "427": {"fulltext": "TITANIUM. 421\\nrine into a solution of stannous chloride and concentrating the\\nsolution.\\nThe crystals of hydrated stannic chloride dissolve in water,\\nforming a clear solution.\\nCharacters of Stannous Solutions. Brown precipitates\\nare formed by both hydrogen sulphide and ammonium sulphide\\nthe precipitate dissolves in yellow ammonium sulphide.\\nPotassium hydrate forms a white precipitate, soluble in an\\nexcess of potassa ammonia yields a white precipitate, insoluble\\nin excess.\\nAn excess of stannous chloride produces a gray precipitate\\nof metallic mercury in a solution of mercuric chloride.\\nChloride of gold gives a purple precipitate (purple of Cas-\\nsius) in dilute stannous solutions.\\nCharacters of Stannic Solutions. Hydrogen sulphide and\\nammonium sulphide form yellow precipitates, soluble in a large\\nexcess of the latter reagent. Potassa, soda, and ammonia,\\nall form white precipitates, disappearing in an excess of the\\nreagent.\\nChloride of gold does not precipitate stannic solutions.\\nA sheet of iron or zinc will precipitate the tin from either\\nstannous or stannic solutions in gray scales, which assume the\\nmetallic lustre when burnished.\\nTITANIUM.\\nTi 48\\nTitanium exists in rutile, anatase, brookite, and edisonite,\\nwhich constitute four varieties of titanic oxide, and with iron\\nin titaniferous iron ores. Cubical copper-colored crystals of a\\nnitro-cyanide of titanium are frequently found in the cinders\\nof blast-furnaces in which titaniferous ores are reduced. The\\nmetal can be obtained only with great difficulty, and then in\\nthe form of powder. It manifests a remarkable affinity for\\nnitrogen.\\nTitanium forms three chlorides, TiCP, Ti 2 Cl 6 and TiCl 4\\nthere are two well-defined oxides, Ti 2 3 and TiO 2 and possibly\\na third, TiO. These compounds sufficiently characterize the\\nelement as a chemical analogue of tin.\\nTitanium Dioxide, TiO 2 as before mentioned, occurs in\\nthree different crystalline forms in nature as square prisms in\\n36", "height": "4786", "width": "3024", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0429.jp2"}, "428": {"fulltext": "422 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nrutile, square octaliedra in anatase, and orthorhombic prisms\\nin brookite. When prepared in a pure form from either of\\nthese minerals, it is a white, infusible, insoluble powder. Like\\nstannic oxide, it is the anhydride of an acid forming a well-\\nmarked series of titanates.\\nGERMANIUM.\\nGe 72.3\\nIn 1886, Winkler discovered in a rare silver ore argyrodite,\\nfound near Freiberg, a new element corresponding in proper-\\nties with one whose existence had been predicted by Mendele-\\njefF under the name ehasilicon. This metal constitutes about\\n7 per cent, of argyrodite, and has also been found in euxenite.\\nIt may be isolated by the reduction of its oxide by hydrogen\\nor carbon, or of potassium-germanium fluoride by hydrogen\\nor sodium.\\nGermanium crystallizes in brilliant regular octahedra,\\nhaving a density of 5.469, and melting at about 900\u00c2\u00b0. It\\nforms two oxides, GeO and GeO*, a sulphide GeS, a chloride\\nGeCl 4 and probably also a chloride GeCl 2 Its properties as\\nwell as most of those of its compounds agree remarkably\\nwith the predictions of Mendelejeff.\\nZIRCONIUM.\\nZr 90.4\\nThis metal also resembles tin in its chemical relations. Its\\nprincipal mineral is a silicate known as zircon. It may be\\nobtained crystallized, amorphous, and in a condition resembling\\ngraphite.\\nCrystallized zirconium may be made by fusing in a carbon\\ncrucible potassium zirconium double fluoride with aluminium.\\nOn cooling, the excess of aluminium is dissolved in dilute\\nhydrochloric acid, and zirconium remains as crystalline plates\\ncontaining small proportions of silicon and of aluminium. Its\\ndensity is 4.15, and it is less fusible than silicon.\\nZirconium forms but one chloride, ZrCl 4 which may be formed\\nby the action of chlorine on a highly-heated mixture of zirco-\\nnium oxide and charcoal. It is a white solid, which dissolves\\nin water with the formation of a hydrated oxychloride.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0430.jp2"}, "429": {"fulltext": "THORIUM. 423\\nZirconium Oxide, ZrO 2 the only known oxide, may be\\nobtained from the native silicate zircon. The pulverized\\nmineral is fused with potassium hydrate, then exhausted with\\nhydrochloric acid, and the solution evaporated to dryness to\\nseparate the silica. The residue is dissolved in water, and the\\nsolution treated with ammonia, which precipitates hydrates of\\niron and zirconium. The precipitate is treated with oxalic\\nacid, and ferric oxalate dissolves, while insoluble zirconium\\noxalate remains and yields zirconium oxide when calcined.\\nZirconium oxide is a white powder, of a density between\\n4 and 5, according to the temperature of calcination. It is\\ninsoluble in acids, with the exception of hydrofluoric and\\nsulphuric acids. It is infusible, and becomes highly incan-\\ndescent when heated. It is an excellent substitute for lime\\nin the oyxhydrogen light, and is extensively used for the\\nWelsbach light.\\nZirconium oxide acts both as a base and as the anhydride\\nof an acid forming salts analogous to the silicates.\\nTHORIUM.\\nTh 231.5\\nThorium was discovered by Berzelius, in 1828, in the min-\\neral thorite, from Norway, in which it exists as an impure\\nsilicate. It occurs in the same form in orangeite, and associ-\\nated with cerium and lanthanum as phosphate in monazite.\\nThe metal has been obtained only as a gray powder by heat-\\ning its chloride with potassium or sodium. It does not decom-\\npose water, but burns when heated in the air.\\nThorium Oxide, ThO 2 may be prepared from thorite by\\nboiling the powdered mineral with hydrochloric acid, evapor-\\nating to dryness, and exhausting the residue with boiling water.\\nAfter passing hydrogen sulphide through the filtrate, the clear\\nliquid is precipitated with ammonia. The precipitate is dis-\\nsolved in hydrochloric acid and treated with potassium sul-\\nphate a double sulphate crystallizes out, and this is redissolved\\nin water, and thorium hydrate, Th(OH) 4 precipitated by the\\naddition of ammonia.", "height": "4782", "width": "3014", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0431.jp2"}, "430": {"fulltext": "424 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe oxide obtained by igniting the hydrate is hard, gray-\\nish, and translucent. It is infusible, and is not reduced by\\ncharcoal or attacked by fused alkalies. It is dissolved only\\nby boiling sulphuric acid. When heated to incandescence it\\nemits a more brilliant light than zirconia, and is the most\\nvalued earth for the Welsbach light.\\nThorium Chloride, ThCl 4 is prepared by passing chlorine\\nover a heated mixture of the oxide with charcoal. It then\\nvolatilizes in short, white prisms. It is deliquescent, and a\\nsolution of its hydrate may be obtained by dissolving thorium\\nhydrate in hydrochloric acid. This hydrate contains ThCl*\\n8H 2 0, and, when heated, is decomposed with formation of\\nhydrochloric acid.\\nThorium forms oxysalts replacing four atoms of hydrogen\\nin the acids.\\nPLATINUM.\\nPt 194.3\\nNatural State and Treatment of Platinum Ores. The\\nonly compound of platinum found in nature is the arsenide\\nPtAs 2 known as sperrytite, which is isomorphous with pyrite\\nand is found in the nickel-mines of Sudbury, Ontario. Com-\\nmercial platinum is derived from the native metal, which is\\ngenerally found in alluvial sands. Its principal deposits are\\nin the Ural Mountains, Brazil, and California. The plati-\\nnum ore, extracted from the sand by washing, contains, in-\\ndependently of 73 to 86 per cent, of platinum, various other\\nmetals, such as iridium, palladium, rhodium, osmium, ruthenium,\\ngold, iron, and copper an alloy of osmium and iridium, and\\nvarious minerals, such as titaniferous iron, chrome iron, pyrites,\\netc. The ore is well washed to remove the sand, and treated\\nwith dilute aqua regia which dissolves the gold, iron, and cop-\\nper; it is then heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid and\\nnitric acid is gradually added. The aqua regia dissolves the\\nplatinum and certain of its accompanying metals, leaving the\\nosmium and iridium. A solution of ammonium chloride is\\nadded to the filtered liquid it produces an abundant pre-\\ncipitate of ammonium and platinum double chloride, which", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0432.jp2"}, "431": {"fulltext": "PLATINUM. 425\\ngenerally contains a small quantity of ammonium and iridium\\ndouble chloride. This precipitate is calcined at a dull-red\\nheat, and leaves a dull-gray, spongy residue. It is spongy\\nplatinum.\\nTo give coherence to this sponge and convert it into a mal-\\nleable and ductile metal, it is reduced to powder in a wooden\\nmortar and triturated with enough water to convert it into a\\nperfectly homogeneous paste. This paste is introduced into a\\nslightly-conical cylinder of brass or iron, and compressed first\\nwith a wooden piston, then by a steel rod. The compression\\nis finished by the aid of a hydraulic press, and the slightly-\\nconical cylinders so formed are heated to whiteness and forged\\nunder the hammer, as iron is forged.\\nTo obtain perfectly pure platinum, the metal is dissolved\\nin aqua regia, the excess of acid evaporated, and the residue\\nheated to 150\u00c2\u00b0 the iridium is thus converted into Ir 2 Cl 6\\nwhich remains in solution when the platinum is precipitated\\nwith ammonium chloride.\\nH. Sainte-Claire Deville and Debray extracted the metal\\nby simple fusion of the ore. The fusion is effected in a len-\\nticular cavity cut in two large masses of quick-lime, placed\\none above the other. A current of illuminating gas is di-\\nrected into this furnace, and the combustion is supported by\\na continual supply of oxygen.\\nProperties of Platinum. Platinum has a grayish-white\\nlustre. It melts only at the highest attainable temperatures.\\nThe density of the cast metal is 21.1 that of the forged metal\\n21.5. It softens at a white heat, and can then be forged and\\nwelded like iron.\\nThe experiments of H. Deville and Troost have shown that a\\nred-hot platinum tube allows hydrogen to pass through its pores.\\nPlatinum has the curious property of condensing gases on its\\nsurface, and this property is the cause of certain chemical phe-\\nnomena that were formerly attributed to mere contact of the\\nmetal.\\nIf a morsel of platinum-sponge be introduced into a small\\njar filled with an explosive mixture of oxygen and hydrogen,\\nthe gases will combine instantly, with explosion.\\nThis property is most highly developed in platinum-black,\\nfor in this form the metal exists in an extreme state of\\ndivision. It may be prepared by reducing a solution of\\nplatinic chloride by zinc or platinum di chloride may be boiled\\n36*", "height": "4781", "width": "3036", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0433.jp2"}, "432": {"fulltext": "426 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nwith potassium hydrate, and alcohol or a solution of sugar\\ngradually added to the liquid, which must be continually\\nstirred. The platinum is precipitated as a black powder.\\nPlatinum is unaltered by the air. It is not attacked by\\neither nitric, hydrochloric, or sulphuric acids, even boiling. It\\ndissolves in aqua regia. The alkaline hydrates attack it at high\\ntemperatures on contact with the air. It is the same with the\\nalkaline nitrates.\\nThere are two oxides of platinum, a monoxide, PtO, and a\\ndioxide, PtO 2\\nCHLORIDES OP PLATINUM.\\nThese are the more important compounds of platinum.\\nThere are two, a dichloride, PtCP, and a tetrachloride, PtCl*.\\nPlatinum dichloride is obtained by cautiously heating the\\ntetrachloride to 200\u00c2\u00b0. Chlorine is disengaged, and after cool-\\ning, the residue is exhausted with boiling water, which leaves\\nan olive-green powder, constituting the dichloride. When\\nammonia is added to a solution of platinum dichloride in\\nhydrochloric acid, a green, crystalline powder separates after\\nsome time. It is called green salt of Magnus, and contains\\nPtCP 2NH 3\\nIt may be regarded as the dichloride of platinoso-diammonium.\\nPt\\nH 2\\nH 2\\nH 2\\nN 2 .CP\\nIt is derived from two molecules of ammonium chloride by\\nthe substitution of an atom of diatomic platinum for two atoms\\nof hydrogen.\\nPlatinum tetrachloride, or platinic chloride, PtCl 4 is\\nformed when platinum is dissolved in aqua-regia. A red-\\nbrown solution is obtained, which, after concentration and cool-\\ning, deposits red-brown needles of hydrated platinic chloride.\\nThe crystals lose their water when heated, and are converted\\ninto a dark, red-brown mass, which constitutes the anhydrous\\nchloride PtCl 4 This body absorbs moisture when exposed to\\nthe air. It is very soluble in water, alcohol, and ether.\\nIf a solution of ammonium chloride be added to a solution\\nof platinic chloride, a yellow, crystalline precipitate of plati-\\nnum and ammonium double chloride is immediately formed.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0434.jp2"}, "433": {"fulltext": "OTHER METALS OF THE PLATINUM GROUP. 427\\nThis body is but little soluble in cold water, but more soluble\\nin boiling water, from which it is deposited in microscopic,\\nregular octahedra. It is almost insoluble in alcohol. It contains\\nPtCl*.2NIPCl\\nA yellow, crystalline precipitate of double chloride of plati-\\nnum and potassium is obtained, in the same manner, on adding\\na solution of platinic chloride to a solution of a potassium salt,\\nif the liquids be not too dilute.\\nPtCl*.2KCl\\nOTHER METALS OF THE PLATINUM\\nGROUP.\\nRhodium, ruthenium, palladium, iridium, and osmium are\\nassociated with native platinum, and are usually extracted from\\nplatinum residues. They are fusible with great difficulty, and\\nnot readily attacked by acids. Their separation from each other\\nis accomplished by tedious and complicated reactions, but, with\\nthe exception of ruthenium and rhodium, they possess certain\\nvaluable properties which have found for them applications in\\nthe arts. They combine with oxygen, forming a series of\\nfeeble bases, and a series of acid oxides. With the exception of\\nthe volatile oxides of ruthenium and osmium, these compounds\\nare decomposed by heat into metal and oxygen.\\nRhodium is less fusible than platinum, and almost insoluble\\nin aqua-regia, which, however, dissolves it if it be alloyed with\\nthe baser metals. Its specific gravity is 12.1. It forms oxides\\nRhO, Rh 2 3 and RhO 2 and a chloride Rh 2 Cl 6\\nRuthenium is a hard metal, having a density of 12. 2G at\\n0\u00c2\u00b0, and is more infusible than iridium. It is hardly attacked\\nby boiling aqua-regia. One of its most interesting compounds\\nis a volatile oxide RuO. Its chloride has the composition\\nRu 2 Cl 6\\nPalladium has the lowest melting-point of the group of\\nplatinum metals, fusing at about the same temperature as\\nwrought iron. Its specific gravity at ordinary temperatures is\\n11.4. When a bright piece of*the metal is heated in the air,\\nits surface becomes tarnished from the formation of a film of\\noxide, but at a higher temperature this oxide is again reduced", "height": "4792", "width": "3030", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0435.jp2"}, "434": {"fulltext": "428 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nto metal. The remarkable facility with which palladium ab-\\nsorbs hydrogen has already been mentioned (page 61). Pal-\\nladium forms three oxides, Pd 2 0, PdO, and PdO 2 and two\\nchlorides, PdCl 2 and PdCK\\nIridium occurs with the platinum ores in grains of platin-\\nrridium. and osmiridium. Its fusing-point is the highest after\\nosmium and ruthenium. It is very hard, and next to osmium\\nit has the highest specific gravity of any substance known, its\\ndensity being 22.38. An alloy of platinum and iridium con-\\ntaining ten per cent, of the latter metal is as hard and elastic\\nas steel, unalterable in the air, and less fusible than platinum.\\nIt is used for the points of gold pens.\\nIridium forms two oxides, lr 2 3 and IrO 2 and two chlorides,\\nIr 2 Cl 6 and IrCl 4\\nOsmium has been obtained in cubical or rhombohedral\\ncrystals having a density of 22.48. It is infusible, and when\\nstrongly heated in the air burns into a volatile oxide, OsO 4\\nwhich is dangerously poisonous. The native alloy, osmiridium,\\nis used for the points of gold pens.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0436.jp2"}, "435": {"fulltext": "ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.\\nGENEKAL IDEAS UPON THE CONSTITUTION\\nOF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS.\\nOrganic chemistry studies the history of the compounds\\nof carbon. The most simple of these are the gases carbon\\nmonoxide and carbon dioxide each contains but a single atom\\nof carbon. In this respect they resemble the inflammable gas\\nwhich is disengaged from the mud of marshes it contains one\\natom of carbon combined with four atoms of hydrogen.\\nThe gas hydrogen dicarbide or ethylene, which has already\\nbeen mentioned, contains two atoms of carbon united with four\\natoms of hydrogen. A great number of compounds are known\\nwhich contain only carbon and hydrogen, and they are called\\nhydrocarbons or carburetted hydrogens. The atoms of carbon\\nare aggregated in them, together with the atoms of hydrogen.\\nOther elements are often added to the preceding, forming\\nmolecules more or less complex. The carbon atoms form as it\\nwere the framework, and the carbon compounds possess pecu-\\nliar properties precisely on account of the great facility with\\nwhich the atoms of carbon accumulate in one and the same\\nmolecule, and link themselves in some manner one to another.\\nThe following developments will give some idea of the mode\\nof formation and the structure of organic molecules.\\nThe most Simple Organic Compounds. Their Composi-\\ntion proves Carbon to be a Tetratomic Element. The most\\nsimple of the hydrocarbons is marsh gas.\\nWhen this gas is submitted to the action of chlorine, one or\\nmore atoms of hydrogen may be removed from it they com-\\nbine with the chlorine and are disengaged in the form of hy-\\ndrochloric acid gas. The curious fact, first noticed by Dumas,\\nis then observed, that each atom of hydrogen which is removed\\nis replaced by an atom of chlorine. This substitution gives\\n429", "height": "4774", "width": "3016", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0437.jp2"}, "436": {"fulltext": "430 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nrise to a series of chlorinated compounds, which present the\\nmost simple relations with marsh gas. The latter contains only\\ncarbon and hydrogen. The chlorine compounds derived from\\nit by substitution, form with it the following series\\nCH 4 marsh gas, or methane.\\nCH 3 C1 monochloromethane (methyl chloride).\\nCH 2 CI 2 dichloromethane (methylene chloride).\\nCHC1 3 trichloromethane (chloroform).\\nCC1 4 tetrachloromethane (carbon tetrachloride).\\nIn each of these compounds a single atom of carbon is united\\nwith four monatomic atoms. We have seen that the atoms of\\nchlorine and hydrogen are equivalent as regards their power\\nof combination. In the preceding compounds, the sum of the\\natoms of hydrogen and chlorine which are combined with one\\natom of carbon is invariably four, and this number cannot be\\nexceeded. But two atoms of a monatomic element may be re-\\nplaced by one atom of a diatomic element. One atom of car-\\nbon, which unites with four atoms of hydrogen or chlorine,\\nmay unite with two atoms of oxygen to form carbon dioxide\\nCO 2\\nand this compound is saturated like those preceding, for one\\natom of oxygen is equivalent to two atoms of hydrogen or\\nchlorine. In carbon monoxide, CO the affinity of carbon is\\nnot satisfied hence this gas will unite directly with an atom\\nof oxygen to form carbon dioxide, or with two atoms of chlo-\\nrine to form carbonyl chloride.\\nC0 C1 2\\nIn ammonia, one atom of nitrogen is combined with three\\natoms of hydrogen nitrogen is triatomic hence it may replace\\nthree atoms of hydrogen. A body is known which represents\\nmarsh gas, in which three atoms of hydrogen are replaced by\\none atom of nitrogen. This is the dangerous poison known as\\nprussic or hydrocyanic acid, and the composition of which is\\nrepresented by the formula\\nCN H\\nIn all of the compounds which have just been mentioned a\\nsingle atom of carbon is invariably united to a number of ele-\\nments of which the sum of the atomicities is four, and never\\nmore nor less than that number. It is then reasonable to\\nconclude that in them carbon plays the part of a tetratomic", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0438.jp2"}, "437": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 431\\nelement. This important fact, first exposed by Kekule, can be\\nclearly understood if we represent the preceding atomic formulae\\nin a graphic manner, that is, by symbols so arranged as to show\\nthe reciprocal relations of the atoms and their mutual satura-\\ntion. In these formulae a saturated atomicity is indicated by\\na line of union, two atomicities by two lines, etc.\\nH H H CI\\nH-C-H H-C-Cl Cl-C-Cl Cl-C-Cl\\ni i i i\\nH H CI CI\\nMarsh gas. Monochloro- Trichloromethane. Carbon\\nmethane. (Chloroform.) tetrachloride.\\nCl\\n0=C=0 C1-C=0 H-C^N\\nCarbon dioxide. Carbonyl chloride. Hydrocyanic acid.\\nThere exists a very volatile, ethereal liquid, which represents\\nmarsh gas, in which one atom of hydrogen is replaced by iodine.\\nIt is the body known as methyl iodide, CH 3 I.\\nIf this body be heated for a long time in a sealed tube with\\na solution of potassium hydrate, potassium iodide will be grad-\\nually formed, and the solution will contain a volatile, spirituous\\nliquid which can easily be separated by distillation, for it boils\\nat 66\u00c2\u00b0. It is the same body which constitutes the most vola-\\ntile of the liquids which are formed in the destructive distilla-\\ntion of wood it is called wood spirit, and its chemical name is\\nmethyl alcohol.\\nThe reaction by which it is formed is very simple. The\\niodine of the methyl iodide combines with the potassium but\\nwhen this iodine is removed, the carbon remains united to but\\nthree atoms of hydrogen. It is no longer saturated, and it\\ntherefore combines with the oxygen and hydrogen which were\\nunited with the potassium in the potassium hydrate.\\nCH 3 I KOH CH 3 .OH KI\\nIt will be seen that the atom of oxygen alone does not com-\\nbine with the group CH 3 which is called methyl. It is accom-\\npanied by an atom of hydrogen, with which it remains united\\nin the new compound which is called methyl hydrate or\\nmethyl alcohol. As has been said, this oxygen replaces the\\niodine in the iodide of methyl, but as it possesses two atomici-\\nties, and the carbon already united with H 3 has only one free\\natomicity, the atom of oxygen can only fix upon the carbon by", "height": "4796", "width": "3029", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0439.jp2"}, "438": {"fulltext": "432 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\none of its atomicities the other remains saturated by the atom of\\nhydrogen. The latter is then drawn into the combination, and is\\nunited, not to the carbon, but to the oxygen. The reaction takes\\nplace as if the atom of iodine were replaced by the group Ay-\\ndroxyl (OH) which is monatomic. Hence the relations between\\nthe atoms in methyl hydrate are represented by the formula\\nH\\nH-C-(OH)\\nH\\nIf we compare the constitution of the three bodies CH 3 C1,\\nCH 3 I, CH 3 (OH), we notice that they contain a common ele-\\nment, namely, the group CH 3 which is united to chlorine, to\\niodine, or to hydroxyl. Besides this, experiment has shown\\nthat methyl iodide can be transformed into the hydrate. The\\ngroup methyl hence presents a certain stability and can pass\\nfrom one combination to another. This is expressed by saying\\nthat it is a radical.\\nIf methyl iodide be heated with an aqueous solution of\\nammonia, among the products formed will be found the hydri-\\nodide of a base which represents ammonia in which one atom\\nof hydrogen is replaced by the group methyl. Potassium\\nhydrate sets this base at liberty. At ordinary temperatures\\nand pressures, it constitutes a gas, very soluble in water and\\npossessing a strong ammoniacal odor. It is methylamine. The\\nreaction by which it is formed is as follows the iodine with-\\ndraws one atom of hydrogen from the ammonia, which atom\\nof hydrogen is replaced by the group CH 3\\nCH 3 I NH 3 CH 3 (NH 2 ).HI.\\nMethylamine hydriodide.\\nIn methylamine then, the fourth atomicity of the carbon\\natom is saturated by nitrogen, but as this element is triatomic\\nit brings into the combination two atoms of hydrogen which\\nsaturate its two other atomicities. It may then be said that\\nin methylamine the fourth atomicity of carbon is saturated by\\nthe group NH 2 This is expressed in the following formulae.\\nH H\\nH-C-N=H 2 H-C-(NH 2\\nA A\\nMethylamine.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0440.jp2"}, "439": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 433\\nFormation of Hydrocarbons containing Several Atoms\\nof Carbon. The preceding compounds contain but a single\\natom of carbon, but starting with one of these compounds we\\nmay produce more complicated organic molecules containing\\nseveral carbon atoms.\\nIf methyl iodide be heated with sodium in sealed tubes,\\nsodium iodide is formed, and a gas, a hydrocarbon, is confined\\nunder great pressure in the tubes. This gas escapes, and may\\nbe collected, when the drawn-out points of the tubes are opened\\nin the blow-pipe flame. It is dimethyl, and has been formed\\naccording to the following reaction\\n2CH 3 I Na 2 C 2 H 6 2NaI\\nMethyl iodide. Dimethyl, or ethane.\\nTwo molecules of methyl iodide have entered into the reac-\\ntion, and the whole of the carbon of these two molecules is\\nfound in one molecule of the hydrocarbon, C 2 H 6 (CH 3 2\\nwhich results.\\nOn losing their iodine the two methyl groups combine to-\\ngether. One of the carbon atoms attracts the other, exchanging\\nwith it the fourth atomicity set free by the loss of the iodine.\\nHence the iodine of one of the molecules of methyl iodide has\\nbeen replaced by the carbon of the other, which fixes upon the\\ngroup CH 3 by a single one of its atomicities, and at the same\\ntime brings into the combination the three atoms of hydrogen\\nwhich saturate the other three atomicities. This is expressed\\nin the following formulae\\nH H H H\\nH-C-H H-C-I H-C-C-H\\ni i ii\\nH H HH\\nMethane (methyl hydride). Methyl iodide. Dimethyl (ethyl hydride or ethane).\\nThe mode of generation of this new hydrocarbon, which\\ncontains two atoms of carbon, is worthy of consideration. It\\nresults from the substitution of a methyl group for one atom of\\nhydrogen in methyl hydride. One atom of carbon, accompa-\\nnied by three atoms of hydrogen, fixes upon another atom of\\ncarbon of which it completes the saturation. By this exchange\\nof atomicities each of the carbon atoms retains only three affin-\\nities which are satisfied by three atoms of hydrogen. The\\ntwo methyl groups, CH 3 CH 3 C 2 H 6 are then united by\\ntheir carbon atoms, and are held together by the affinity of\\nt cc 37", "height": "4788", "width": "3026", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0441.jp2"}, "440": {"fulltext": "434 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ncarbon for carbon. In methyl hydrate the group hydroxyl is\\nbound to the group CH 3 by the affinity of carbon for oxygen.\\nIn methylamine, the group NH 2 is united to the group CH 3 by\\nthe affinity of carbon for nitrogen. In dimethyl, it is carbon\\nwhich is united to carbon. This has before been expressed by\\nsaying that the atoms of this element possess a faculty to accu-\\nmulate in one and the same molecule.\\nIt is in this curious property that must be sought the reason\\nfor the existence of those innumerable compounds, more or less\\nrich in atoms of carbon, which constitute the immense field of\\norganic chemistry.\\nBut it is important to study by new examples this mode of\\nformation of organic compounds.\\nDimethyl, which we have seen is produced by the action of\\nsodium upon methyl iodide, is also known as ethyl hydride. If\\none of its atoms of hydrogen be replaced by an atom of chlo-\\nrine, ethyl chloride, C 2 H 5 C1, is obtained. Ethyl iodide, C 2 H 5 I,\\nrepresents ethyl hydride, in which one atom of hydrogen has\\nbeen replaced by iodine.\\nIf a mixture of methyl iodide and ethyl iodide be heated\\nwith sodium, among the products of the reaction will be found\\na gas containing C 3 H 8 this gas is methyl-ethyl, and it results\\nfrom the combination of methyl, CH 3 with the group ethyl,\\nC 2 H 5 It represents ethyl iodide in which the atom of iodine\\nhas been replaced by a methyl group, the carbon of the latter\\ngroup being fixed by one of its atomicities to one of the carbon\\natoms of the group C 2 H 5\\nIn the same manner, by heating a mixture of propyl iodide,\\nC 3 H 7 I, and methyl iodide with sodium, we may add to the\\npropyl group, C 3 H 7 a new atom of carbon escorted by its three\\natoms of hydrogen.\\nHH HHH HHHH\\nii ill i i i i\\nH-C-C-I H-C-C-C-H H-C-C-C-C-H, etc.\\nii ill i i i i\\nHH HHH HHHH\\nEthyl iodide. Methyl-ethyl (propane). Methyl-propyl (butane).\\nNothing prevents the continuation of these additions of car-\\nbon to incomplete hydrocarbons, that is, to the residues of the\\nsubtraction of iodine from the saturated iodides, of which the\\nfollowing are the names and formulae\\nCH 3 I C 2 H 5 I C 3 H 7 I C 4 H 9 I C 5 H n I, etc.\\nMethyl iodide. Ethyl iodide. Propyl iodide. Butyl iodide. Amyl iodide,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0442.jp2"}, "441": {"fulltext": "INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 435\\nThe following hydrocarbons would then be formed succes-\\nsively\\nCH 3 -CH3 C 2 H 5 -CH3 C*H*-CH3 OH 9 -CH* C 5 H n -CH 3 etc.\\nMethyl-methyl Methyl-ethyl Methyl-propyl Methyl-butyl Methyl-amyl\\n(Ethane). (Propane). (Butane). (Pentane). (Hexane).\\nIn all of these cases, the atoms of carbon united together\\nform, as it were, a continued chain, and the atoms of hydrogen\\nare grouped around them as satellites.\\nHomologous Bodies. Very simple relations exist between\\nthe hydrocarbons of which we have just studied the mode of\\nformation. They form a series of which each member differs\\nfrom the preceding by the addition of CH 2 These relations\\nwill appear clearly if the formulae already given be replaced\\nby the crude formulae\\nC H 4 methane.\\nC 2 H 6 ethane.\\nC 3 H 8 propane.\\nC 4 H 10 butane.\\nC 5 H 12 pentane.\\nThis group of hydrocarbons constitutes what is called the\\nhomologous series of marsh gas, or the series C n H 2n+2\\nMany other series are known, the terms of which are related\\nto each other in the same manner, and the bodies which form\\npart of them may present the greatest differences in composition.\\nSometimes they contain only carbon and hydrogen. Again,\\nthey may contain oxygen or nitrogen in addition to these ele-\\nments in this case the former elements are united to carbon by\\none or more of their atomicities, as has already been indicated.\\nIn any organic body whatever, if an atom of hydrogen united\\nwith carbon be replaced by a methyl group, CH 3 the superior\\nhomologue of that body is obtained, that is, the compound which\\ndiffers from the original body by the addition of CH 2 There\\nis a great resemblance in physical and chemical properties\\nbetween such homologues.\\nSome of these homologous series will be indicated farther on.\\nComposition and Classification of Organic Compounds.\\nThe elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are\\nthe most common constituents of organic compounds. Those\\nwhich occur in the vegetable kingdom consist, for the most\\npart, of the three first named, although there are also many\\nnitrogenous bodies of vegetable origin. Animal matter, as a", "height": "4792", "width": "3033", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0443.jp2"}, "442": {"fulltext": "436 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nrule, contains all four of the elements mentioned and not in-\\nfrequently sulphur and phosphorus in addition. But nearly\\nall of the other elements can be introduced artificially into\\norganic compounds it is thus with chlorine, bromine, iodine,\\narsenic, boron, silicon, and a great number of the metals.\\nIn uniting with carbon, in different manners and in various\\nproportions, these elements form an innumerable multitude of\\ncompounds, each of which has a fixed composition and definite\\nproperties. These bodies constitute the chemical species, so to\\nsay. When submitted to the action of reagents, all may be\\nmodified in a thousand manners, and transformed into each\\nother. Sometimes their composition is simplified, one or more\\ncarbon atoms being removed from the chain. Sometimes it is\\ncomplicated by synthesis that is, the addition of new atoms\\nof carbon.\\nAll these bodies contain carbon, and are distinguished\\n1. By the number of carbon atoms contained in the\\nmolecule.\\n2. By the nature and arrangement of the other atoms com-\\nbined with the carbon.\\n3. By the arrangement of all the atoms in the molecule.\\nThe facts relative to the atomic composition of organic com-\\npounds are obtained by elementary analysis and by the deter-\\nmination of the molecular weight.\\nELEMENTARY ANALYSIS.\\nThe object of elementary analysis is the determination of\\nthe nature and proportion of the elements contained in any\\ngiven organic body. We can give here but a summary descrip-\\ntion of the processes employed, considering only those which\\nhave for object the determination of carbon, hydrogen, and ni-\\ntrogen. Oxygen is almost invariably estimated by difference.\\nThe percentages of carbon and hydrogen are determined in\\none operation. In case nitrogen or other elements are present,\\nthe relative quantity of each of these must be ascertained\\nby separate operations.\\nDetermination of Carbon and Hydrogen. To determine\\nthe proportion of carbon and hydrogen contained in 100 parts\\nof any given organic substance, the carbon is converted into\\ncarbon dioxide, which is collected and weighed, and the hydro-\\ngen into water, which is condensed and weighed. These opera-\\ntions are conducted according to a method devised by Liebig.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0444.jp2"}, "443": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS. 437\\nFor this end, the organic matter, previously dried with care, is\\nburned with an excess of cupric oxide. The operation is exe-\\ncuted in a combustion-tube of hard glass, which is wrapped with\\na spiral of metallic foil to prevent it from bending and swell-\\ning under the influence of the heat. Well-dried cupric oxide\\nis introduced into the tube, then an intimate mixture of the\\nsubstance to be analyzed with a large excess of the same oxide,\\nand the remainder of the tube is filled with pure cupric oxide.\\nThe tube is then placed in a combustion furnace, and its\\nopen extremity is put in communication with (1) an U tube, jg\\n(Fig. 120), containing fragments of calcium chloride in the first\\nbranch, and pumice-stone impregnated with sulphuric acid in\\nthe second; (2) a tube with five bulbs, A, called Liebig s potash\\nbulbs, containing a concentrated solution of potassium hydrate,\\nand followed by a small U tube, containing pumice-stone im-\\npregnated with potassium hydrate in the first branch, and frag-\\nments of potassium hydrate in the second. These different\\ntubes have first been accurately weighed. When the appa-\\nratus is arranged, the combustion- tube is slowly heated, com-\\nmencing at the extremity B, and gradually extending the heat\\nso that each part of the tube is successively heated to redness.\\nThe water formed by the combustion is collected in the first\\nU tube, the carbon dioxide is absorbed by the potassium hy-\\ndrate in the bulbs. When the operation is terminated, a rub-\\nber tube connected with an oxygen reservoir is slipped over the\\ndrawn-out end of the combustion tube which is then crushed\\nwithin the rubber tube. An excess of oxygen is then passed\\nthrough the combustion-tube, in order to drive out the traces\\nof carbon dioxide and aqueous vapor which it contains at the\\nend of the combustion. It is then only necessary to weigh the\\nwater tube and the carbon dioxide tubes. The increase in\\nweight which is found indicates, on one hand, the quantity of\\nwater, and on the other the quantity of carbon dioxide, pro-\\nduced by the combustion of the organic matter. The compo-\\nsition of water and of carbon dioxide being known, it is easy\\nto deduce from the weight of these two bodies the quantities\\nof hydrogen and carbon contained in the analyzed substance,\\nand consequently the proportion of these two elements con-\\ntained in 100 parts of that substance.\\nFig 120 represents the operation towards its close: the\\ncombustion-tube is in the gas-furnace, B, and communicates,\\non the right with the tubes A, i destined to receive the pro-\\n37*", "height": "4793", "width": "3028", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0445.jp2"}, "444": {"fulltext": "438\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0446.jp2"}, "445": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS.\\n439\\nducts of the combustion, on the left with two large U tubes,\\nthe first of which is filled with pumice-stone impregnated with\\npotassium hydrate to absorb traces of carbon dioxide, the\\nsecond with pumice-stone saturated with sulphuric acid to\\nabsorb moisture. Through these tubes is passed the oxygen,\\nat the close of the operation, to expel the last portions of carbon\\ndioxide and vapor of water.\\nWhen the substance contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,\\nthe proportion of oxygen is the difference between the total\\npercentage of carbon and hydrogen found and 100.\\nFig. 121.\\nDetermination of Nitrogen. Nitrogen may be determined\\nby several methods. One of these is to burn a given weight\\nof the nitrogenous substance with an excess of cupric oxide.\\nThe carbon of the substance is converted into carbon dioxide\\nthe hydrogen is converted into water the nitrogen is disen-\\ngaged. The gases, nitrogen and carbon dioxide, are received\\nin a graduated jar standing on the mercury-trough and con-\\ntaining potassium hydrate. The carbon dioxide is absorbed,\\nthe nitrogen remains. At the close of the operation, the last\\ntraces of nitrogen are expelled by a current of carbon dioxide.\\nThe volume of nitrogen is then measured, and its weight de-\\nduced from its volume (Dumas).\\nAnother process (Fig. 121) consists in decomposing the\\nnitrogenous organic matter with an alkali at a high tempera-\\nture. By this means all of the nitrogen is converted into\\nammonia. The substance is intimately mixed with soda lime,\\nthat is, lime impregnated with caustic soda. The mixture is\\nheated to redness in a tube of hard glass, and the ammonia is", "height": "4766", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0447.jp2"}, "446": {"fulltext": "440 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nreceived in a tube with three bulbs containing dilute hydro-\\nchloric acid. Ammonium chloride is formed when the opera-\\ntion is terminated, the liquid containing the salt is mixed with\\na solution of platinic chloride. It is then evaporated and\\nexhausted with alcohol, which leaves the platinum and ammo-\\nnium double chloride, 2(NH 4 C1) PtCl 4 The latter is col-\\nlected upon a tared filter, then washed and dried. From its\\nweight is calculated that of the nitrogen contained in the\\norganic substance (Will and Varrentrapp).\\nThe ammonia disengaged may also be received in 10 cubic\\ncentimetres of a normal solution of sulphuric acid, that is, an\\nacid liquor containing a known quantity of sulphuric acid in\\na determined volume.\\nThe strength of this acid is determined by neutralizing 10\\nc.c. of it with a dilute alkaline solution of known strength and\\nnoting the volume of the latter required. The same operation\\nis repeated with the 10 c.c. of which the acid has been par-\\ntially neutralized by the ammonia. The quantity of ammonia\\ncorresponds to the difference between the volumes of the alka-\\nline liquid employed in these two operations, and can easily be\\ncalculated by simple proportion (Peligot).\\nStill another mode of estimating nitrogen, devised by Kjel-\\ndahl, depends upon the fact that the nitrogen of organic bodies\\nis quantitatively converted into ammonia, when such bodies\\nare heated with strong sulphuric acid. After an excess of caus-\\ntic soda has been added to neutralize the acid, the ammonia\\nliberated is distilled off and estimated as above described.\\nDetermination of the Molecular Weight of Organic Sub-\\nstances. Elementary analysis permits the determination of\\nthe centesimal composition of organic substances. This is\\nindispensable, but it is insufficient for the establishment of\\ntheir atomic composition, that is, the number of atoms of car-\\nbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen which are contained in a\\nsingle molecule of a given organic compound. But if the\\nweight of the molecule be known (hydrogen being taken as\\nunity), it is easy to deduce the atomic composition from the\\nfigures given by elementary analysis, as will be seen by the\\nfollowing example. By elementary analysis it is found that\\n100 parts of acetic acid contain\\nCarbon 40.\\nHydrogen 6.67\\nOxygen 53.33\\n100.00", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0448.jp2"}, "447": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS. 441\\nOn the other hand, methods which will be described have\\nshown that the molecular weight of acetic acid is 60 that is to\\nsay, the total weight of the atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and\\noxygen contained in a molecule of acetic acid, is 60.\\nHence by the following proportions\\nIf 100 parts acetic acid contain 40 of carbon, 60 parts contain x.\\n6.67 of hydrogen, y.\\nu\\n53.33 of oxygen\\nFrom which, x 24 y 4 z 32.\\nHence 24 represents the weight of the atoms of C contained in a molecule\\nof acetic acid.\\n4 represents the weight of the atoms of H contained in a molecule of acetic\\nacid.\\n32 represents the weight of the atoms of O contained in a molecule of acetic\\nacid.\\nBy dividing these numbers by the weights of the respective\\natoms, the number of atoms of C, H, and O contained in a\\nmolecule of acetic acid is readily determined.\\n24 -s- 12 2 atoms of carbon.\\n4-j-l 4 hydrogen.\\n32 -r- 16 2 oxygen.\\nHence the formula of acetic acid is C 2 H 4 2\\nAfter the analysis of an organic substance has been made, it\\nis only necessary to determine the molecular weight in order\\nto establish the atomic composition. Several processes are em-\\nployed for this determination, of which the most convenient,\\nwhen applicable, is the determination of the vapor density.\\nThe vapor density is most conveniently determined by\\nmeasuring the volume occupied by the vapor of a known\\nweight of the substance and dividing this weight by that of\\nan equal volume of hydrogen at the same temperature and\\npressure. An apparatus devised by Victor Meyer and shown\\nin Fig. 122 is generally employed for this purpose. The\\ninner vessel b is heated by the vapor of some liquid whose\\nboiling-point is considerably higher than that of the given\\nsubstance. When the temperature becomes constant, which\\nis indicated by air ceasing to escape through f y a graduated\\ntube filled with water is inverted over the mouth of A\\nsmall stoppered tube filled with a weighed quantity of the\\nsubstance has been supported by the glass rod c A, and is\\ncaused to fall by slightly withdrawing the rod. On reaching\\nthe bottom the substance instantly volatilizes, and the vapor\\ndisplaces an equal volume of air of the same temperature", "height": "4790", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0449.jp2"}, "448": {"fulltext": "442\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nand pressure this escapes through and is collected and\\nmeasured in the graduated tube, and its volume under normal\\nconditions calculated by aid of the formula\\n(1 .003665 t) 760\\nin which v is the measured volume, P the pressure under\\nwhich the air is measured, h\\nthe tension of aqueous vapor\\nat the temperature, t, at which\\nthe air is measured. The\\nweight of an equal volume\\nof hydrogen is then divided\\ninto the weight of substance\\ntaken, and the quotient is the\\nrequired density. The vapor\\ndensity of acetic acid com-\\npared to hydrogen is thus\\nfound to be 30 the molecular\\nweight corresponding would\\nbe 60.\\nOther methods must be em-\\nployed for determining the\\nmolecular weights of sub-\\nstances that cannot be vapor-\\nized without decomposition,\\nand advantage has been taken\\nof the fact that in dilute solu-\\ntions substances behave in\\nmany respects like gases or\\nvapors. The most accurate\\nand most convenient of the\\nmethods based on this prin-\\nciple is the cryoscopic method,\\ndevised by Raoult. When\\na dilute solution of a com-\\npound is cooled to its freezing-\\npoint, the latter is found to be\\nlower than the freezing-point\\nof the pure solvent. Within\\ncertain limits of concentration this depression of the freezing-\\npoint is directly proportional to the weight of the substance\\nFig. 122.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0450.jp2"}, "449": {"fulltext": "ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS.\\n443\\ndissolved, and has been shown by Raoult to be proportional\\nto the number of molecules of the substance dissolved in a\\ncertain weight of the solvent, and independent of the nature\\nof the substance. Hence, if several substances in equimo-\\nlecular proportions be dissolved in like quantities of the\\nsame solvent, each will produce the same depression of the\\nfreezing-point. The depression produced by the number of\\ngrammes corresponding to the molecular weight of the sub-\\nstance in 100 grammes of the solvent is called the molecular\\ndepression of the solvent different solvents have different\\nmolecular depressions. If this constant be known for any\\nsolvent, the molecular weight of a substance may be de-\\nduced by determining the depression pro-\\nduced by a known proportion of the\\nsubstance. If c be the depression ob-\\nserved when p grammes of the sub-\\nstances are dissolved in I grammes of the\\nsolvent, then grammes of the sub-\\nstance must be dissolved in 100 grammes\\nof solvent to produce the same depression.\\nIf T represent the molecular depression\\nof the solvent and M the required molec-\\n100 p\\nular weight,\\nI\\nM c T, and\\nM\\n100 p T\\nIc\\nFig. 123 represents an apparatus, de-\\nscribed by Beckmann, for accurate meas-\\nurements of the depression of the freezing-\\npoint, e is a wide tube having a capacity\\nof about 25 c. c. up to the lateral tube,\\nand closed by a cork carrying a stout\\nplatinum stirring-rod and a thermometer\\ngraduated to .01\u00c2\u00b0. e is surrounded by a\\nwider tube, d, which is fixed in the metal p IG- 123.\\nlid of the vessel a, which contains a liquid\\ncooled to about 5\u00c2\u00b0 below the freezing-point of the solvent.\\nThe annular space between e and d contains air, which pre-\\nvents too rapid cooling.\\nA weighed quantity, about 15 grammes, of the solvent is\\nintroduced into e, and constantly stirred with the rod until it", "height": "4788", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0451.jp2"}, "450": {"fulltext": "444 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nbegins to freeze as soon as the temperature becomes con-\\nstant the freezing-point is noted. The tube e is now with-\\ndrawn and the solvent allowed to melt, when the tube is\\nreplaced, and a weighed quantity of the substance is dropped\\nin through the lateral tube. The freezing-point of the solu-\\ntion is noted, and the difference between the two readings is\\nthe depression.\\nWhen for any reason neither of the methods already de-\\nscribed can be applied to determine the molecular weight, a\\nchemical method may be employed. We will again con-\\nsider acetic acid. Salts may be formed with this acid, and\\nwe know that these salts contain one atom of metal. We may\\nthen analyze silver acetate. 100 parts of that salt contain\\n64.67 parts of silver. This fact being known, it is easy to deter-\\nmine the molecular weight of silver acetate. Since the latter\\ncontains one atom of silver, we can conclude, if 64.67 parts of\\nsilver are contained in 100 parts of silver acetate, 108 parts\\nof silver, that is, one atom, are contained in x parts of silver\\nacetate whence x 167. This number represents the molec-\\nular weight of silver acetate. That x f acetic acid may be de-\\nduced by substituting the atomic weight of hydrogen for that\\nof silver, which gives for the molecular weight of acetic acid 60.\\nAnalogous operations and reasoning permit the determina-\\ntion of the molecular weights of bodies playing the part of\\nbases. They are combined with an acid, the molecular weight\\nof which is known, and the composition of the combination\\nfurnishes the data for the calculation of the molecular weight\\nof the base. This method can be applied in a large number\\nof analogous cases, and presents a great generality.\\nDetermination of Melting-Points and Boiling-Points.\\nA knowledge of the color, density, crystalline form, tempera-\\ntures of freezing and boiling, and other physical constants\\nof carbon compounds, is of importance not only as means of\\nidentification, but in the development of the theory which\\nshall throw light on the influence of composition on proper-\\nties. Many carbon compounds are fusible and volatile with-\\nout decomposition, and the exact temperatures at which these\\nchanges of state occur are highly characteristic, and are\\ndetermined with great care.\\nFor the determination of the melting-point, a small quan-\\ntity of the substance in fine powder is introduced into a\\ncapillary tube closed at one end, which is then attached by", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0452.jp2"}, "451": {"fulltext": "ISOMERISM, METAMERISM, POLYMERISM.\\n445\\nthe side of a chemical thermometer so that the substance\\nshall be on the same level as the bulb a caoutchouc band\\nor a fine platinum wire keeps the capillary tube in position.\\nThe thermometer is then supported over a beaker, b (Fig.\\n124), in which the thermometer bulb and substance are just\\nimmersed in a liquid of high boiling-point, such as sulphuric\\nacid or paraffin oil. The whole is cautiously heated while agi-\\ntating by the stirrer s, and the temperature of fusion is noted.\\nFig. 124.\\nFig. 125.\\nBoiling-points are determined by distilling a small quantity\\nof the substance in a Wurtz distilling tube 1 (Fig. 125),\\nwhich is a small, long-necked flask, with a side tube, s,\\nthrough the cork of which passes the thermometer t. It is\\nadvisable that the neck of the flask should be so Ions: that\\nthe whole mercurial column at the given boiling point is\\nsurrounded by the vapor.\\nISOMERISM, METAMERISM, POLYMERISM.\\nElementary analysis demonstrates that many bodies which\\ndiffer in their physical and chemical properties, possess ex-\\nactly the same centesimal composition. Such bodies are said\\nto be isomeric. Two kinds of isomerism exist. Sometimes\\nthe isomeric bodies contain the same number of similar atoms\\nin molecules of the same size, and differ only by the arrange-\\nment of these atoms sometimes they contain similar atoms\\n38", "height": "4789", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0453.jp2"}, "452": {"fulltext": "446 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nunited in the same proportion, but not in the same number,\\nin molecules of unequal magnitude.\\nIn both cases the centesimal composition is the same, for it\\ndepends only on the relative number of the atoms.\\nThe first kind of isomerism constitutes metamerism; the\\nsecond, polymerism. Acetic acid and methyl formate are an\\nexample of two metameric bodies. Each contains 2 atoms of\\ncarbon, 4 of hydrogen, and 2 of oxygen their molecules are\\nequal in size, but different in atomic structure. The latter fact\\nmay be expressed by the following formulae\\nC 2 H 3 O.OH acetic acid\\nCH 3 O.OCH methyl formate\\nThe first expresses that acetic acid contains a group of atoms,\\nC 2 H 3 0, acetyl, which is united with hydroxyl, OH the second,\\nthat methyl formate contains a group, CHO, formyl, which is\\nunited with oxymethyl, CH 3 0. The difference in the atomic\\narrangement becomes evident, if the preceding formulae be\\ndeveloped in the graphic manner.\\nO-H O-CH 3\\n0=0 c=o\\nI I\\nCH 3 H\\nAcetic acid. Methyl formate.\\nThe theory of atomicity has thus enabled to discover the\\natomic structure of a great number of combinations, and to\\nexplain numerous isomerisms.\\nAcetic acid and glucose or grape-sugar present an example\\nof polymerism. Both contain the atoms of carbon, hydrogen,\\nand oxygen, united together in the same proportions, but the\\nmolecule of the second contains three times as many of each\\nas that of the first.\\nC 2 H 4 2 acetic acid.\\n3 X C 2 H*0 2 C 6 H 12 6 glucose.\\nAmong the more important and better known cases of po-\\nlymerism, may be mentioned the numerous hydrocarbons which\\npresent the centesimal composition of ethylene or olefiant gas,\\nand which differ from it by the regularly increasing number of\\ntheir atoms of carbon and hydrogen. These bodies form the\\nfollowing homologous series\\nC 2 I1 4 ethylene, C 3 H 6 propylene. C 4 H 8 butylene, C 5 H 10 amylene.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0454.jp2"}, "453": {"fulltext": "FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. 447\\nWithin recent years chemists have been called upon to ex-\\nplain still another kind of isomerism the atoms constituting\\nthe molecules of different substances may be not only the\\nsame in kind and number, they may be even similarly grouped.\\nThus there are three acids known to have the formula COOH.\\nCH(OH).CH(OH).COOH, but they differ markedly in cer-\\ntain physical properties. In such cases it is now generally\\nheld that the differences are caused by different arrangement\\nof the atoms in space. (See page 614.)\\nFUNCTIONS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS.\\nIn the study of mineral chemistry it has been seen that\\nbodies present great differences in properties, according to their\\ncomposition. Some are simple and apt to enter into combina-\\ntion others are compound and indifferent the first are more\\nor less energetic in their affinities, the others saturated and\\nsatisfied. In one case, we have examined either more or less\\npowerful acids or bases, some of which are hydroxides, as\\npotassa and soda, others are oxides, as those of lead and\\nsilver. In the other case we have studied the salts result-\\ning from the union of the former bodies.\\nIn organic chemistry we again encounter various kinds of\\nbodies which have different functions, according to their com-\\nposition.\\nIt may be said, in a general manner, that the properties of\\ncompound bodies depend upon the nature of the atoms and\\ntheir arrangement in the molecule. In treating of isomerism,\\nthe influence of the latter condition has been indicated that\\nof the former is still more powerful.\\nWater and potassium hydrate are both constituted, and in\\nan analogous manner, of three elementary atoms. Each con-\\ntains one atom of oxygen united to two monatomic atoms.\\nHOH KOH\\nWater. Potassium hj drate.\\nBut what a difference in their properties But may not\\nthis be expected when it is considered that one contains the\\nenergetic metal potassium, in the place occupied in the other\\nby the light gas lwdrogen Is the difference between potassa\\nand water greater than that between potassium and hydrogen", "height": "4798", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0455.jp2"}, "454": {"fulltext": "448 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nAnd if for the two atoms of hydrogen we substitute two atoms\\nof chlorine, is it not to be expected that hypochlorous oxide\\nCl-O-Cl\\nthe molecule of which is similar in structure to that of water,\\nshall differ from the latter in its properties as much as chlo-\\nrine differs from hydrogen It is thus that the nature of the\\nelements contained in compound bodies is the dominant condi-\\ntion in the manifestation of their properties.\\nThe following considerations are of a nature to demonstrate\\nthe truth of this proposition inasmuch as concerns organic\\ncompounds\\nMONATOMIC RADICALS.\\nSaturated Hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons belonging\\nto the series of marsh gas are all saturated. Consider, for\\nexample, C 2 H 6 all of the atomicities of two atoms of carbon\\nare satisfied by the union of the latter together and with six\\natoms of hydrogen.\\nHH\\nH-C-C-H\\ni i\\nHH\\nEthane, or ethyl hydride.\\nIt is the same with all of its homologues the hydrides of\\npropyl, butyl, amyl, etc., are all saturated hydrocarbons as will\\nbe seen by developing the formula of any one of them, pentane,\\nfor example\\nHHHHH\\ni i i I i\\nH-C-C-C-C-C-H\\ni i i i i\\nHHHHH\\nPentane, or amyl hydride.\\nAll of these bodies are incapable of fixing other elements\\nby direct addition, but they may be modified by substitution,\\nthat is, one or several of their atoms of hydrogen may be\\nreplaced by other elements.\\nMonatomic Chlorides, Bromides, and Iodides. By the\\nreaction of bromine upon any of the hydrocarbons, we may", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0456.jp2"}, "455": {"fulltext": "MONATOMIC RADICALS. 449\\nobtain compounds containing an atom of bromine in the place\\nof an atom of hydrogen.\\nC 2 H 6 Br 2 C 2 H 5 Br HBr\\nEthane. Ethyl bromide.\\nA saturated and indifferent hydrocarbon is thus converted\\ninto a bromide.\\nThe corresponding chloride and iodide exist, possessing the\\nsame constitution as the primitive hydrocarbon, and forming\\nwith it the following series\\nC 2 H 6 ethane.\\nC 2 H 5 C1 ethyl chloride.\\nC 2 H 5 Br ethyl bromide.\\nC 2 H*I ethyl iodide.\\nTo the other hydrocarbons correspond chlorides, bromides,\\nand iodides analogous to the preceding. Thus, the following\\ngroups are known\\nCH* methane. C H 12 pentane.\\nCH 3 C1 methyl chloride. C 5 H n Cl amyl chloride.\\nCH 3 Br methyl bromide. C 5 H u Br amyl bromide.\\nCH 3 I methyl iodide. C 5 H U I amyl iodide.\\nAll of these bodies may be made to undergo the most varied\\ntransformations. They may be attacked by a number of re-\\nagents, to which they present a hold, as it were, since the chlo-\\nrine, bromine, and iodine which the} 7 contain are gifted with\\npowerful affinities.\\nThe residues resulting from the subtraction of the chlorine,\\nbromine, or iodine then enter into other combinations. It will\\nbe remarked that these residues represent the saturated hydro-\\ncarbons from which one atom of hydrogen has been removed.\\nCH 3 CH 3 Br Br, or CtP H\\nC 2 H 5 C 2 H 5 Br Br, or C 2 H 6 H\\nC 5 H n C 5 H n Br Br, or C 5 H 12 H\\nThe atoms of carbon contained in these residues, CH 3 C 2 H 5\\nand C 5 H n are no longer entirely saturated, since CI, Br, I, or\\nH has been removed, elements which satisfied one atomicity.\\nTherefore, these residues are capable of entering other com-\\nbinations, but as they possess only one free atomicity, they can\\nonly saturate one when they combine. This is expressed by\\nsaying that they play the part of monatomic or univalent\\nradicals. The chlorides, bromides, and iodides from which\\nthey are derived contain but one atom of the halogen.\\ndd 38*", "height": "4786", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0457.jp2"}, "456": {"fulltext": "450\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nAlcohols. The neutral hydroxides corresponding to the\\npreceding chlorides, bromides, and iodides, are called alcohols.\\nIf ethyl iodide be heated for a sufficiently long time with\\npotassium hydroxide, potassium iodide will be formed, and\\nthe alkaline liquid will contain alcohol which may be\\nseparated.\\nThis body is ethyl hydrate and is formed according to the\\nfollowing reaction\\nC 2 H 5 I KOH KI -f C 2 H 5 .OH\\nEthyl iodide. Ethyl hydrate.\\nIt is formed, as is seen, by double decomposition. The\\npotassium having removed the iodine from the ethyl iodide,\\nthe monatomic residue C 2 H 5 combines with the monatomic\\nresidue OH. Alcohol is then the hydrate which corresponds\\nto the iodide, C 2 H 5 I, and to the hydrocarbon, C 2 H 6 Analo-\\ngous hydrates correspond to the other hydrocarbons of the\\nsame series they constitute the series of monatomic alcohols,\\nand may be denned as derived from the saturated hydrocarbons\\nby the substitution of the group hydroxyl for one atom of\\nhydrogen. The alcohols now known are numerous the follow-\\ning are some of them\\nCH 3 .OH methyl hydrate, or methylic alcohol.\\nC 2 H 5 .OH ethyl hydrate, or ethylic alcohol.\\nC 3 H 7 .OH propyl hydrate, or propylic alcohol.\\nOH 9 .OH butyl hydrate, or butylic alcohol.\\nC 5 H n .OH amyl hydrate, or amylic alcohol.\\nC 6 H 13 .OH hexyl hydrate, or hexylic alcohol.\\nC 7 H 15 .OH heptyl hydrate, or heptylic alcohol.\\nC 8 H 17 .OH octyl hydrate, or octylic alcohol.\\nEach member of this series differs from that which follows\\nby CH 2 All are allied by analogous properties. These two\\nconditions characterize homologous bodies. The alcohols of\\nwhich the general formula is C n H 2rx+1 OH, form one of the most\\nimportant series of homologues.\\nIf one of these alcohols be heated with hydrochloric, hydro-\\nbromic, or hydriodic acid, water will be formed and the alcohol\\nwill be converted into a monatomic chloride, bromide, or iodide.\\nIn this reaction the hydroxyl, OH, is replaced by chlorine,\\nbromine, or iodine.\\nC 2 H 5 .OH HC1 H 2 C 2 H 5 C1\\nEthyl hydrate. Ethyl chloride.\\nThe bodies thus formed are the monatomic chlorides, bro-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0458.jp2"}, "457": {"fulltext": "MONATOMIC RADICALS. 451\\nmides, or iodides before considered. These experiments show\\nthe relations which exist between the latter compounds and the\\ncorresponding hydrates, which are the alcohols.\\nMonobasic Acids. Acetic acid, which exists in vinegar, is\\na derivative of alcohol, of which it is one of the products of\\noxidation. It is formed under many conditions, one of which\\nis the oxidation of alcohol vapor on contact with platinum\\nblack and the air.\\nC 2 H 5 .OH O 2 C 2 H 3 O.OH H 2\\nAlcohol. Acetic acid.\\nIn this reaction an atom of oxygen removes two atoms of\\nhydrogen to form water, and the place of these two atoms of\\nhydrogen is filled by another atom of oxygen. The group\\nethyl, C 2 H 5 thus becomes the group acetyl, C 2 H 3 0, and if\\nalcohol be the hydrate of ethyl, acetic acid is the hydrate of\\nacetyl. We can account for this reaction by developing the\\nformulae of alcohol and acetic acid according to the principles\\nbefore explained.\\nH H HO\\nH-C-C-OH O 2 H-C-C-OH H 2\\ni i i\\nHH H\\nAlcohol. Acetic acid.\\nIn alcohol, the second carbon atom is combined with two\\natoms of hydrogen and with one group hydroxyl, while in\\nacetic acid it is combined with an atom of oxygen and a group\\nhydroxyl.\\nAcetic acid contains two atoms of carbon united together,\\nand combined, the one with H 3 the second with and OH.\\nIt is thus formed of a group CH 3 united to a group CO-OH\\nC0 2 H. There exist many other acids analogous to acetic\\nacid, and derived, like it, by oxidation of the monatomic alco-\\nhols of the series C n H 2n+1 OH. All of these acids contain\\na hydrocarbon group analogous to methyl, combined with the\\ngroup C0 2 H CO-OH. The hydrogen of the latter group\\ncan be readily replaced by an equivalent quantity of metal.\\nThis hydrogen is said to be strongly basic, and all of the organic\\nacids which contain a single group, C0 2 H. united to a hydro-\\ncarbon group, are monobasic like acetic acid. The homologues\\nof the latter form the following series", "height": "4790", "width": "3018", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0459.jp2"}, "458": {"fulltext": "452 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nC H 2 2 H -C0 2 H formic acid.\\nC 2 H 4 O 2 C H3 -C0 2 H acetic acid.\\nC 3 H 6 O 2 C 2 H5 -C0 2 H propionic acid.\\nC* H8 2 WW -C0 2 H butyric acid.\\nC 5 HK 0 2 C 4 H 9 -C0 2 H valeric acid.\\nC 6 H i 2 2 C 5 HH_C0 2 H caproic acid.\\nC7 H140 2 C 6 Hi3-C0 2 H oenanthic acid.\\nC 8 H^O 2 CRK-COW caprylic acid.\\nC 9 H l8 2 C 8 H17_C0 2 H pelargonic acid.\\nCIOH2002 C 9 Hi9-C0 2 H capric acid, etc.\\nThe first series of formulae indicates simply the nature and\\nnumber of atoms contained in the acids of the series C n H 2n 2\\nThey are empirical formulae. The second series gives certain\\nindications upon the relations existing between these atoms.\\nThey are rational formulae, and when developed so as to ex-\\npress the relations between all of the atoms, they become\\nconstitutional formulae.\\nCompound Ethers. The compound ethers are combina-\\ntions which represent acids of which the hydrogen has been\\nreplaced by a hydrocarbon group.\\nIf one of the alcohols of the preceding series, ordinary alco-\\nhol, for example, be heated for a long time with acetic acid,\\nwater will be formed, and a volatile, neutral liquid possessing an\\nagreeable odor may be separated from the product this sub-\\nstance is ethyl acetate, or acetic ether. It is formed according\\nto the following reaction\\nC 2 H 5 .OH C 2 H 3 O.OH C 2 H 5 0(C 2 H 3 0) H 2\\nAlcohol. Acetic acid. Ethyl acetate.\\nOn comparing this compound with alcohol, we find that it\\nis formed by substitution of the group C 2 H 3 0, the existence of\\nwhich is admitted in acetic acid, and which is called acetyl,\\nfor one atom of hydrogen in alcohol and this atom of hydro-\\ngen which is replaceable by acetyl is that which is united to the\\noxygen in alcohol, that which forms a part of the hydroxyl\\ngroup. The other atoms of hydrogen, those which constitute\\npart of the group C 2 H 5 cannot be replaced by acetyl.\\nAll of the acids can form with alcohol, and indeed with all\\nof the alcohols, compounds analogous to ethyl acetate, and\\nthese combinations are called compound ethers. The property\\npossessed by the alcohols of etherifying acids is general and\\ncharacteristic of this class of compounds. Alcohols which\\nrequire for etherification but a single molecule of an acid anal-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0460.jp2"}, "459": {"fulltext": "ACETONES. 453\\nogous to acetic acid are called inonatoraic. Many exist which\\nare not included in the preceding series.\\nAldehydes. Acetic acid is not the only product of the\\noxidation of alcohol. There is another compound interme-\\ndiate between these two it results from the action of a single\\natom of oxygen upon the molecule of alcohol, which thus loses\\ntwo atoms of hydrogen without other change. The new com-\\npound is aldehyde.\\nC 2 H 6 H 2 C 2 H 4\\nAlcohol. Aldehyde.\\nIt is a very volatile liquid having a great tendency to become\\noxidized and converted into acetic acid. It forms crystalline\\ncombinations with the alkaline acid-sulphites. To the other\\nalcohols of the series C B H 2n+2 3 and other acids of the series\\nC n H 2n 2 correspond compounds analogous to aldehyde by their\\ncomposition and by their properties. They form the following\\nseries\\nC 2 H 4 aldehyde or acetaldehyde.\\nC 3 H 6 propionic aldehyde.\\nC 4 H 8 butyric aldehyde.\\nC 5 H 10 O valeric aldehyde, etc.\\nKetones. When calcium acetate is submitted to dry distil-\\nlation a neutral, volatile liquid is obtained, having a peculiar\\naromatic odor, and known by the name acetone.\\nCa {c 2 H 3 2 C3H6 CaC 3\\nCalcium acetate. Acetone. Calcium carbonate.\\nTo the other acids of the acetic acid series correspond bodies\\nanalogous to acetone, and forming with it a homologous series.\\nThese ketones are related by properties and composition to the\\naldehydes. Like the latter, they form crystalline combinations\\nwith the alkaline acid-sulphites. It may be considered that\\nwhile aldehyde is the hydride of acetyl, acetone is the roethyl-\\nide of acetyl, and that in general the ketones are derived by\\nthe substitution of a hydrocarbon group, analogous to methyl,\\nfor an atom of hydrogen in the aldehydes considered as hy-\\ndrides.\\nCH 3 -CO-H CH 3 -CO-CH 3\\nAldehyde (acetyl hydride). Acetone (acetyl methylide).\\nHence, acetone contains two methyl groups united to a group,\\nCO (carbonyl). Its mode of formation justifies this conclusion,", "height": "4797", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0461.jp2"}, "460": {"fulltext": "454 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nas shown in the following equation, in which the constitu-\\ntional formula of acetic acid is employed\\nCH 3 -CO 0 Ca CaC0 CH 3 -CO-CH 3\\nCalcium acetate. Calcium carbonate. Acetone.\\nDiketones. Free acid radicals. Like the methyl group,\\nthe radicals of the monobasic acids cannot exist alone, but\\nonly in combination with other atoms or groups. Just as two\\nmethyl groups unite to form dimethyl or ethane, so two acetyl\\ngroups are combined in diacetyl. Such compounds contain-\\ning two carbonyl groups are called diketones.\\nCH 3 CO.COCH 3 diacetvl\\nCH 3 CO.COC 2 H 5 acetyl propionyl, etc.\\nChlorides of Acid Radicals. A compound is known in\\nwhich the acetyl group is united with chlorine. Acetyl chlo-\\nride, C 2 H 3 0.C1, is a monatomic chloride, like ethyl chloride\\nC 2 H 5 C1, from which it is distinguished by the strongly electro-\\nnegative nature of its radical.\\nIf acetyl chloride be poured into water, it disappears in a\\nshort time with development of heat and the formation of\\nacetic and hydrochloric acids.\\nC 2 H 3 0.C1 H 2 C 2 H 3 O.OH HC1\\nAcetyl chloride. Acetic acid.\\nTo acetyl chloride correspond other chlorides which contain\\nradicals of acids analogous to acetic acid. When they are\\ntreated with water they yield hydrochloric acid and the acids\\ncorresponding to their radicals.\\nC 3 H 5 0.C1 C 3 H50.0H\\nPropionyl chloride. Propionic acid.\\nC 4 H 7 0.C1 C 4 H 7 O.OH\\nButyryl chloride. Butyric acid.\\nAmides. If acetyl chloride be treated with ammonia, am-\\nmonium chloride will be formed, together with a solid, neu-\\ntral, nitrogenized body called acetamide.\\nC 2 H 5 0d 2NH 3 NH*C1 C 2 H 3 O.NH 2\\nAcetyl chloride. Acetamide.\\nThere are many other compounds similar to acetamide, and\\nknown by the name amides. They are formed by the action\\nof ammonia upon organic halides analogous to acetyl chloride.\\nThey are also formed by the action of heat upon the ammonia-\\ncal salts of the monobasic acids. The latter compounds then\\nlose one molecule of water, and are converted into amides.\\nC 5 H 9 O.ONH* C 5 H 9 O.NH 2 H 2\\nAmmonium valerate. Valeramide.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0462.jp2"}, "461": {"fulltext": "COMPOUND AMMONIAS. 455\\nAcetamide may be regarded as ammonia in which an atom\\nof hydrogen has been replaced by the radical acetyl.\\nH C 2 H 3 f C 5 H 9\\nN H H N-l H\\n(H (h (H\\nAmmonia. Acetamide. Valeramide.\\nCompound Ammonias, or Amines. If ethyl iodide be\\nheated with ammonia, one of the products of the reaction will\\nbe the hydriodide of a base derived from ammonia by the sub-\\nstitution of an ethyl group for an atom of hydrogen.\\nC 2 H 5 I NH 3 (C 2 H 5 )NH 2 .HI\\nEthyl iodide. Ethylamine hydriodide.\\nIn this reaction, other ethylated bases are formed, independ-\\nently of ethylamine, among which must be mentioned diethyl-\\namine and trie thy lamine. All present the most striking anal-\\nogy to ammonia. They may be regarded as ammonia in which\\none, two, or three atoms of hydrogen have been replaced by\\none, two, or three ethyl groups.\\nH) C 2 H 5 C 2 H 5 C 2 H 5\\nH l N H y N C 2 H 5 N C 2 H 5 N\\nH^ H H C 2 H 5\\nAmmonia. Ethylamine. Diethylamine. Triethylamine.\\nThe other alcoholic groups, C n H 2n+1 can in the same man-\\nner replace one or more atoms of hydrogen in ammonia. The\\nproducts are bases having constitutions analogous to those\\nof the ethyl bases. They are called amines, or compound\\nammonias.\\nIt is necessary that the signification of the formulae above\\ngiven and those that are to follow shall be clearly understood.\\nThey are examples of typical notation, and indicate the rela-\\ntions of the compounds with the type ammonia.\\nN H\\n(H\\nThe brace joining the three hydrogen atoms signifies that\\nthe whole three are united to a single atom of triatomic nitro-\\ngen, with which each exchanges one atomicity; this may be\\nexpressed by writing the formula for ammonia thus\\nH\\nN f-H", "height": "4791", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0463.jp2"}, "462": {"fulltext": "456\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nWhat, then, takes place when one or more atoms of hydro-\\ngen are replaced by a group like ethyl The latter exchanges\\none atomicity with the nitrogen atom, precisely as the hydro-\\ngen atom did, and combines with the nitrogen by one of the\\natoms of carbon of the group ethyl, CH 3 -CH 2 which requires\\nthe satisfaction of one atomicity.\\nThis is clearly expressed in the following graphic formulae\\nH H\\nN-CH 2 -CH 3\\ni\\nH\\nEthylamine.\\nN-CH 2 -CH 3\\nCH 2 -CH 3\\nDiethylamine.\\nHowever, such formulae would be too cumbrous for ordinary\\nuse, and our formulae must be more condensed.\\n/C 2 H 5 y C 2 H 5\\nN^-H N -C 2 H 5 N(C 2 H 6 3\\nX H X H\\nEthylamine. Diethylamine. Triethylamine.\\nPhosphines. Arsines. Stibines. There exist several se-\\nries of combinations belonging to the same type as the com-\\npound ammonias, but in which the nitrogen is replaced by\\nphosphorus, arsenic, or antimony. These compounds are de-\\nrived from the hydrogen compounds of phosphorus, arsenic,\\nand antimony by the substitution of one or more alcoholic\\ngroups for one or more atoms of hydrogen.\\nHI C 2 H 5 C 2 W~)\\nH f P H J- P C 2 H 5 P\\nH) H H\\nHydrogen phosphide. Ethylphosphine. Diethylphosphine.\\nH As\\nHydrogen arsenide.\\nH ^Sb\\nHydrogen antimonide.\\nDimethylarsine\\nchloride.\\nC 2 H 5\\nC 2 H 5\\nC 2 H 5\\nTriethylphosphine.\\nCH 3\\nCH 3 As\\nCH 3 j\\nTrimethylarsine.\\nC 2 H 5\\nC 2 H 5 Sb\\nCH\u00c2\u00bb)\\nTriethylstibine.\\nOrgano-metallic Compounds. Ethyl and its congeneric\\nradicals, methyl, amyl, etc., can enter into combination not\\nonly with nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, etc., of which they\\nsaturate one or more atomicities, but with a large number of", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0464.jp2"}, "463": {"fulltext": "ORGANO-METALLIC COMPOUNDS. 457\\nQ I c 2 wi\\nmetals. Thus, zinc, which is diatomic, can combine with two\\nethyl groups to form zinc ethyl.\\nIP\\nW\\nMercury, also diatomic, can unite with one or two ethyl or\\nmethyl groups, etc. In the second case, the new combination\\nis saturated; in the first, it is monatomic, (Hg C 2 H 5 and re-\\nquires for saturation an atom of a monatomic element, or a\\nmonatomic group, iodine, for example.\\nHo- I C2H5 Ho C2H5\\nMercur-ethyl. r Mercur-monethy] iodide.\\nBismuth, which is triatomic, can fix three ethyl groups.\\nf C 2 H 5\\nBi C 2 H 5\\n(C 2 H 5\\nBismuth-ethyl.\\nStanno-tetrethyl is formed by the union of four ethyl groups\\nwith one atom of tetratomic tin.\\nC 2 H 5\\nC 2 H 3\\nC 2 H 5\\nC 2 H 5\\nIf the four atomicities of tin be not all satisfied, non-satu-\\nrated compounds may be formed.\\nC 2 H 5 .C 2 H 5\\nSn\\nSn S!\u00e2\u0084\u00a2 -Sn 1 C*H 6 or -Sn ^C 2\\nt ia C 2 H 5 X C 2 H 5\\nStanno-diethyl. Stanno-triethyl.\\nStanno-diethyl is known in the free state, but stanno-triethyl\\ndoubles its molecule as soon as it is set at liberty, combining\\nwith itself, as it can combine with iodine.\\nISn-(C 2 H 5 3 (C 2 H 5 3 Sn iv -Sn iv (C 2 H 5 3 Sn 2 (C 2 H 5 6\\nStanno-triethyl iodide. Sesqnistanuethyl.\\nNon-saturated compounds are apt to combine with other\\nelements or radicals. Stanno-tetrethyl, which is saturated, does\\nnot possess this faculty.\\nThe bodies just mentioned belong to the class of organo-\\nmetallic compounds. Their study is of great importance in\\nthe history of the atomicity of the metals, that is, their power\\nof saturation. The theoretical considerations concerning them\\nhave been discussed by Frankland, Baeyer, and Cahours.\\nu 39", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0465.jp2"}, "464": {"fulltext": "458\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nMonatomic Radicals. From the preceding summary may\\nbe understood the position occupied in organic chemistry by\\ncertain groups containing carbon, groups that are distinguished\\nas monatomic because they can manifest but a single atomicity.\\nOnly a single monatomic atom or group is wanting that all of\\nthe carbon atoms contained in these groups may be entirely\\nsaturated. These groups of atoms or radicals cannot exist in\\nthe state of liberty, but they can pass from one compound to\\nanother, replacing a single atom of hydrogen or other mon-\\natomic element, and consequently playing the part of that ele-\\nment in the new combination. This is expressed by saying\\nthat these groups act as monatomic radicals.\\nTo indicate the constitution of the combinations containing\\nsuch groups, and especially the metamorphoses that they may\\nundergo by exchanging these radicals by double decomposition,\\nit is convenient to designate the latter by expressions written\\nseparately in the formula and distinct from those for the\\nother elements. The composition of all of the bodies which\\nhave just been reviewed may be represented by very simple\\nformulae, by comparing them to hydrogen compounds, such as\\nfree hydrogen, or hydrochloric acid, water, and ammonia. The\\nnotation then assumes a typical form, exceedingly clear for the\\ninterpretation of the majority of reactions.\\nThe following are the typical formulae for the combinations\\nthat have been considered\\nType HH.\\nType\\n1}o.\\nType\\nH^N.\\nHj\\n(C 2 H 5 )C1\\n(C IP)j\\n(C 2 H 5\\nH f-N\\nH)\\nEthyl chloride.\\nEthyl hydrate.\\nEthylamine.\\n(C 2 H 3 0)C1\\n(C 2 H 5 j u\\n(C 2 H 5 n\\n(C 2 H 5 N\\nAcetyl chloride.\\nEthyl oxide.\\nDiethylamine.\\n(C 2 H 3 0)H\\n(C 2 H 3 0)J Q\\n(C 2 H 5 S\\n(C 2 H 5 (-N\\n(C 2 H 5\\nAldehyde.\\nAcetic acid.\\nTriethvlamine.\\n(C 2 H 3 0)(CH 3\\n(C 2 H 3 0)\\n(C 2 H 5 j u\\n(C 2 H 3 0)\\nH ^N\\nH\\nAcetone.\\nEthyl acetate.\\nJ A J\\nAcetamide.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0466.jp2"}, "465": {"fulltext": "POLYATOMIC RADICALS. 459\\nPOLYATOMIC RADICALS.\\nIf chlorine and olefiant gas, or ethylene, be mixed in equal\\nvolumes, both gases disappear and are converted into an oily\\nsubstance, which was formerly called Dutch liquid. This body\\nresults from the combination of a molecule of ethylene with a\\nmolecule (two atoms) of chlorine. It is ethylene chloride.\\nC 2 H 4 CP C 2 H 4 CP\\nEthylene. Ethylene chloride.\\nIf the constitution of ethylene gas, C 2 H*. be compared with\\nthat of the saturated hydrocarbon ethane, C 2 H 6 which like the\\nformer contains two atoms of carbon, it will be noticed that it\\ncontains two atoms of hydrogen less.\\nC 2 H 6 H 2 C 2 H 4\\nIn ethylene the six atomicities of the pair of carbon atoms\\nare not saturated. Hence that gas can absorb directly two\\natoms of chlorine, bromine, or iodine to form a saturated com-\\npound.\\nHH H H HH\\nH-C-C-H -C-C- Cl-C-C-Cl\\nii ii ii\\nHH HH HH\\nEthane. Ethylene. Ethylene chloride.\\nIt is a diatomic radical, and it can exist in the free state\\nbecause until other atoms are presented to satisfy the atom-\\nicities of the two atoms of carbon, those two atoms are bound\\ntogether by a double affinity. Thus, H 2 C=CH 2 One of\\nthese bonds is loosed when the ethylene manifests its affinities\\nand enters directly into combination, because the affinity of\\ncarbon for chlorine or such an element is greater than its\\naffinity for carbon Ethylene is the first of a numerous class.\\nThe following bodies form with it the homologous series C n H 2n\\nC 2 H\u00c2\u00b1 ethylene.\\nC 3 H 6 propylene.\\nC*H 8 butylene.\\nC 5 H 10 amylene.\\nC 6 H 12 hexylene.\\nC 7 H 14 heptylene.\\nC 8 H 16 octylene.\\nC 9 H 18 nonylene.\\nC10H20 decylene, etc.", "height": "4789", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0467.jp2"}, "466": {"fulltext": "460 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nAll of these bodies are able to fix directly two atoms of\\nchlorine or bromine. When they enter into combination, they\\ntake the place of two atoms of hydrogen. They can pass by\\ndouble decomposition from one compound to another, and their\\ncombinations may undergo various metamorphoses analogous\\nto those already indicated.\\nDiatomic Alcohols or Glycols. The glycols are compounds\\nin which the two atomicities of the diatomic radicals are saturated\\nby two hydroxyl groups. The two atoms of bromine in ethy-\\nlene bromide, C 2 H*Br 2 may be replaced by two hydroxyl groups\\n(OH), and the resulting combination is ethylene dihydrate.\\nThe two atoms of hydrogen united to the oxygen in the\\nhydroxyl groups in glycol may both be replaced by acid radi-\\ncals analogous to acetyl, just as the single atom of hydrogen in\\nthe single hydroxyl group of a monatomic alcohol may be\\nreplaced by an acid radical. This is characteristic of a diatomic\\nalcohol.\\nTo ethylene dihydrate, or ordinary glycol, correspond the\\nhydrates of the other hydrocarbons homologous with ethylene.\\nThe following glycols are known\\nw{or glycol.\\nC 3 H 6 j qtt propyleneglycol.\\n4H8 OH butyleneglycol.\\nC 5 H\u00e2\u0084\u00a2 amyleneglycol.\\nC 6 H 12 j QTj hexyleDeglycol, etc.\\nAround each of these bodies are grouped a great number of\\nderivatives, among which we can only consider the ethers, acids,\\nand compound ammonias.\\nEthers of the Glycols. The ethers of the glycols result\\nfrom the substitution of alcoholic or acid radicals for the hydro-\\ngen of the groups OH. One or both of these hydrogens may\\nbe thus replaced, and the following examples will illustrate the\\nconstitution of the compounds so formed\\nr2TT4 f O.C^HS 4 f O.C2H5 4 O.C2H30 p2TT4 f O.C2H30\\nC H j OH C H j O.C2H5 C H OH C H O.C*H*0\\nMonethylic glycol. Diethylic glycol. Glycol monacetate. Glycol diacetate.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0468.jp2"}, "467": {"fulltext": "POLYATOMIC RADICALS. 461\\nDiatomic and Dibasic Acids. Diatomic acids result from\\nthe oxidation of the glycols. Their formation and constitu-\\ntion may be understood by developing the formulae of the\\nhydrocarbons which constitute the radicals of these glycols.\\nOrdinary glycol may yield two acids by oxidation, the first\\nresulting from the substitution of an atom of oxygen for two\\natoms of hydrogen, the second from the substitution of two\\natoms of oxygen for four atoms of hydrogen. The following\\nformulae express the constitution and derivation of these com-\\npounds\\nCH 2 CH 2 Br CH 2 .OH CH 2 .OH CO.OH\\nCH 2 CH 2 Br CH 2 .OH CO.OH CO.OH\\nEthylene. Ethylene bromide. Glycol. Glycollic acid. Oxalic acid.\\nG-ly collie and oxalic acids, which are produced by the oxida-\\ntion of glycol, are both diatomic because they are both derived\\nfrom a diatomic alcohol but the first is monobasic because it\\ncontains but a single atom of hydrogen that can be replaced by\\na metal. The second is dibasic, for it contains two atoms of\\nhydrogen that are replaceable by an equivalent quantity of metal.\\nThis basic hydrogen is that which forms part of the group\\nC0 2 H. Oxalic acid is composed simply of two groups -C0 2 H\\nit is. dibasic. Glycollic acid contains but one, and it is conse-\\nquently monobasic. The hydrogen united to the oxygen in\\nthe group -CH 2 .OH is called alcoholic hydrogen it may be\\nreplaced by an acid radical, but it cannot be easily replaced by\\na metal. All bodies containing a group CH 2 .OH are alcohols,\\nand all bodies containing a group CO.OH are acids. The\\nalcohols and acids are thus defined by their constitution. Gly-\\ncollic acid is at the same time an alcohol and an acid, for it\\ncontains both a group CH 2 .OH and a group CO.OH.\\nThere exists a series of acids homologous with glycollic acid,\\nand another series homologous with oxalic acid. Both series\\nare derived from the higher diatomic alcohols.\\nDiatomic Ammonias or Diamines. Compounds exist\\nwhich hold the same relation to the diatomic alcohols as ethyl-\\namine and its homologues to the monatomic alcohols. Such\\na compound is ethylene-diamine. Its relations with ethylene\\nchloride and glycol are expressed by the following formulae\\nC 2 H* g C 2 H* gg C 2 HKw\\nEthylene chloride. Glycol. Ethjiene-diamine.\\n39*", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0469.jp2"}, "468": {"fulltext": "462 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nAlcohols of Higher Atomicity. There are alcohols of\\nhigher atomicity glycerol, for example, is a tr (atomic alcohol.\\nIt contains a radical, C 3 H 5 which is triatomic since it is de-\\nrived from the saturated hydrocarbon, C 3 H 8 by the subtrac-\\ntion of three atoms of hydrogen. Erythritol is a tetratomic\\nalcohol it contains the tetratomic radical C 4 H 6 C 4 H 10 H*.\\nLastly, the sweet, sugar-like substance derived from manna\\nand known as mannitol is a hexatomic alcohol. There are\\nnumerous similar substances which are alcohols of higher\\natomicity. The following formulae express the composition\\nand the functions of these polyatomic alcohols\\nC 3 H 5 OH C 4 H 6i X\u00e2\u0080\u009e C 6 H 8 (OH) 6\\nI OH |g|\\nGlycerol. Erythritol. Mannitol.\\nAround these bodies are grouped the numerous correspond-\\ning derivatives, ethers, acids, etc.\\nIt will be seen by the preceding considerations that the neu-\\ntral hydrates, called alcohols, are highly important in them-\\nselves and on account of the derivatives which attach to them.\\nHence the elements of a natural classification of organic com-\\npounds are deduced.\\nCOMPOUNDS OF CYANOGEN.\\nGay-Lussac gave the name cyanogen to the radical of prussic\\nor hydrocyanic acid, which was discovered by Scheele in 1782.\\nThis radical is composed of one atom of carbon and one atom of\\nnitrogen. In hydrocyanic acid it is united with hydrogen in\\nthe cyanides it is combined with the metals.\\nH(CN) K(CN) Hg (CN) 2\\nHydrocyanic acid. Potassium cyanide. Mercury cyanide.\\nThe preceding compounds may be compared with the corre-\\nsponding chlorides\\nHC1 KC1 HgCP\\nHydrochloric acid. Potassium chloride. Mercuric chloride.\\nIt is somewhat remarkable that potassium cyanide is iso-\\nmorphous with potassium chloride.\\nIn the preceding compounds, cyanogen, which is composed of\\nan atom of carbon and an atom of nitrogen, plays a part anal-\\nogous to that of chlorine. It is a monatomic radical nitrogen,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0470.jp2"}, "469": {"fulltext": "CYANOGEN. 463\\nwhich is triatomic, can saturate only three of the four atomici-\\nties which reside in an atom of carbon. Hence there remains\\none free atomicity, and cyanogen can act as a monatomic radi-\\ncal, -CEN.\\nAll of the compounds of cyanogen are prepared from potas-\\nsium ferrocyanide, or yellow prussiate of potash, which is\\ndescribed on page 468.\\nCYANOGEN.\\n(CNj 2 Cy 2\\nFormation. Cyanogen occurs in small quantities in the\\ngases from blast-furnaces. Nitrogen and carbon combine\\ntogether with difficulty, but their direct union takes place in\\npresence of potassium or potassium carbonate at a high tem-\\nperature. When nitrogen gas is passed over an incandescent\\nmixture of carbon and potassium carbonate, potassium cyanide\\nis formed. A larger yield of cyanide is obtained if the nitrogen\\nis replaced by ammonia gas. Also, if ammonia gas is passed\\nover incandescent charcoal in a porcelain tube, ammonium\\ncyanide is formed, and may be condensed in crystals in a cooled\\nreceiver (Kuhlmann).\\nC 2NH 3 NH*.CN H 2\\nAmmonium cyanide.\\nCyanogen is also formed by the dehydration of ammonium\\noxalate, when that salt is treated with phosphoric anhydride.\\nThis reaction allows cyanogen gas to be regarded as the nitrile\\nof oxalic acid. A nitrile is a cyanide which may be converted\\ninto an acid by hydration, with elimination of ammonia, by the\\naction of an alkaline hydrate.\\nCO.ONH* CN\\nCO.ONH 4 ON\\nAmmonium oxalate. Cyanogen.\\nPreparation. Mercury cyanide is heated in a small retort\\nfitted with a delivery-tube. The mercury volatilizes, and a gas\\nis disengaged which may be collected over mercury. There\\nremains in the retort a solid brown mass which possesses the\\nsame composition as cyanogen, and is known as paracyanogen.\\nHg(CN) 2 (CN) 2 Hg\\nComposition and Properties. Cyanogen is a colorless gas,", "height": "4796", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0471.jp2"}, "470": {"fulltext": "464 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHExMISTRY.\\npossessing a strong odor of bitter almonds. It may be easily\\nliquefied by a pressure of 4 atmospheres or a temperature of\\n25\u00c2\u00b0 Its density is 1.8064 compared to air, or 26 compared\\nto hydrogen. This is free cyanogen.\\nIt has separated from the mercury, which is condensed in\\nlittle drops in the dome of the retort. The atom of mercury\\nwas combined with two groups (CN), which unite together\\nwhen they separate from the mercury, and remain combined\\ntogether in the gas which is disengaged. The latter contains\\nCN combined with CN. Its formula is\\nNC-CN (CN) 2 Cy 2\\n2 volumes of this gas contain two atoms of carbon and two\\natoms of nitrogen.\\nThis composition may be demonstrated by eudiometric analy-\\nsis.\\n2 volumes of cyanogen and 4 volumes of oxygen are intro-\\nduced into a mercury eudiometer. On the passage of an electric\\nspark there is a flash of blue light, and the volume of the gas\\nis not changed. If a solution of potassium hydrate be now\\npassed into the eudiometer, the six volumes of gas will be\\nreduced to two.\\n4 volumes of CO 2 are formed;\\n2 volumes of N remain.\\n2 volumes of cyanogen then contain the carbon contained in 2C0 2 that\\nis, C 2 and N 2\\nThis is expressed by saying that the formula of cyanogen, C 2 N 2 Cy 2\\ncorresponds to 2 volumes.\\nOn contact with flame, cyanogen takes fire and burns in the\\nair with a purple flame, yielding carbon dioxide and nitrogen.\\nWater dissolves four and one-half times its volume of cyan-\\nogen. When this solution is left to itself it deposits brown\\nflakes. It then contains in solution urea, ammonium carbonate,\\nammonium cyanide, and ammonium oxalate.\\nC 2 N 2\\nCyanogen.\\n4H 2\\n(NH 4 2 C 2 0*\\nAmmonium oxalate.\\nC 2 N 2\\nIPO\\nHCN C ^N\\nCyanogen.\\nHydrocyanic acid. Cyanic acid.\\nco x N\\nH*0\\nCO 2 NH 3\\nCyanic acid.\\nAmmouia.\\nThe ammonia formed by the latter reaction combines with", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0472.jp2"}, "471": {"fulltext": "HYDROCYANIC ACID. 465\\nthe cyanic acid to form ammonium cyanate, which becomes\\nconverted into urea, as will be seen shortly.\\nIt is a curious fact that in the presence of a small quantity\\nof aldehyde, the decomposition of an aqueous solution of\\ncyanogen yields, almost entirely, but one product, oxamide.\\nC 2 N 2 2H 2 C 2 2\\nOxamide.\\nIf a fragment of potassium be heated in cyanogen gas, a\\nbrilliant flash of light takes place in combining with cyanogen\\npotassium becomes incandescent. Potassium cyanide is formed.\\n(CN) 2 K 2 2KCN\\nIn this reaction, cyanogen combines directly with a metal.\\nIt acts like an element, such as chlorine.\\nParacyanogen, which has been mentioned before, is a poly-\\nmeride of cyanogen. When it is quickly heated to redness, it\\nis entirely transformed into cyanogen gas.\\nHYDROCYANIC ACID.\\n(PRUSSIC ACID.)\\nHCN HCy\\nPreparation.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Gay-Lussac prepared hydrocyanic acid by\\nheating mercury cyanide with hydrochloric acid.\\nAn easier process consists in decomposing prussiate of potash\\n(potassium ferrocyanide) with sulphuric acid. 8 parts of the\\nsalt in fine powder are heated in a retort with 9 parts of sul-\\nphuric acid, previously diluted with 14 parts of water.\\nThe neck of the retort is inclined upwards, so that the aque-\\nous vapors are condensed and run back into the retort, while\\nthe vapor of prussic acid, which is very volatile, is dried by\\npassage through a tube containing calcium chloride, and con-\\ndensed in a receiver placed in a freezing mixture of ice and\\nsalt.\\nProperties. This acid is a colorless, limpid, and very vol-\\natile liquid, having a penetrating odor resembling that of bitter\\nalmonds. Its density at 7\u00c2\u00b0 is 0.7058. It boils at 26.5\u00c2\u00b0, and\\nsolidifies to a crystalline mass at 15\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt scarcely reddens blue litmus-paper. On contact with an\\nincandescent body, it takes fire and burns with a pale violet\\nflame.\\nee", "height": "4786", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0473.jp2"}, "472": {"fulltext": "466 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIt does Dot keep long in the pure state. It becomes brown,\\nand is finally converted into a solid, brown mass.\\nIt dissolves in water in all proportions. A solution contain-\\ning 2 per cent, is used in medicine.\\nWhen hydrocyanic acid is mixed with its own volume of\\nconcentrated hydrochloric acid, the mixture gets hot and soon\\ndeposits abundant crystals of ammonium chloride. The solu-\\ntion contains formic acid.\\nHCN 2H 2 CH 2 2 NH 3\\nHydrocyanic acid. Formic acid.\\nIn reactions with the hydracids, hydrocyanic acid can function\\nlike a compound ammonia, N(CH) (formonitrile). It unites\\nwith elevation of temperature with hydrochloric, hydrobromic,\\nand hydriodic acids to form compounds, such as N(CH)\\nHC1 and N(CH) .HI, that may be compared to the ammo-\\nnium salts. In these crystalline compounds, the anhydrous\\nbases can displace the hydrocyanic acid, as they displace am-\\nmonia in the ammoniacal salts thus,\\nN(CH)HC1 NH 8 NH 4 C1 HCN\\nCupric oxide displaces hydrocyanic acid in the same manner\\nin the hydrobromide of formonitrile.\\nThe oxidized organic acids unite only with difficulty with\\nhydrocyanic acid, and at an elevated temperature (Arm.\\nGautier).\\nHydrocyanic acid is one of the most rapid and most danger-\\nous of poisons. A single drop placed upon the eye of a rabbit\\nis sufficient to kill the animal in a few instants, and after vio-\\nlent convulsions.\\nHydrocyanic acid may be detected by the following tests\\n1. It gives a white precipitate of silver cyanide with silver\\nnitrate, and this precipitate does not darken on exposure to\\nlight. When properly dried and heated, silver cyanide disen-\\ngages cyanogen.\\n2. If a drop of hydrocyanic acid be added to a mixed solu-\\ntion of ferrous and ferric sulphates, and an excess of potassium\\nhydrate be added, a thick, dark-colored precipitate is formed.\\nIf this be treated with an excess of hydrochloric acid, the fer-\\nrous and ferric oxides precipitated will be dissolved, and Prus-\\nsian blue will remain, strongly coloring the liquid.\\n3. If a drop of hydrocyanic acid be mixed with a drop of\\nammonium sulphide, and then evaporated to dryness, ammonium", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0474.jp2"}, "473": {"fulltext": "METALLIC CYANIDES. 467\\nsulphocyanate is formed, and a blood-red color is produced when\\nthe spot is touched with a drop of ferric chloride slightly\\nacidulated with hydrochloric acid.\\nMETALLIC CYANIDES.\\nWe will only consider the two more important metallic cya-\\nnides, those of potassium and mercury.\\nPotassium Cyanide, KCy KCN. This compound is\\nprepared by heating well-dried potassium ferrocyanide to red-\\nness in stoneware retorts. After cooling, the black mass is\\nexhausted with alcohol; this solvent leaves a black deposit,\\nconsisting of charcoal and iron, and the solution evaporated in\\nvacuo deposits the potassium cyanide as a white, crystalline\\nmass.\\nThis body crystallizes in cubes. It has a caustic taste and\\nan after-taste of bitter almonds. It is very poisonous. It is\\nquite soluble in water, only sparingly soluble in absolute alco-\\nhol. When the aqueous solution is boiled, it disengages\\nammonia, and is converted into potassium formate. This\\nreaction takes place slowly in the cold, and is analogous to\\nthat which has before been described.\\nWhen potassium cyanide is heated with sulphur, it is con-\\nverted into potassium sulphocyanate. Iodine dissolves abun-\\ndantly in a solution of potassium cyanide potassium iodide\\nis formed, and cyanogen iodide is deposited in crystals.\\nSolution of potassium cyanide dissolves the cyanides of\\nmany metals, such as zinc, silver, and gold, forming soluble\\ndouble cyanides. This property is utilized in the extraction\\nof gold from its ores.\\nMercury Cyanide, HgCy 2 Hg(CN) 2 This compound\\nis prepared by dissolving finely-powdered mercuric oxide in an\\naqueous solution of hydrocyanic acid until the odor of the lat-\\nter has entirely disappeared, being careful to avoid an excess\\nof the oxide. After concentration and cooling, colorless, anhy-\\ndrous prisms are obtained, which are unaltered by air and light.\\nThis is mercury cyanide. It is very poisonous.\\nIt possesses a nauseous metallic taste, and dissolves in 8\\nparts of cold water.\\nIt is decomposed by heat into mercury and cyanogen para-\\ncyanogen is formed at the same time. The solution of mer-\\ncury cyanide dissolves mercuric oxide, and forms with it a", "height": "4777", "width": "2909", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0475.jp2"}, "474": {"fulltext": "468 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ncompound more soluble than the cyanide, crystallizing in\\ncolorless scales.\\nFERROCYANIDES.\\nBy this name are designated compounds containing cyanogen\\nand iron intimately combined together and forming a complex\\nradical capable of passing from one compound to another by\\ndouble decomposition. This radical, which is called ferrocy-\\nanogen, contains one atom of diatomic iron combined with six\\ncyanogen groups, CN. As each of the latter represents one\\natomicity, it is evident that the group (Cy 6 =Fe) iv in which\\nbut two atomicities are saturated between the Fe and 2Cy,\\nmust be tetratomic. Hence ferrocyanogen can combine with\\nfour atoms of a monatomic metal such as potassium. The im-\\nportant compound known as potassium ferrocyanide, or yellow\\nprussiate of potash, has such a composition.\\nPotassium Ferrocyanide, K 4 Cy 6 Fe 3H 2 0.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This salt is\\nobtained by calcining animal matters, such as blood, horn, the\\ndebris of skin, leather, etc., in closed iron vessels with potassium\\ncarbonate. The sintered mass, which contains potassium cy-\\nanide, is exhausted with boiling water, and ferrous sulphate is\\nadded to the solution, which is then evaporated to crystalliza-\\ntion or the solution is boiled with metallic iron, which dissolves\\nwith evolution of hydrogen. The iron may also be added to\\nthe mixture of animal matter and potassium carbonate before\\ncalcination after cooling, the mass is pulverized and exhausted\\nwith boiling water. The solution contains ferrocyanide.\\nWhen sufficiently concentrated, it deposits the salt in yellow\\ncrystals, which are derived from a square octahedron. They\\nare unaltered by the air, but lose 12.8 per cent, of water at\\n100\u00c2\u00b0. The anhydrous salt is white.\\nPotassium ferrocyanide dissolves in 2 parts of boiling, and\\nin 4 parts of cold water. It is insoluble in alcohol. When\\nheated with bodies rich in oxygen, such as manganese dioxide,\\nit is converted into potassium cyanate, the iron itself being\\noxidized to peroxide. It is not poisonous.\\nWhen fused with sulphur, it is converted into potassium\\nsulphocyanate.\\nWhen heated with concentrated sulphuric acid, it yields pure\\ncarbon monoxide, and a residue consisting of sulphates of iron,\\npotassium, and ammonium.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0476.jp2"}, "475": {"fulltext": "POTASSIUM FERRICYANIDE. 469\\nPotassium ferrocyanide precipitates many metallic solutions.\\nThe following are some of these precipitates\\nZinc ferrocyanide Zn 2 Cy 6 Fe, white.\\nCopper ferrocyanide Cu 2 Cy 6 Fe, mahogany color.\\nLead ferrocyanide Pb 2 Cy 6 Fe, white.\\nSilver ferrocyanide Ag*Cy 6 Fe, white.\\nPotassium ferrocyanide forms a bluish-white precipitate with\\nferrous salts. This precipitate contains\\nCyTe |f\\nIt is identical with the bluish-white deposit which is formed when\\npotassium ferrocyanide is heated with dilute sulphuric acid.\\nPrussian Blue, (Fe 2 /(Cy 6 Fe) 3 This is the dark-blue pre-\\ncipitate obtained when a solution of potassium ferrocyanide is\\npoured into a ferric salt.\\n2Fe 2 Cl 6 3K 4 Cy 6 Fe 12KC1 Fe*(Cy 6 Fe) 3\\nFerric chloride. Potassium ferrocyanide. Ferric ferrocyanide.\\n(Prussian blue.)\\nWhen calcined in contact with the air, it leaves a residue\\nof peroxide of iron. It is insoluble in water, alcohol, and in\\nthe weaker acids. Oxalic acid dissolves it, and the solution is\\nemployed as a blue ink.\\nPOTASSIUM FERRICYANIDE.\\n(red prussiate of potash.)\\nK 3 Cy 6 Fe\\nThis beautiful salt, discovered by Leopold Gmelin, is formed\\nwhen a current of chlorine is passed into a solution of potassium\\nferrocyanide. Potassium chloride and potassium ferricyanide\\nare formed, and the latter gives to the liquid a deep green-brown\\ncolor. On evaporation it deposits the new salt, which is puri-\\nfied by a second crystallization. Potassium chloride remains\\nin the mother-liquor.\\n2K*(Cy 6 Fe) -f CI 2 2KC1 2K 3 Cy 6 Fe\\nPotassium ferrocyanide. Potassium ferricyanide.\\nPotassium ferricyanide forms magnificent clinorhombic\\nprisms of a ruby-red color. These crystals are anhydrous.\\nIt is believed that this salt contains a triad radical, Cy 6 Fe,\\nwhich is called ferricyanogen.\\nPotassium ferricyanide dissolves in 3.8 parts of cold water,\\nand in a less quantity of boiling water. The solution has a\\ndark yellow-brown color. It does not precipitate the ferric\\n40", "height": "4788", "width": "2927", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0477.jp2"}, "476": {"fulltext": "470 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nsalts. In solutions of the ferrous salts it gives a blue pre-\\ncipitate analogous to Prussian blue, and which is called Turn-\\nbulTs blue.\\n2K 3 Cy 6 Fe 3FeSO* 3K 2 S0 4 Fe 3 (Cy 6 Fe) 2\\nPotassium Ferrous sulphate. Potassium Ferrous ferricyanide.\\nferricyanide. sulphate. (Turnbull s blue.)\\nIn alkaline solution potassium ferricyanide acts as an ener-\\ngetic oxydizing agent, thus\\n2K 3 Cy 6 Fe 2KOH 2K*Cy 6 Fe H 2\\nNITROFERROCYANIDES.\\nThese salts, which were discovered by Playfair, are formed\\nby the action of nitric acid upon certain alkaline ferrocyanides.\\nThe best known is sodium nitroferrocyanide, or, as it is ordi-\\nnarily called, sodium nitroprusside.\\nIt is prepared by oxidizing potassium ferrocyanide with dilute\\nnitric acid. After nitration and evaporation, crystals of potas-\\nsium nitrate and a deposit of oxamide are obtained. The\\nmother-liquor is saturated with sodium carbonate, and on\\nevaporation yields sodium nitroprusside, which may be purified\\nby recrystallization.\\nSodium nitroferrocyanide crystallizes in large right rhombic\\nprisms of a ruby-red color. Its composition is represented by\\nthe formula Na 2 Cy 5 (NO)Fe 2H 2 0. Its aqueous solution\\nhas a red-brown color, and gives a very intense but evanescent\\npurple color with solutions of the alkaline sulphides.\\nCHLORIDES OF CYANOGEN.\\nThere are two chlorides of cyanogen known, a chloride,\\nCyCl, which is liquid below 15.5\u00c2\u00b0, and a solid chloride, Cy 3 Cl 3\\nThese two chlorides present a curious instance of polymerism.\\nLiquid Cyanogen Chloride, CyCl CNC1. This com-\\npound is prepared by passing chlorine gas over mercury cy-\\nanide, or better, into an aqueous solution of hydrocyanic acid,\\nwhich is maintained at 0\u00c2\u00b0. Hydrochloric acid and cyanogen\\nchloride are formed.\\nHCN CP CNC1 HC1\\nWhen the solution is saturated with chlorine, it is gently\\nheated, and the cyanogen chloride which is disengaged is", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0478.jp2"}, "477": {"fulltext": "AMIDO DERIVATIVES OF CYANOGEN. 471\\npassed through a tube containing calcium chloride, and con-\\ndensed in a well-cooled receiver.\\nWhen properly purified, cyanogen chloride is a colorless\\nliquid, having a penetrating odor, which is very irritating to\\nthe eyes. It boils at 15.5\u00c2\u00b0 and solidifies at about 6\u00c2\u00b0. When\\npure, it can be preserved without alteration, but if it contain a\\ntrace of chlorine, it soon becomes converted into the solid\\nchloride.\\nSolid Cyanogen Chloride, Cy 3 Cl 3 C 3 X 3 C1 3 This body\\nresults from the polymeric transformation which the liquid\\nchloride undergoes spontaneously under certain circumstances.\\nIt can also be obtained by exposing hydrocyanic acid to the\\naction of chlorine in direct sunlight.\\nIt crystallizes in brilliant, yellow needles or plates. It melts\\nat 140\u00c2\u00b0 and boils at 190\u00c2\u00b0. It has a peculiar, irritating odor.\\nBoiling water immediately decomposes it into hydrochloric and\\ncyanuric acids.\\nC 3 N 3 C1 3 3H 2 (C( ^3JN 3 3HC1\\nCyanogen chloride. Cyanuric acid.\\nCyanogen Bromide and Iodide. The bromide and iodide\\nof cyanogen correspond in constitution to the liquid chloride.\\nThey are obtained by the action of bromine or iodine upon\\nmercury cyanide. These elements decompose mercury cyanide\\nwith formation of bromide or iodide of mercury, the excess\\nof bromine or iodine combining with the cyanogen to form\\ncyanogen bromide or iodide.\\nCyanogen bromide, CXBr, is solid and crystallizes in bril-\\nliant cubes.\\nCyanogen iodide, CXI, sublimes spontaneously in beautiful\\ncolorless needles when a mixture of iodine and mercury cya-\\nnide is placed in the bottom of a flask, mercuric iodide being\\nformed. Cyanogen iodide has a penetrating odor it is very\\nvolatile, and, like the chloride and bromide, is very poisonous.\\nAMIDO DERIVATIVES OF CYANOGEN.\\nCyanamide, CN 2 H 2 C^^tt- This compound is formed\\nby the action of cyanogen chloride or bromide on an ethereal\\nsolution of ammonia. It is also obtained by the action of mer-\\ncuric oxide or silver oxide upon sulpho-urea (page 483).", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0479.jp2"}, "478": {"fulltext": "472 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nCS Nff H S\u00c2\u00b0 H S R2 C NH\\nSulpho-urea. Cyanamide.\\nIt forms crystals fusible at 40\u00c2\u00b0, soluble in water, alcohol,\\nand ether. Ammoniacal silver nitrate precipitates from its\\nsolution a yellow silver compound containing CN 2 Ag 2 By\\nthe action of acids it combines with the elements of water,\\nforming urea (page 478). Hydrogen sulphide reconverts it\\ninto sulpho-urea.\\nC Si H2S CS NH*\\nMelamine, C 3 N 6 H 6 When cyanamide is heated to 150\u00c2\u00b0, it\\nbecomes polymerized, and converted into tricyanuramide. This\\nsubstance is known as melamine. It crystallizes in brilliant\\nright-rhombic octahedra, soluble in hot water, insoluble in\\nalcohol and ether. It unites with acids, forming salts. When\\nheated with dilute alkalies or with acids, it is converted suc-\\ncessively by the action of one, two, or three molecules of\\nwater, and elimination of one, two, or three molecules of\\nammonia, into ammeline, ammelide, and cyanuric acid.\\n/NH 2 /OH /OH /OH\\nC 3 N ^NH 2 C 3 N\u00c2\u00abVNH 2 C 3 N 3 ^-OH C 3 N 3 (-OH\\nX NH 2 X NH 2 X NH 2 OH\\nMelamine. Ammeline. Ammelide. Cyanuric acid.\\nCyanuric acid, which is formed according to the following\\nequation, will be described farther on.\\nC 3 N 3 (NH 2 3 3H 2 G 3 N 3 (OH) 3 3NH 3\\nGUANIDINB.\\nCH5N 3\\nThis body is related to the amides of cyanogen. It was\\nfirst obtained by the oxidation of guanine, derived from guano\\nhence its name. Since then it has been formed synthetically\\nby the following reactions.\\n1. When an alcoholic solution of either cyanogen iodide or\\ncyanamide is heated to 100\u00c2\u00b0 with ammonium chloride\\nC ^NH NH C1 NH=C Jgl-HCl\\nCyanamide. Hydrochloride of guanidine.\\nIf cyanogen iodide be employed, cyanamide is first formed.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0480.jp2"}, "479": {"fulltext": "COMPOUNDS OF CARBON MONOXIDE. 473\\n2. By the action of carbonyl chloride on ammonia (G. Bou-\\nchardat).\\n3. By the action of ammonia on either ethyl orthocarbo-\\nnate or chloropicrin (page 491).\\nC(OC 2 H 5 3NH 3 CN 3 H 5 4C 2 H 5 .OH\\nEthyl orthocarbonate. Guanidine. Alcohol.\\n4. The method generally employed for the preparation of\\nguanidine consists in heating for a long time ammonium\\nsulphocyanate (page 482) to a temperature of 180\u00c2\u00b0 or 190\u00c2\u00b0.\\nSulpho-urea is formed, and decomposed into hydrogen sulphide\\nand guanidine sulphocyanate.\\n2CSN 2 H 4 H 2 S CN 3 H 5 .CNSH\\nSulpho-urea. Guanidine sulphocyanate.\\nProperties, Guanidine forms deliquescent crystals, very\\nsoluble in water and alcohol. It has a strong alkaline reaction,\\nand absorbs carbonic acid gas from the air. With acids it\\nforms crystallizable salts. The nitrate, CN 3 H 5 HNO 3 precipi-\\ntates in plates when nitric acid is added to an aqueous solution\\nof guanidine. The carbonate (CN 3 H 5 2 .H 2 C0 3 crystallizes in\\nquadratic prisms the solution of which has an alkaline reaction.\\nCOMPOUNDS OF CARBON MONOXIDE.\\nCarbon monoxide plays the part of a diatomic radical. It is\\ncapable of uniting with one atom of oxygen to form carbonic acid\\ngas, or with two atoms of chlorine to form carbonyl chloride.\\nIt can also unite with two residues, NH 2 which are mon-\\natomic since they represent ammonia less one atom of hydro-\\ngen lastly, it may unite with NH, which is diatomic since it\\nrepresents ammonia minus two atoms of hydrogen. The com-\\npounds thus formed have the following constitutions\\nCO.O carbon dioxide.\\nCI\\nCO ^pi carbonyl chloride.\\nCO NH2 urea.\\nCO(NH) isocyanic acid.\\nThe last two compounds can be considered as derived from\\nthe ammonia type.\\nIsocyanic acid is derived from one molecule of ammonia by\\nthe substitution of the diatomic radical CO, which is called\\ncarbonyl, for two atoms of hydrogen.\\n40*", "height": "4790", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0481.jp2"}, "480": {"fulltext": "474 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\n(CO\\nTx isocyanic acid.\\nUrea is derived from two molecules of ammonia by the sub-\\nstitution of the radical carbonyl for two atoms of hydrogen.\\n(H 2 (CO\\nN 2 H 2 N 2 I H 2 urea.\\nH 2 I H 2\\nUrea is then carbonyl diamide or more simply, carbamide.\\nISOCYANIC ACID.\\nCONH\\nLiebig and Wohler obtained this acid by the dry distillation\\nof cyanuric acid. One molecule of the latter, which is poly-\\nmeric with isocyanic acid, then breaks up into three molecules\\nof the latter body.\\nC 3 3 N 3 H 3 _ 3CQNH\\nCyanuric acid. Isocyanic acid.\\nThe latter acid condenses at a few degrees below 0\u00c2\u00b0 to a color-\\nless liquid having a strong and irritating odor. It is very\\nunstable. As soon as it is removed from the freezing mixture\\nin which it is condensed, and its temperature rises to a few\\ndegrees above 0\u00c2\u00b0, it produces a crackling noise and little ex-\\nplosions, and is converted by a molecular transformation into\\nan amorphous white mass called cyamelide. The latter body\\nis also formed at the same time as isocyanic acid by the dry\\ndistillation of cyanuric acid.\\nPotassium Isocyanate, KCON. This salt is prepared by\\nheating to dull redness in a flat sheet-iron dish an intimate\\nmixture of 2 parts of potassium ferrocyanide and 1 part of\\nmanganese dioxide, both in fine powder and perfectly dry.\\nThe mixture must be continually stirred it blackens and\\nenters into semi-fusion after cooling, it is reduced to powder\\nand exhausted with hot alcohol of 80 per cent. On cooling,\\nthe filtered alcoholic solution deposits potassium isocyanate in\\nlaminated, transparent crystals which are anhydrous. This salt\\nis very soluble in water, and but slightly soluble in cold concen-\\ntrated alcohol. If hydrochloric acid be added to an aqueous\\nsolution of potassium isocyanate, carbonic acid gas is disengaged\\nwith brisk effervescence. The liquid contains ammonium\\nchloride.\\nCONH H 2 CO 2 NH 3", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0482.jp2"}, "481": {"fulltext": "CYANIC ACID. 475\\nPotassium Cyanate. There is a compound isomeric with\\npotassium isocyanate it is formed by the action of cyanogen\\nchloride upon potassium hydrate (Bannow).\\nCN.C1 2KOH KC1 H 2 KCNO\\nCyanogen chloride. Potassium cyanate.\\nThe hydrate corresponding to this potassium salt would be\\nthe true cyanic acid, of which the ethers were discovered by\\nCloez. The compound formerly known by the name cyanic acid\\ndoes not merit that name. It is not a compound of cyanogen,\\nbut a combination of oxide of carbon it is carbimide. It is\\nthe isocyanic acid which we have just described. The follow-\\ning formulae will explain this curious isomerism.\\nH-O-CEN H-N=C=0\\nCyanic acid. Isocyanic acid.\\nK-O-C^N K-N=C=0\\nPotassium cyanate (Bannow). Potassium isocyanate (ordinary cyanate).\\nC 2 H 5 -0-CEN C 2 H 5 -N=C=0\\nEthyl cyanate Ethyl isocyanate.\\n(Cloez). (Cyanic ether of Wurtz.)\\nAmmonium Isocyanate. This is formed when vapor of\\nisocyanic acid is passed into a flask containing ammonia gas.\\nIt is a solid, white mass, very soluble in water. When its\\naqueous solution is treated with hydrochloric acid, it disengages\\ncarbon dioxide like the solution of potassium isocyanate. If\\nits aqueous solution be boiled, or even left to itself for several\\ndays, ammonium isocyanate becomes transformed into urea.\\n(NH*)CON CO\\nAmmonium isocyanate. Urea.\\nCYAN URIC ACID.\\nC 3 N 3 H 3 3 C 3 N 3 (OH) 3\\nCyanuric acid is formed by the action of water upon the\\nsolid cyanogen chloride, by the action of heat on urea, or by\\nthat of dilute acetic acid on a solution of potassium isocyanate\\nin the last case, potassium acid cyanurate, C 3 N 3 H 2 K0 3 is pre-\\ncipated after a time, and liberates cyanuric acid when treated\\nwith hydrochloric acid.\\nPreparation. Small quantities of urea are heated in an\\noil-bath until ammonia is no longer disengaged. The gray\\nmass remaining is pulverized and dissolved in dilute potassium", "height": "4791", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0483.jp2"}, "482": {"fulltext": "476 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nhydrate when the filtered solution is treated with hydrochloric\\nacid, cyanuric acid is obtained as a white precipitate.\\nAnother process consists in decomposing urea by a stream\\nof dry chlorine at a temperature of 130\u00c2\u00b0 or 140\u00c2\u00b0. Nitrogen\\nand hydrochloric acid are disengaged, and there remains a\\nmixture of cyanuric acid and ammonium chloride which may\\nbe separated by cold water. The residue consisting of cyanuric\\nacid is exhausted with boiling water, which, on cooling, deposits\\nthe acid in crystals.\\n3CON 2 H* CI 3 C 3 N 3 H 3 3 2NH*C1 HC1 N\\nUrea. Cyanuric acid.\\nProperties. Cyanuric acid occurs in small white crystals,\\nsoluble in forty parts of cold water, very soluble in boiling\\nwater and in alcohol. It separates from its boiling aqueous\\nsolution in orthorhombic prisms containing two molecules of\\nwater of crystallization. When strongly heated it yields\\nisocyanic acid. Phosphorus pentachloride converts it into solid\\ncyanogen chloride.\\nC 3 N 3 (OH) 3 3PC1 5 3POC1 3 C 3 N 3 C1 3 3HC1\\nBy this reaction, and by its formation from cyanogen chlo-\\nride, cyanuric acid is related to the cyanogen compounds, and\\nthe relation is expressed by the formula C 3 N 3 (OH) 3\\nWhen it is boiled with strong acids, cyanuric acid is decom-\\nposed into carbon dioxide and ammonia.\\nC 3 N 3 H 3Q3 3H 2 _ 3C0 2 _|_ 3N JJ3\\nThis reaction recalls the analogous decomposition of isocyanic\\nacid (page 474), and relates cyanuric acid to carbimide. From\\nthis point of view, cyanuric acid would be tricarbimide, that\\nis, three molecules of carbon monoxide (carbonyl) united by the\\nintervention of three imidogen groups (NH).\\n(CO.NH) 3 CO NH\\nIt is, then, possible that there may be two isomeric modifica-\\ntions of cyanuric acid. There are certainly two isomerides of\\nits ethers: the trimethylic ether of the true cyanuric acid,\\nC 3 N 3 (OCH 3 3 is formed by the action of cyanogen chloride on\\nsodium methylate and, on the other hand, there are ethers\\nof tricarbimide or isocyanuric acid, which will be described\\nfarther on.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0484.jp2"}, "483": {"fulltext": "CARBAMIC ACID UREA. 477\\nCARBAMIC ACID.\\nC0 NH 2\\nThis acid is not known in the free state. Its ammonium\\nsalt is commonly known as anhydrous ammonium carbonate its\\nether, urethane, or ethyl carbamate, is described on page 515.\\nro ^ONH\u00c2\u00ab no^ OC2H5\\n^NH 2 ^NH 2\\nAmmonium carbamate. Urethane.\\nWhen two volumes of ammonia gas and one volume of\\ncarbon dioxide are mixed over the mercury trough, a white\\nmass is obtained this exists in the ammonium carbonate of\\ncommerce, and constitutes ammonium carbamate. At 60\u00c2\u00b0, it is\\ndissociated and resolved into its constituent gases, one molecule\\nof ammonium carbamate yielding four volumes of ammonia\\nand two volumes of carbon dioxide. Water converts it into\\nammonium carbonate.\\nCO H.0 CO\\nAmmonium carbamate. Ammonium carbonate.\\nAmmonium carbamate is intermediate between urea and\\nammonium carbonate.\\nco ONH* C0 0NH4 CO^ NH2\\nLU ONH 4 LU NH 2 LU NH 2\\nAmmonium carbonate. Ammonium carbamate. Urea.\\nUREA OR CARBAMIDE.\\nCO(NH 2 2\\nThis body, discovered by Rouelle in 1773, is the most\\nabundant of the solid constituents of urine. Wohler was the\\nfirst to obtain urea artificially by heating an aqueous solution\\nof ammonium isocyanate.\\nCONNH* CO(NH 2 2\\nThis discovery was the first instance of the synthesis of an\\norganic body.\\nUrea is also formed by many other reactions.\\n1. By the action of carbonyl chloride upon ammonia\\n(Natanson).\\nCO g 2NH 3 CO -f 2HC1", "height": "4782", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0485.jp2"}, "484": {"fulltext": "478 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\n2. By the action of ammonia on ethyl carbonate.\\nO P2TT5 NPT 2\\nCO aC 2 H 5 2NH3 C0 NH 2 2(C 2 H 5 .OH)\\nEthyl carbonate. Urea. Alcohol.\\n3. When ammonium carbamate is heated to 130\u00c2\u00b0 or 140\u00c2\u00b0\\nunder pressure in sealed tubes.\\nC0 NH? 4 C0 NH H2\\nAmmonium carbamate.\\nThese reactions show clearly that urea is the amide corre-\\nsponding to carbonic acid, that is, carbamide. Indeed, it\\nrepresents neutral ammonium carbonate, less two molecules\\nof water.\\nco aNH* 2H2 c0 nh\u00c2\u00b0\\n4. Urea is formed by the action of small quantities of acids\\non cyanamide.\\nC \u00c2\u00abNH H2 C0 NIP\\nCyanamide. Urea.\\n5. When oxamide is heated with mercuric oxide (Williamson).\\n\\\\TfJ2 NR 2\\nC2 2 NH* C 2 C0 NH*\\nOxamide.\\nPreparation. 1. Urea may be obtained from urine by the\\nfollowing process. The urine is evaporated to a syrupy consist-\\nence on a water-bath. It is allowed to cool, and an excess of\\ncold nitric acid is added a mass of crystals are formed, which\\nordinarily have a brown color. They are drained, washed with\\na little ice-water, redissolved in hot water, and animal charcoal\\nwhich has been washed with hydrochloric acid is added. The\\nwhole is heated on a water-bath for a few minutes and then\\nfiltered. Colorless crystals of urea nitrate are obtained on\\ncooling.\\nThey are dissolved in water, and barium carbonate is\\nadded until all effervescence ceases. Carbon dioxide is dis-\\nengaged, and barium nitrate is formed, while the urea is set\\nfree. The filtered liquor is evaporated to dryness on the\\nwater-bath, and the residue exhausted with absolute alcohol,\\nwhich dissolves the urea, while the barium nitrate remains.\\nThe alcoholic solution is concentrated, and urea crystallizes\\nout.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0486.jp2"}, "485": {"fulltext": "UREA. 479\\n2. Potassium isocyanate is prepared by heating 28 parts of\\nwell-dried potassium ferrocyanide with 14 parts of manganese\\ndioxide, as has been already indicated. The cooled mass is\\ncoarsely powdered, and exhausted with cold water, which dis-\\nsolves the potassium isocyanate. 20 parts of ammonium sul-\\nphate are added to the filtered liquid, which is then evaporated\\nto dryness on a water-bath. The residue is exhausted with\\nboiling alcohol, which dissolves the urea and leaves potassium\\nsulphate.\\nIn this operation the potassium isocyanate and ammonium\\nsulphate undergo double decomposition, with formation of\\npotassium sulphate, and ammonium isocyanate which is trans-\\nformed into urea.\\nProperties. Urea separates from its aqueous solution in\\nlong, flattened, and striated prisms. It sometimes deposits\\nfrom its alcoholic solution in square prisms.\\nThe crystals are colorless and possess a cooling taste. They\\ndissolve in their own weight of water at 15\u00c2\u00b0, and in 5 parts\\nof cold alcohol of specific gravity 0.816. They are but slightly\\nsoluble in ether.\\nIf a solution of urea be added to a concentrated solution of\\nchloride of lime, there is an abundant disengagement of gas,\\nwhich is a mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide. The urea\\nis entirely destroyed.\\nCH*N 2 H 2 -f 3CP CO 2 N 2 6HC1\\nThis reaction serves for the estimation of urea in urine.\\nThe volume of nitrogen disengaged when a given volume of\\nthe urine is treated with sodium hypobromite, is measured, and\\nthe corresponding quantity of urea is calculated.\\nAn aqueous solution of chlorine produces the same decom-\\nposition.\\nNitrous anhydride instantly destroys urea, with formation of\\nwater, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen.\\nCH 4 N 2 -f N 2 3 CO 2 2H 2 2N 2\\nWhen an aqueous solution of urea is heated to 140\u00c2\u00b0 in a\\nsealed tube, it absorbs the elements of water, and is converted\\ninto ammonia and carbon dioxide.\\nCENNPO H-0 C.O 2 2NH 3\\nThis conversion of urea into carbonate of ammonia takes", "height": "4799", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0487.jp2"}, "486": {"fulltext": "480 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nplace spontaneously in stale urine, under the influence of a\\npeculiar ferment (Van Tieghem, Musculus).\\nUrea fuses at 132\u00c2\u00b0. When it is rapidly heated to a higher\\ntemperature, it disengages ammonia and leaves a white residue,\\nwhich consists principally of cyanuric acid (page 475). There\\nare also formed ammelide and biuret (page 481).\\nWhen urea is heated with ethyl chlorocarbonate (page 516),\\nethyl allophanate is formed.\\nm ^NH\u00c2\u00bb m .01 po .NH.CO.OC 2 H 5 ri\\nEthyl Ethyl allophanate.\\nchlorocarbonate.\\nLiebig, who discovered this compound, obtained it by passing\\nvapor of isocyanic acid into absolute alcohol. Ethyl allophanate\\ncrystallizes in brilliant prisms, soluble in alcohol and in boiling\\nwater, and fusible at 190\u00c2\u00b0\u00e2\u0080\u0094 191\u00c2\u00b0. It is a substituted urea, one\\natom of hydrogen in the latter being replaced by the group\\nCO.OC 2 H 5\\nCompounds of XJrea with Acids. If nitric acid be added\\nto a concentrated solution of urea, the liquid becomes a white,\\ncrystalline, laminated mass, composed of crystals of urea nitrate,\\nCH 4 N 2 O.HN0 3 which are only slightly soluble in nitric\\nacid. These crystals are soluble in water and alcohol. They\\nstrongly redden litmus solution. They decompose at 140\u00c2\u00b0,\\ndisengaging a large quantity of gas.\\nThe hydrochloride of urea, CH 4 N 2 0.HC1, and the oxalate,\\n(CH 4 N 2 0) 2 C 2 H 2 4 are known. The latter salt precipitates in\\nsmall, colorless, granular crystals when a concentrated solution\\nof oxalic acid is added to a concentrated solution of urea.\\nCompounds of Urea with Oxides and with Salts. There\\nare several compounds of urea with mercuric oxide. They\\nare formed either by the direct action of mercuric oxide upon\\nurea, which dissolves that oxide, or by the reaction of mercuric\\nchloride or nitrate upon urea, which is precipitated by both of\\nthese salts. A solution of urea converts recently-precipitated\\nsilver oxide into a gray powder, which is a compound of urea\\nand oxide of silver. Among the compounds of urea with the\\nvarious salts, that which it forms with sodium chloride is the\\nmost important. It crystallizes in colorless, oblique rhombic\\nprisms, containing CH 4 N 2 O.NaCl H 2 0.\\nAmong the bodies closely related to urea there is an in-\\nteresting isomeride, isuret, which is formed by the action", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0488.jp2"}, "487": {"fulltext": "COMPOUND UREAS BIURET. 481\\nof hydrocyanic acid on hydroxylamine also hydroxyl urea,\\nNFT OH\\nCO ^tt2 which is formed by the action of isocyanic acid\\non hydroxylamine.\\nCOMPOUND UREAS.\\nThe compounds which are derived from urea by the substi-\\ntution of various alcoholic radicals for hydrogen are called\\ncompound ureas. They are obtained either by the action of\\ncyanic acid upon the compound ammonias, or by treating the\\ncyanic ethers with ammonia or with the compound ammonias\\n(Ad. Wurtz).\\nCONH N/gF CO C2H5\\nCyanic acid. Ethylamine. Ethylurea.\\nCOX(C 2 H 5 NH 3 CO 2h2 (C?HS)\\nEthyl cyanate. Ethylurea.\\nThe following is the nomenclature and composition of some\\nof the principal compound ureas\\nCH\u00c2\u00b1N 2 urea.\\nCH 3 (CH 3 )X 2 methvlurea.\\nCH 3 (C 2 H5)N 2 ethylurea.\\nCH 2 (C 2 H*) 2 N 2 cliethylurea.\\nCH(C 2 H5) 3 N 2 triethylurea.\\nCH^CSH 11 ainylurea.\\nCH 3 (C\u00c2\u00abH5)N 2 phenylurea.\\nCH 2 (C 6 H 5 2 N 2 diphenylurea.\\nBIURET.\\nC 2 H5N 3 2\\nBiuret is the amide of allophanic acid, the ethyl compound\\nof which is described on the preceding page, and is formed\\nwhen allophanic ether is heated to 100\u00c2\u00b0 with aqueous ammonia.\\nCO T JJ; COOC2H5 NH 3 JX5NH C 2 H 5 .OH\\nEthyl allophanate. Biuret. Alcohol.\\nIt is also formed by the action of heat on urea.\\n2CON 2 H 4 C 2 2 N 3 H 5 NH 3\\nv ff 41", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0489.jp2"}, "488": {"fulltext": "482 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nBiuret crystallizes in delicate needles, or in little masses,\\ncontaining one molecule of water of crystallization. In the\\npresence of potassium hydrate its aqueous solution dissolves\\ncupric oxide with the production of a violet-red color.\\nClosely related to the compounds of carbon monoxide are\\nthe following bodies, in which the radical sulphocarbonyl, CS,\\nreplaces the analogous radical carbonyl CO.\\nPOTASSIUM THIOCYANATE (SULPHOCYANATE).\\nKCSN\\nThis salt, which was formerly called potassium sulpho-\\ncyanide, corresponds to the isocyanate, in which the oxygen\\nis replaced by sulphur.\\nIt is prepared by heating a mixture of two parts of potas-\\nsium ferrocyanide and one part of sublimed sulphur to redness\\nin a covered crucible. After cooling, the mass is dissolved in\\nwater, the solution filtered, and potassium carbonate added\\nto the liquor as long as a precipitate of ferrous carbonate is\\nformed. The solution is again filtered, evaporated to dry-\\nness, the residue exhausted with alcohol, and the alcoholic\\nsolution allowed to evaporate spontaneously.\\nPotassium thiocyanate crystallizes in long striated prisms\\nresembling potassium nitrate, or in needles terminated by\\nfour-faced points. It is deliquescent and very soluble in\\nwater and alcohol.\\nSolution of potassium thiocyanate produces an intense\\nblood- red color with the ferric salts, due to the formation of\\nferric thiocyanate.\\nAmmonium Thiocyanate, NH 4 CSN. This body corre-\\nsponds to ammonium isocyanate. It occurs in the water\\nfrom the purification of coal-gas. When heated to 170\u00c2\u00b0, it\\nis converted into sulpho-urea (Reynolds).\\nThe sulphocyanates present an isomerism exactly like that\\nwhich has been mentioned for the cyanates there is a series\\nof compounds derived from a thiocyanic acid, N=C-SH, and\\nanother series derived from an isothiocyanic acid, (CS) NH.\\nTo the latter series belong the ordinary thiocyanates, examples\\nof which have just been described.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0490.jp2"}, "489": {"fulltext": "MONATOMIC ALCOHOLS. 483\\nSULPHO-UREA, OR SULPHOCARBAMIDE.\\nSulpho-urea, which was discovered by Reynolds, is formed\\nby a molecular metamorphosis of ammonium sulphocyanate, as\\nurea is formed by the metamorphosis of ammonium isocyanate.\\nCS-N -N V I-P becomes CS\\nIt is also formed by the direct combination of hydrogen\\nsulphide and cyanamide (page 472).\\nIt crystallizes sometimes in fine, silky needles, sometimes in\\nlarge orthorhombic prisms. It is very soluble in water and\\nalcohol, slightly soluble in ether. It has a bitter taste and a\\nneutral reaction. It melts at 149\u00c2\u00b0, and if heated with water\\nto 140\u00c2\u00b0 is reconverted into ammonium sulphocyanate. With\\nacids it forms crystallizable salts. When treated with mercuric\\noxide, it yields cyanamide.\\nMONATOMIC ALCOHOLS AND THEIR\\nDERIVATIVES.\\nThese compounds form part of the great class of alcohols.\\nThey are neutral hydrates, derived from hydrocarbons by the\\nsubstitution of the radical hydroxyl OH for an atom of hydro-\\ngen. Among these bodies, the more important are those which\\nbelong to the same series, as ordinary alcohol, or ethyl hydrate.\\nwhich has been indicated on page 450. Wood-spirit, or methyl\\nhydrate, is the simplest term of the series. While studying its\\ncombinations, in 1835, Dumas and Peli^ot were the first to call\\nattention to the function alcohol.\\nMETHYL COMPOUNDS.\\nIn these compounds, we assume the existence of a radical,\\nCH 3 to which the name methyl is given. Wood-spirit is its\\nhydrate marsh gas, or methane, its hydride. To this hydride\\ncorrespond a chloride, a bromide, and an iodide. Chloroform\\nis dichloro-methylchloride, or trichloromethane. Around methyl\\nhydrate are grouped the salts of methyl or methylic ethers, re-\\nsulting from the action of the acids upon that body, and which", "height": "4787", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0491.jp2"}, "490": {"fulltext": "484 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nbear the same relations to methyl hydrate as the potassium\\nsalts do to potassium hydrate. They are the compound\\nmethyl ethers. The following formulae indicate the relations\\nwhich exist between these bodies\\nCH 8 H\\nOH 0\\nMethane, or methyl hydride.\\nMethyl hydrate\\nCH 3 C1\\nCH 0\\nCH s; u\\nMethyl chloride.\\nMethyl oxide.\\nCHCP\\nC 2 H 3 0. n\\nCH 3 U\\nChloroform.\\nMethyl acetate.\\nb compounds will be but\\nbriefly describee\\nMETHANE.\\n(MARSH gas.)\\nCH\u00c2\u00b1\\nThe inflammable gas which is disengaged from the mud of\\nmarshes is impure methane. The same gas is frequently\\nevolved in the galleries of coal mines, and constitutes the\\nfire-damp of miners. It is produced artificially by the action\\nof an excess of alkali upon acetic acid (Persoz, Dumas).\\nPreparation. Methane is most conveniently prepared in\\nthe pure state by strongly heating in a glass flask or retort a\\nmixture of 1 part of sodium acetate, 1 part of potassium hy-\\ndrate, and 1 i parts of lime the lime is added to prevent the\\naction of the potassium hydrate upon the glass. The gas may\\nbe collected over water.\\nNaC 2 H 3 2 NaOH CH 4 Na 2 C0 3\\nSodium acetate. Methane.\\nProperties. Methane is a colorless, odorless gas. Its den-\\nsity is 0.559 it is but slightly soluble in water, somewhat more\\nso in alcohol. It burns in the air with a pale, almost non-\\nluminous flame. A mixture of methane and oxygen explodes\\nviolently on the application of flame or the passage of an\\nelectric spark.\\nIf two volumes of methane and four volumes of oxygen be\\nintroduced into an eudiometer and the spark be passed, a bright\\nflash is visible. After the combustion, the mercury rises in the\\ntube, and it is found that the volume of gas is reduced to one-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0492.jp2"}, "491": {"fulltext": "METHYL HYDROXIDE. 485\\nthird of the original volume (to 2 volumes) if a solution of\\npotassium hydrate be introduced, the whole of the remaining\\ngas will be absorbed. 2 volumes of methane produce in burn-\\ning 2 volumes of carbon dioxide, and require 4 volumes of\\noxygen. This experiment establishes the molecular com-\\nposition of methane.\\n2 volumes of carbon dioxide contain 2 volumes of oxygen\\ncombined with 1 volume (1 atom) of carbon consequently\\none molecule of marsh gas contains one atom of carbon.\\nThe other 2 volumes of oxygen consumed have combined\\nwith 4 volumes of hydrogen, contained in 2 volumes of\\nmethane that is, the molecule of methane contains 4 atoms\\n(=2 molecules) of hydrogen.\\nHence it follows that a molecule of methane contains 1\\natom of carbon and 4 atoms of hydrogen.\\nA mixture of chlorine and methane explodes when exposed\\nto direct sunlight. In diffused daylight, the action is less\\nviolent, especially if an inert gas, such as carbon dioxide, be\\nadded. In this case, methyl chloride is formed, and in pres-\\nence of an excess of chlorine, methylene chloride, chloroform^\\nand finally carbon tetrachloride.\\nCH 4 -f CI 2 HC1 CH 3 C1 methvl chloride.\\nCH* 2C1 2 2HC1 CH 2 C1 2 methylene chloride.\\nCH* 3C1 2 3HC1 CHC1 3 chloroform.\\nCH* -f 4C1 2 4HC1 CC1 4 carbon tetrachloride.\\nIt is seen that in these reactions the chlorine is substituted\\nfor hydrogen, atom for atom.\\nInversely, when these substitution products are submitted\\nto the action of nascent hydrogen, an inverse substitution is\\neffected they are reconverted into methane. This may be\\naccomplished by putting the chlorine compounds in contact\\nwith sodium amalgam and water. The latter is decomposed by\\nthe sodium, and constitutes a source of hydrogen (Melsens).\\nCHC1 3 3H 2 3HC1 CH*\\nMETHYL HYDROXIDE, OR METHYL ALCOHOL.\\n(wood-spirit.)\\nCH 4 CH 3 -OH\\nThe products of the dry distillation of wood contain about\\none per cent, of a spirituous liquid, which was discovered in\\n41*", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0493.jp2"}, "492": {"fulltext": "486 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\n1812 by Taylor, and named wood-spirit. It is separated by\\nseveral distillations and rectifications over lime for, being\\nmore volatile than the other products, it passes over first.\\nThe methyl alcohol of commerce is always impure, and\\ncannot be purified by fractional distillation, as it contains a\\nconsiderable proportion of acetone, of which the boiling-point\\n(56\u00c2\u00b0) is very near that of methyl alcohol. The impurities\\nmay be removed by treating the impure alcohol with cal-\\ncium chloride, with which it forms a crystalline compound,\\nCaCP -f- 4CH 3 .OH. The crystals are drained, dried between\\nfolds of blotting-paper, and distilled with water, when they\\nyield dilute methyl alcohol. This is rectified by repeated\\ndistillation, and finally dehydrated over quick-lime.\\nTo obtain the alcohol perfectly pure, an ether of methyl\\nis prepared and freed from all impurities by either crystal-\\nlization or distillation. The ether is then decomposed with\\nan alkaline hydroxide, and the methyl alcohol formed is dis-\\ntilled off and dehydrated over lime. Thus, methyl oxalate\\nis prepared by treating the still impure methyl alcohol with\\noxalic acid, and is purified by crystallization.\\n2CH 3 .OH C 2 4 H 2 (CH 3 2 .C 2 4 2H 2\\nMethyl hydroxide. Oxalic acid. Methyl oxalate.\\nThe methyl oxalate is boiled with potassium hydroxide,\\nand the methyl alcohol which distils is rectified over quick-\\nlime.\\n(CH 3 2 .C 2 4 2KOH 2CH 3 .OH C 2 4 K 2\\nIt is a mobile, colorless liquid, having an alcoholic odor.\\nIt boils at 66.5\u00c2\u00b0. Its density at 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 0.8142.\\nIt is inflammable and burns with an almost colorless flame.\\nIt is miscible with water, alcohol, and ether in all proportions.\\nIt dissolves caustic baryta, forming a definite combination.\\nPotassium and sodium react energetically upon methyl hy-\\ndrate the metal dissolves with disengagement of hydrogen and\\nformation of potassium or sodium methylate.\\nCH 3 -OH CH 3 -OK\\nMethyl hydrate. Potassium methylate.\\nIf methyl alcohol be placed under a bell-jar containing also\\nsome watch-glasses filled with platinum black, so that the vapor\\nof the wood-spirit mixed with air may come in contact with\\nthe finely-divided metal, it is found that the liquid soon becomes", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0494.jp2"}, "493": {"fulltext": "CHLORIDE, BROMIDE, AND IODIDE OF METHYL. 487\\nstrongly acid. By the slow oxidation of the wood-spirit under\\nthese conditions, formic acid is produced (Dumas and Peligot).\\nCH 3 -OH O 2 CHO-OH H 2\\nMethyl hydrate. Formic acid.\\nMETHYL OXIDE.\\n(CH*) 2\\nWhen methyl alcohol is heated with twice its weight of\\nconcentrated sulphuric acid, a colorless gas is disengaged, which\\nis methyl oxide.\\n2CH 3 .OH (CH 3 2 H 2\\nMethyl hydrate. Methyl oxide.\\nThis gas is formed by the dehydration of methyl alcohol\\nand the linking together of two methyl groups by an atom of\\noxygen. It is methyl ether. It holds the same relation to\\nmethyl hydrate that ordinaiy ether does to ethyl hydrate.\\nIt is colorless, very soluble in alcohol and ether, and quite\\nsoluble in water. It liquefies at a very low temperature\\n(-23\u00c2\u00b0).\\nCHLORIDE, BROMIDE, AND IODIDE OF METHYL.\\nThese compounds may be regarded as marsh gas in which\\none atom of hydrogen is replaced by an atom of chlorine, bro-\\nmine, or iodine.\\nThey are formed by the action of hydrochloric, hydrobromic,\\nand hydriodic acids upon methyl alcohol.\\nCH 3 .OH HC1 CH 3 C1 H 2\\nHence they are considered as derived from the hydracids by\\nthe substitution of the group methyl for the atom of hydrogen.\\nHC1 (CH 3 )C1\\nHydrochloric acid. Methyl chloride.\\nMethyl chloride is a colorless gas, having an agreeable odor.\\nWhen exposed to intense cold, it condenses to a liquid which\\nboils at 22\u00c2\u00b0. When heated for a considerable time with\\na concentrated solution of potassium hydrate, it is converted\\ninto methyl alcohol. Liquid methyl chloride is employed in-\\ndustrially in the production of cold, and large quantities are\\nconsumed in the manufacture of dye-stuffs.\\nMethyl iodide, CH 3 I, boils at 43\u00c2\u00b0 its density at 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 2.1992.", "height": "4776", "width": "2933", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0495.jp2"}, "494": {"fulltext": "488 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIt is made by gradually adding iodine to a mixture of methyl\\nalcohol and amorphous phosphorus, and distilling. The dis-\\ntilled liquid is mixed with water, which precipitates the iodide\\nthe dense liquid is separated, dried with calcium chloride, and\\ndistilled.\\nMETHYLENE CHLORIDE.\\nCH 2 C1 2\\nThis compound may be prepared by the action of chlorine\\non methane, or on methyl chloride, or by the reduction of\\nchloroform by nascent hydrogen. The latter method is the\\nmore convenient. An alcoholic solution of chloroform is treated\\nwith zinc in a flask connected with a condenser, and hydrochlo-\\nric acid is introduced in small portions. Methylene chloride\\nand unaltered chloroform distil over, and towards the close of\\nthe operation the distillation is continued by the aid of heat.\\nThe distillate is then washed, dried, and submitted to fractional\\ndistillation.\\nMethylene chloride is a mobile liquid, having an odor resem-\\nbling that of chloroform, and boiling at 40\u00c2\u00b0. Its density at 0\u00c2\u00b0\\nis 1.36.\\nMETHYLENE IODIDE,\\nCH 2 I 2\\nis made by the action of hydriodic acid on chloroform or iodo-\\nform in sealed tubes at a temperature of 150\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCHOP 4HI CH 2 P 3HC1 I 2\\nIt is also formed by the action of sodium ethylate on iodo-\\nform. It is a yellow, highly refracting liquid, having a density\\nof 3.342 at 5\u00c2\u00b0, and solidifying at 2\u00c2\u00b0. It boils at 182\u00c2\u00b0, with\\npartial decomposition.\\nOOH 8\\nMethylal, or the dimethylic ether of methylene, CH 2 ^pTi 3\\nis obtained by the action of sulphuric acid and manganese di-\\noxide on methyl alcohol. It is a limpid liquid, boiling at 42\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIts reactions are identical with*those of formaldehyde (p. 545).\\nOC 2 H 5\\nMethylene diethylate, CH 2 oC 2 H 5 tne etner intermediary\\nbetween methyl-ethyl oxide (p. 502) and Kay s ether (p. 489),\\nmay be obtained by the action of sodium ethylate on methylene\\nchloride (Greene).", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0496.jp2"}, "495": {"fulltext": "CHLOROFORM. 489\\nCH 2 C1 2 2C 2 H 5 ONa 2NaCl CHXOC^H 5 2\\nIt is an ethereal liquid, having a pleasant, penetrating odor.\\nIts density at 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 0.851, and it boils at 89\u00c2\u00b0.\\nC 2 H 3 2\\nMethylene diacetate, CH 2 C2H 3Q 2 is formed by the action\\nat 100\u00c2\u00b0 of silver acetate on methylene iodide in presence of\\nacetic acid (Boutlerow). It is an aromatic liquid, which when\\nheated with lead oxide is decomposed into lead acetate and\\noxymethylene (p. 545).\\n3CH 2 (C 2 H 3 2 j 2 3PbO 3Pb(C 2 H 3 2 2 C 3 H 6 3\\nMethylene diacetate. Lead acetate. Trioxymethylene.\\nCHLOROFORM.\\nCHCl 3\\nThis important substance was discovered in 1831 by Soubei-\\nran and Liebig. It is made by distilling either dilute alcohol\\nor acetone with bleaching powder (chloride of lime). The\\ndistilled liquid separates in two layers, of which the lower\\nis impure chloroform. It is separated, washed first with water\\nand then with a solution of potassium carbonate, and rectified\\nover calcium chloride.\\nChloroform is a colorless, very mobile liquid, having an\\nagreeable, ethereal odor. Its density at 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.525, and it\\nboils at 60.8\u00c2\u00b0. It does not take fire on contact with flame.\\nIt is but slightly soluble in water, but dissolves readily in\\nalcohol and ether. It dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, fats,\\nresins, a great number of the alkaloids, and in general, organic\\nmatters rich in carbon.\\nBy the prolonged action of chlorine, it is converted into\\ncarbon tetrachloride, CC1 4 a colorless liquid boiling at 77\u00c2\u00b0.\\nA boiling alcoholic solution of potassium hydrate converts it\\ninto formate and chloride.\\nCHCl 3 4KOH 2H 2 3KC1 KCHO 2\\nChloroform. Potassium formate.\\nWhen chloroform is boiled with an alcoholic solution of\\nethylate of sodium, sodium chloride is formed, together with\\nan ethereal compound, CH(OC 2 H 5 3 in which 3 oxethyl groups,\\nOC 2 H 5 replace the 3 chlorine atoms of chloroform (Kay).\\nCHCl 3 3NaO.C 2 H 5 3NaCl CH(OC 2 H 5 3\\nChloroform. Sodium ethylate. Kay s ether.", "height": "4788", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0497.jp2"}, "496": {"fulltext": "490 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nChloroform, heated to 180\u00c2\u00b0 with aqueous or alcoholic ammo-\\nnia, yields ammonium cyanide and sal-ammoniac. This re-\\naction takes place at 100\u00c2\u00b0, in presence of potassium hydrate.\\nCHCP 5NH 3 NIPCN 3NIPC1\\nChloroform acts in a remarkable manner upon the phenols\\nin presence of an alkali such as soda or potassa, forming aro-\\nmatic aldehydes. This reaction, discovered by Reimer, will be\\ndescribed farther on (see Phenol).\\nWhen heated with an alcoholic solution of ethylamine in\\npresence of potassium hydrate, chloroform yields ethyl-carbyl-\\namine (page 509). A similar reaction occurs with other bases\\nanalogous to ethylamine, such as aniline. This reaction char-\\nacterizes the primary amines (Hofmann).\\nChloroform is much employed in surgery as an anaesthetic.\\nThe inhalation of its vapor produces insensibility and loss of\\nmuscular action, and apparently without any danger, provided\\nthe preparation is free from impurities.\\nBROMOFORM.\\nCHBr 3\\nBromoform may be made by the action of bromine on a solu-\\ntion of an alkaline hydrate in alcohol or acetone. Potassium\\nor sodium hydrate is dissolved in its own weight of crude methyl\\nalcohol, and to the solution, which is cooled in ice-water, bromine\\nis added in small portions until the liquid begins to assume a\\npermanent color. The product of the reaction is agitated with\\nwater, and the oily liquid which separates is washed, dried, and\\nrectified.\\nBromoform is an oily liquid, having an agreeable odor, re-\\nsembling that of chloroform. Its density is 2.77, and it boils\\nat about 150\u00c2\u00b0. Insoluble in water, it dissolves readily in alcohol\\nand ether. Its reactions are similar to those of chloroform.\\nIODOFORM.\\nCHP\\nIodoform is formed by the simultaneous action of iodine and\\nan alkaline hydrate on alcohol and many other organic sub-\\nstances. It is prepared by dissolving two parts of crystallized\\nsodium carbonate in ten parts of water and one part of alcohol\\nthe solution is heated to 80\u00c2\u00b0, and one part of iodine is added", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0498.jp2"}, "497": {"fulltext": "NITROFORM CHLOROPICRIN. 491\\nin small portions. Iodoform separates in yellow scales. If\\nalcohol and potassium hydrate be added to the mother liquid\\nand chlorine be passed through, an additional quantity of iodo-\\nform may be obtained.\\nIodoform crystallizes in brilliant yellow, hexagonal scales,\\nwhich sometimes assume large dimensions.\\nIt has a peculiar odor, recalling that of saffron. It melts at\\n119\u00c2\u00b0, and cannot be distilled, but at 100\u00c2\u00b0 its tension of vapor\\nis sufficient to allow it to volatilize with the vapor of water.\\nInsoluble in water, it dissolves in alcohol and ether. By the\\naid of heat, hydriodic acid converts it into methylene iodide with\\nseparation of iodine.\\nCHI 3 HI CH 2 I 2 I 2\\nThis reduction by hydriodic acid is only one example of the\\naction of that acid on carbon compounds generally. The extent\\nof the reduction depends upon the temperature at which the\\nreaction takes place. Iodine is always set free in these cases.\\nOwing to its antiseptic properties, iodoform is extensively\\nused in surgery.\\nNITROFORM.\\nCH(N0 2 3\\nThis compound is trinitromethane, that is, methane, CH*,\\nin which three atoms of hydrogen are replaced by three nitryl\\ngroups, NO 2 It is formed in small quantity by the action of\\nnitric acid on various organic compounds. It is also formed\\nwhen trinitroacetonitrile (p. 493) is boiled with water.\\nC(N0 2 3 -CN 2H 2 CH(N0 2 3 .NH 3 CO 2\\nTrinitroacetonitrile. Ammonia compound of nitroform.\\nFrom the ammonia compound formed in this reaction, sul-\\nphuric acid separates nitroform as a thick, colorless oil, which\\nbelow 15\u00c2\u00b0 solidifies in cubical crystals.\\nNitroform is soluble in water; when rapidly heated it ex-\\nplodes. It plays the part of an energetic acid the single atom\\nof hydrogen which it contains is strongly basic, by reason of\\nits proximity to the three nitryl groups. There is a potassium\\nsalt C(N0 2 3 K.\\nCHLOROPICRIN.\\nCC1 3 (N0 2\\nChloropicrin, which has long been known, represents chloro-\\nform in which the hydrogen atom is replaced by the group NO 2", "height": "4799", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0499.jp2"}, "498": {"fulltext": "492 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIt is formed by the action of nitric acid on many chlorine or-\\nganic compounds, such as chloral. On the other hand, it may\\nbe obtained by the reaction of chlorine or chlorinated lime on\\nnitrogenized organic compounds, such as picric acid, mercuric\\nfulminate, etc. It is prepared by distilling a milk of chlorinated\\nlime with a saturated solution of picric acid. Chloropicrin then\\ndistils with the vapor of water.\\nIt is a colorless liquid, having a very irritating odor and\\nexciting tears. Its density is 1.665. It boils at 112\u00c2\u00b0, but ex-\\nplodes when heated suddenly. Nascent hydrogen, produced by\\nthe action of acetic acid and iron, converts it into methylamine.\\nCC1 3 (N0 2 6H 2 CH 3 .NH 2 3HC1 2H 2\\nChloropicrin. Methylamine.\\nThere is a bromopicrin, CBr 3 (N0 2 prepared by a reaction\\nanalogous to that which yields chloropicrin, which it resembles\\nin its general properties.\\nCARBON TETRACHLORIDE.\\nCC1*\\nCarbon tetrachloride, or tetrachloromethane, is obtained by\\nthe prolonged action of chlorine on chloroform in direct sun-\\nlight, or by passing through a red-hot porcelain tube a mixture\\nof chlorine and vapor of carbon disulphide. In the latter re-\\naction sulphur chloride is also formed, and must be removed by\\nagitating the product with a solution of potassium hydrate.\\nCarbon tetrachloride is a colorless liquid, having an agreeable\\nodor like that of chloroform. Its density at 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.629. It\\nboils at 77\u00c2\u00b0. When its vapor is passed through a red-hot tube\\nit is decomposed, yielding the chlorides C 2 C1 4 and C 2 C1 6\\nWhen heated with aluminium iodide, All 3 carbon tetra-\\nchloride is converted into carbon tetraiodide, CI 4 which sepa-\\nrates from its ethereal solution in dark-red regular octahedra\\n(Gustavson).\\nMETHYL CYANIDE.\\nC 2 H3N CETCy\\nThis body may be obtained by distilling a mixture of potas-\\nsium methylsulphate and potassium cyanide, or by distilling\\nacetamide with phosphoric anhydride, which removes one mol-\\necule of water from the former body.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0500.jp2"}, "499": {"fulltext": "METHYL NITRITE AND NITROMETHANE. 493\\nC 2 H 3 O.NH 2 H 2 C*H 8 N\\nAcetamide. Methyl cyanide, or acetonitrile.\\nMethyl cyanide is a colorless liquid, having a disagreeable\\nodor; it boils at 81.3\u00c2\u00b0. A boiling solution of potassium\\nhydrate decomposes it into ammonia and potassium acetate.\\nCH 3 -CN 2H 2 CH 3 -CO.OH NH 3\\nMethyl cyanide. Acetic acid.\\nGautier has discovered an isomeride of methyl cyanide,\\nmethyl carbylamine. This body is formed, together with\\nmethyl cyanide, when a mixture of potassium methylsulphate\\nand potassium cyanide is distilled. Under the influence of alka-\\nlies, it decomposes into formic acid and methylamine.\\nC H\u00c2\u00bb} N K0H H2 KCH 2 \u00c2\u00b0H 2 N\\nMethyl carbylamine. Potassium formate. Methylamine.\\nThe trinitro-derivative of methyl cyanide, C(N0 2 3 CN, is\\ncalled trinitro-acetonitrile. It is a white, camphor-like mass,\\nmelting at 41.5\u00c2\u00b0, and exploding at 200\u00c2\u00b0.\\nMETHYL NITRATE.\\nCH3.N0 3\\nThis substance, which represents nitric acid in which the\\nbasic hydrogen is replaced by methyl, is an example of a com-\\npound methyl ether.\\nIt is prepared by introducing into a retort 50 grammes of\\npowdered potassium nitrate, and adding a mixture of 100\\ngrammes of sulphuric acid and 50 grammes of wood-spirit.\\nThe reaction begins in the cold, but must be finished by dis-\\ntilling on a water-bath. The liquid condensed in the receiver\\nis washed with water, and rectified several times over a mix-\\nture of massicot and calcium chloride.\\nIt is a colorless, neutral liquid density, 1.182 boiling-point,\\n6Q\u00c2\u00b0. Its vapor explodes violently when heated above 150\u00c2\u00b0.\\nMethyl nitrate dissolves in ammonia, producing ammonium\\nnitrate and methylamine.\\nCH 3 .N0 3 2NH 3 NH^.NO 8 CH 3 (NH 2\\nMETHYL NITRITE AND NITROMETHANE.\\nThese two compounds present a remarkable instance of\\nisomerism in very simple combinations.\\nThe first, CH 3 O.NO, which represents nitrous acid, HNO 2\\n42", "height": "4784", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0501.jp2"}, "500": {"fulltext": "494 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nin which the hydrogen is replaced by methyl, is obtained when\\nmethyl alcohol is heated with nitric acid in presence of copper.\\nIt is a liquid boiling at about 12\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe second, called also nitrocarbol, represents methane, in\\nwhich an atom of hydrogen is replaced by the group (NO 2\\nCH 4 CH 3 (N0 2\\nMethane. Nitromethane.\\nIt is obtained by the action of potassium nitrite upon potas-\\nsium monochloracetate (Kolbe).\\nCH\u00c2\u00bbC1.C0 2 K KNO 2 H 2 KC1 CH 3 (N0 2 KHCO 3\\nPotassium mono- Potassium Nitromethane.\\nchloracetate. nitrite.\\nIt is also produced by the action of silver nitrite on methyl\\niodide (V. Meyer).\\nNitromethane is a liquid boiling between 101 and 102\u00c2\u00b0. It\\nhas an acid character, and one of its hydrogen atoms may be\\nreplaced by sodium.\\nNitromethane is clearly distinguished from methyl nitrite by\\nthe following property nascent hydrogen transforms nitrome-\\nthane into methylamine, a reaction which docs not take place\\nwith its isomeride.\\nCH 3 (N0 2 3H 2 CTF.NH 2 2H 2\\nNitromethane. Methylamine.\\nMETHYLNITROLIC ACID.\\nCH 2 N 2 03 CH^^jj\\nThis remarkable combination has been obtained by V. Meyer\\nby the action of nitrous acid upon nitromethane.\\nCH 3 (N0 2 NO.OH CH x^\u00c2\u00b0q H H 2\\nIt is seen that in this compound two atoms of hydrogen of\\nthe methyl group CH 3 are removed by an atom of oxygen of\\nthe nitrous acid, and replaced by the residue (N.OH).\\nMethylnitrolic acid is prepared by dissolving 5 grammes of\\nnitromethane in water, and adding first a dilute solution of\\npotassium nitrite cooled to 0\u00c2\u00b0, then dilute sulphuric acid also\\ncooled to 0\u00c2\u00b0, and finally dilute solution of potassium hydrate\\nas long as the red color persists. At this moment, sulphuric\\nacid is again added until the liquid is decolorized the solution\\nis then saturated with calcium carbonate, and agitated with\\nether, which dissolves the methylnitrolic acid.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0502.jp2"}, "501": {"fulltext": "FULMINATES OF MERCURY AND SILVER. 495\\nAfter the evaporation of the ether, the acid remains as large,\\ntransparent, colorless prisms, fusible at 54\u00c2\u00b0, but decomposing\\nat the same time into formic acid and nitrogen. Dilute sul-\\nphuric acid decomposes methylnitrolic acid into formic acid and\\nnitrogen monoxide.\\nCH 2 N 2 3 CH 2 2 N 2\\nFormic acid. Nitrogen monoxide.\\nThe crystals decompose spontaneously in a few days.\\nFULMINATES OF MERCURY AND SILVER.\\nAmong the important compounds related to the more simple\\norganic combinations are those explosive salts known as fulmi-\\nnates of mercury and silver.\\nThey are obtained by dissolving mercury or silver in nitric\\nacid and adding alcohol to the still hot solution. In a few\\nminutes a brisk effervescence takes place, and fulminate of\\nmercury or of silver is deposited as a white, crystalline precip-\\nitate. When dry, these bodies explode violently by either heat\\nor percussion. Fulminate of mercury is the basis of percus-\\nsion-caps.\\nThe composition of these salts is interesting; fulminate of\\nmercury contains a monatomic group, (NO 2 a cyanogen group,\\n(CN), and an atom of mercury, all three being united to an\\natom of carbon, of which the four atomicities are thus perfectly\\nsatisfied.\\nFulminate of silver has an analogous composition, but con-\\ntains two atoms of silver.\\nThe fulminates may thus be grouped with organic compounds\\ncontaining one atom of carbon, especially with the cyanide of\\nmethyl (Kekule). The following are some of these com-\\npounds\\nC H H H H\\nmethane.\\nC H H H Cy\\nmethyl cyanide.\\nC(N0 2 H H H\\nnitromethane.\\nC(N0 2 H H Na\\nsodium-nitromethane.\\nC(N0 2 H H CI\\nchloro-nitromethane.\\nC(N0 2 CI CI CI\\ntrichloro-nitromethane (chloropicrin).\\nC(N0 2 )(N0 2 )(N0 2 )H nitroform.\\nC(N0 2\\ntetranitromethane.\\nC(N0 2 Ag Ag Cy\\nfulminate of silver.\\nC(N0 2 Hg Cy\\nfulminate of mercury.", "height": "4796", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0503.jp2"}, "502": {"fulltext": "496 ELEMENTS OE MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nCACODYL, OR DIMETHYLARSINE.\\nAs 2 (CH3)4\\nThis interesting compound has long been known in an im-\\npure state, having been first obtained in 1760 by Cadet as a\\nproduct of the distillation of a mixture of potassium acetate\\nand white arsenic (arsenious oxide). He collected in the re-\\nceiver an oily liquid, having an extremely offensive odor, and\\nproducing dense white fumes in the air. Hence the name\\nfuming liquor of Cadet.\\nBunsen s investigation into the chemistry of this body and\\nits combinations has become classic. According to his re-\\nsearches, the fuming liquor of Cadet is a mixture of two bodies,\\none of which, containing only carbon, hydrogen, and arsenic,\\nplays the part of a radical it is cacodyl the other body is the\\noxide of this radical.\\nTo obtain cacodyl in the pure state, the crude product is\\ntreated with hydrochloric acid, which converts the oxide of\\ncacodyl into chloride.\\nAs 2 (CH 3 4 2HC1 2As(CH 3 2 Cl H 2\\nDimethylarsine oxide. Dimethylarsine chloride.\\nThis chloride, separated by distillation, and treated with zinc\\nat 100\u00c2\u00b0 in sealed tubes, furnishes free cacodyl.\\nThe latter is a dense liquid boiling at 170\u00c2\u00b0, and having a\\npenetrating arsenical odor. It is very poisonous. It produces\\ndense white fumes in the air, even taking fire spontaneously.\\nIts vapor density is 7.101.\\nAccording to this vapor density, free cacodyl is diarsenic\\ntetramethyl, As (CH 3 (CH 3 2 As-As(CH 3 2\\nArsenic being either triatomic or pentatomic it is seen that\\ncacodyl is not saturated hence it can directly fix chlorine,\\noxygen, etc., yielding two series of compounds. Thus, one\\nmolecule of cacodyl, As 2 Me 4 can fix 1 or 3 molecules of chlo-\\nrine, forming the two chlorides\\nAs2Me* CI 2 2AsMe2Cl\\nAs2Me\u00c2\u00b1 3C1 2 2AsMe2Cl 3\\nTo the two chlorides correspond the bromides, iodides, oxides,\\nsulphates, etc. The oxides are\\nCacodyl oxide [As(CH 3 2 2\\nCacodylic acid As(CH 3 2 O.OH", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0504.jp2"}, "503": {"fulltext": "ETHYL COMBINATIONS. 497\\nIndependently of the cacodyl compounds, other combinations\\nof arsenic and methyl are known, the methylarsines and the\\ncompounds of methylarsonium.\\nThese bodies form two series, which were discovered and\\nstudied by Baeyer, and which belong to the type AsX 3 and\\nAsX 5 The compounds of the first kind are not saturated, and\\ncan combine with CI 2 or the equivalent of CI 2 passing into the\\nstate of the saturated compounds of the series AsX 5\\nSeries AsX 3 Series AsX\\nAs(CH3)3 As(CH3)*Cl\\nTrimethylarsine. Tetraniethylarsonium chloride.\\nAs(CH3)2Cl As(CH- 3 )3C12\\nDimethyl arsine monochloride. Trimethylarsine dichloride.\\nAs(CH3)Cl 2 As(CH3)2Cl 3\\nMouomethylarsine dichloride. Dimethylarsine trichloride.\\nAsCl 3 As(CH 3 )Cl*\\nArsenic trichloride. Monomethylarsine tetrachloride.\\n[AsCl 5\\nIt is worthy of remark that the trichloride of arsenic is\\nincapable of fixing CI 2 and passing into the state of penta-\\nchloride.\\nThese compounds need not be described. It may only be\\nmentioned that trimethylarsine, As(CH 3 3 is formed, together\\nwith cacodyl, by the action of methyl iodide on sodium arsenide.\\nIt is a liquid boiling below 100\u00c2\u00b0.\\nETHYL COMBINATIONS.\\nThe monatomic residue (C 2 H 5 C 2 H 6 H, which is the\\nradical of ordinary alcohol, is called ethyl. Numerous com-\\npounds are known into which the radical enters.\\nWhen combined with hydrogen, it forms a gas. C 2 H 6 which\\nis ethyl hydride or ethane. The chloride, bromide, iodide, and\\ncyanide of ethyl were formerly designated as simple ethers.\\nC 2 H5C1 ethyl chloride.\\nC 2 H 5 Br ethyl bromide.\\nC 2 H5I ethyl iodide.\\nC 3 H5.CN ethyl cyanide.\\nOrdinary alcohol is the hydroxide, ether is the oxide of\\nethyl.\\nC 2 H 5 -OH ethyl hydrate (alcohol).\\nC 2 H5-0-C 2 H 5 (C 2 H^ 2 ethyl oxide (ether),\\n99 42*", "height": "4765", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0505.jp2"}, "504": {"fulltext": "498 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe neutral compound ethers are derived from the corre-\\nsponding acids by the substitution of the radical C 2 H 5 for their\\nbasic hydrogen.\\nCWO-OH C 2 H 3 0-OC 2 H5\\nAcetic acid. Ethyl acetate.\\nP2H2 J 0H P202 I O.C 2 H5\\nC2 2 J OH C 1 O.C2H5\\nOxalic acid. Ethyl oxalate.\\nroH ro.c 2 H5\\nPO^OH PO^O.C 2 H5\\n(OH (O.C HS\\nPhosphoric acid. Fhosphoric ether (triethyl phosphate).\\nFree Ethyl, or Butane, OH 10 When it is sought to obtain\\nfree ethyl by heating ethyl iodide to 150\u00c2\u00b0 with zinc in sealed\\ntubes, the radical combines with itself, its molecule being doubled\\n(Frankland).\\n2C 2 H 5 I Zn ZnP (C 2 H 5 2\\nA gas is thus formed which liquefies at +1\u00c2\u00b0. It was\\nformerly named free ethyl, but is the hydride of butyl, or\\nbutane. Indeed, it is incapable of regenerating ethyl compounds\\ncontaining the simple radical (C 2 H 5 When treated with bro-\\nmine, it yields hydrobromic acid and a bromide OH 8 Br 2 which,\\naccording to Carius, is identical with butylene bromide.\\nEthyl Hydride, Ethane, or Dimethyl, C 2 H 6 CH 3 -CH 8\\nFrankland obtained this gas by treating zinc-ethyl with\\nwater.\\nZn(C 2 H 5 2 2H 2 2C 2 H 6 Zn(OH) 2\\nZinc ethyl. Ethane. Zinc hydrate.\\nIt is likewise formed when methyl iodide is heated with\\nsodium in closed tubes.\\n2CH 3 I 2Na C 2 H 6 2NaI\\nIt is a colorless gas, burning with a slightly blue, luminous\\nflame. When treated with chlorine, it yields ethyl chloride\\nand hydrochloric acid.\\nETHYL HYDRATE, OR ALCOHOL.\\nC 2 H 6 CH3-CH 2 .OH\\nAlcohol is the product of the fermentation of solutions which\\ncontain glucose, or a substance capable of transformation into\\nglucose.\\nIt may be formed synthetically in various manners\\n1. By passing ethylene gas into sulphuric acid (Hennell and", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0506.jp2"}, "505": {"fulltext": "ETHYL HYDRATE. 499\\nFaraday) and boiling the ethylsulphuric acid so formed (Ber-\\nthelot).\\nP2XJ5\\nC 2 H* H 2 S0 4 [SO 4\\nEthylene. Ethylsulphuric acid.\\n\u00c2\u00b0H* so H2 C2H5 H H2S0\\nEthylsulphuric acid. Alcohol.\\n2. By heating ethylene gas with hydriodic acid and decom-\\nposing the ethyl iodide so formed with potassium hydrate (Ber-\\nthelot).\\nC 2 H 4 HI C 2 H 5 I\\nC 2 H 5 I KOH C 2 H 5 .OH KI\\n3. By bringing aldehyde in contact with sodium amalgam in\\npresence of water. The nascent hydrogen formed in this case\\nfixes upon the aldehyde, converting it into alcohol (A. Wurtz).\\nC 2 H 4 H 2 C 2 H 6\\nAldehyde. Alcohol.\\nPreparation and Purification of Alcohol. Alcohol is\\nmanufactured by distilling fermented liquors, such as wine,\\nfermented juice of beet-roots, and the product obtained from\\nthe fermentation of malt, which is saccharified barley, corn, or\\nother grain. The apparatus now used for this operation has\\nreached such a degree of excellence that alcohol of 95 per cent,\\nmay be obtained immediately by one distillation.\\nAbsolutely pure alcohol is obtained b} T rectifying the alcohol\\nof commerce over hygroscopic substances, such as anhydrous\\npotassium carbonate, quick-lime, or caustic baryta. The last\\nportions of water are removed, and absolute alcohol obtained\\nby redistilling the rectified alcohol with caustic baryta. Or\\nsome sodium may be dissolved in the alcohol, which may then\\nbe rectified on a water-bath.\\nProperties. Alcohol is a colorless, mobile liquid, having an\\nagreeable, spirituous odor. Density at 0\u00c2\u00b0, 0.8095. Boiling-\\npoint, 78.4\u00c2\u00b0 at the normal pressure. It freezes at 130\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAlcohol mixes with water and ether in all proportions. Its\\nmixture with water takes place with elevation of temperature\\nand contraction of volume. The maximum contraction takes\\nplace when the two bodies are mixed in the proportion of one\\nmolecule of alcohol (46 parts) to three molecules of water (54\\nparts).", "height": "4796", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0507.jp2"}, "506": {"fulltext": "500 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nAlcohol absorbs moisture when exposed to the air. It dis-\\nsolves many gases, liquids, and solids. Tinctures are solutions\\nof various medicinal substances in alcohol.\\nAmong the simple bodies which are soluble in alcohol may\\nbe mentioned iodine. Potassium and sodium hydrates dissolve\\nin it readily, and the same is true of most of the mineral acids.\\nMany of the chlorides are soluble in alcohol such are those of\\ncalcium, strontium, zinc, and cadmium, ferric, cupric, mercuric,\\nand auric chlorides.\\nAlcohol dissolves the natural alkaloids, the essential oils,\\nresins, and fatty bodies, the latter, however, less readily than\\nether.\\nDecompositions. When vapor of alcohol is passed through\\na red-hot porcelain tube, it is decomposed into water, carbon\\nmonoxide, hydrogen, methane, and ethylene. Besides this,\\ncarbon is deposited in the porcelain tube, and a small quantity\\nof naphthalene is produced (Th. de Saussure), as well as\\nbenzene and phenol (Berthelot). The principal products of\\nthe decomposition of alcohol at a dull-red heat are methane,\\nhydrogen, and carbon monoxide.\\nC 2 H 6 CO CH 4 H 2\\nOn the application of a burning body, alcohol takes fire\\nand burns with a slightly luminous, bluish flame. On contact\\nwith platinum black, alcohol vapor mixed with air undergoes a\\nslow combustion, which produces successively aldehyde and\\nacetic acid.\\nC 2 H 6 C 2 H*0 H 2\\nAlcohol. Aldehyde.\\nC 2 H*0 C 2 H 4 2\\nAldehyde. Acetic Acid.\\nAcetic ether and a small quantity of a volatile, neutral body,\\ncalled acetal, are at the same time formed as accessory products\\n(Stas).\\nThe lamp without flame of Dobereiner depends upon the\\nslow combustion of alcohol. The wick of an ordinary spirit-\\nlamp is surmounted by a spiral of platinum wire, so that when\\nthe lamp is lighted the spiral is heated to incandescence. If\\nthen the flame be extinguished, by covering it for an instant\\nwith a test-tube, the alcohol vapor continues to rise with the\\nair around the still hot spiral, and undergoes a slow combustion.\\nBut the latter develops heat, and the spiral rapidly becomes", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0508.jp2"}, "507": {"fulltext": "ETHYL HYDRATE. 501\\nheated to incandescence, and if the current of air be regulated\\nby a small glass chimney, the experiment may continue as long\\nas the wick emits vapor of alcohol in sufficient quantity.\\nBodies rich in oxygen oxidize alcohol at ordinary tempera-\\ntures such are chloric and chromic acids. If a little alcohol\\nbe poured upon some chromic acid placed upon a brick, the\\nliquid is immediately inflamed and the chromic acid reduced\\nto chromium oxide.\\nChlorine attacks alcohol with great energy, the final product\\nof the reaction being a body which has received the name\\nchloral (Liebig, Dumas).\\nIf a small piece of potassium or sodium be thrown into pure\\nalcohol, the metal soon melts, and then dissolves with disen-\\ngagement of hydrogen. The product of the reaction is a crys-\\ntalline, solid matter which is ethylate of potassium or sodium,\\nthat is, a body derived from alcohol by the substitution of an\\natom of an alkaline metal for an atom of hydrogen.\\nC2H h C2H k o 0\\nAlcohol. Potassium ethylate. Sodium ethylate.\\nUses of Alcohol. Alcohol is used as a combustible in spirit-\\nlamps. In the arts, it is employed in the manufacture of ether,\\nchloroform, perfumeries, and many other products. It is\\nlargely used in the laboratory, and in pharmacy, as a solvent\\nit serves for the preservation of anatomical specimens. In\\nFrance and England, alcohol employed for certain industrial\\nuses is exempted from part of the tax, when it has previously\\nbeen mixed with about one-tenth of wood-spirit and a few\\nper cent, of mineral oils and resin. Such a mixture is unfit\\nfor the manufacture of brandy and liquors, but its usefulness\\nas a solvent is in most cases unimpaired.\\nAlcohol exists in fermented liquors, such as wine, cider, and\\nbeer. It is contained in much larger quantities in brandies,\\nwhiskeys, and spirits. These are products of the distillation of\\nvarious alcoholic liquids. They are more or less rich in alco-\\nhol. Brandy is prepared by the distillation of wine, cider, or\\nthe products of fermentation of cherry-juice cherry-brandy),\\nsugar-cane (rum), beet-root molasses (beet-brandy). Whiskey\\nis distilled from fermented starchy materials, such as corn, rye,\\npotatoes, etc., the starch being first saccharified. The richness\\nof these materials in alcohol is indicated by the degrees of an", "height": "4775", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0509.jp2"}, "508": {"fulltext": "502 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nalcoholometer. The following table gives the strength of\\nsome of these liquors. (For wine, beer, etc., see page 648).\\nPERCENTAGE OF\\nBAUME S SPECIFIC ALC0H()L\\nHYDROMETER. GRAVITY. BY V0LIJME\\nWeak brandy 16\u00c2\u00b0 0.9605 37.9\\nProof spirits 19\u00c2\u00b0 0.9420 50.1\\nStrong brandy 22\u00c2\u00b0 0.9241 59.2\\nOrdinary alcohol 34\u00c2\u00b0 0.8588 85.1\\nRectified alcohol (strongest commercial) 40\u00c2\u00b0 0.8295 95.\\nAbsolute alcohol 46\u00c2\u00b0 0.8095 100.\\nETHYL OXIDE, OR ETHER.\\n(C 2 H5)20 CH3-CH2-0-CH 2 -CH3\\nIf ethyl iodide be added to an alcoholic solution of ethylate\\nof sodium and a gentle heat be applied, a deposit of sodium\\niodide is formed and vapors are disengaged which may be con-\\ndensed in a cooled receiver into an ethereal liquid. It is\\noxide of ethyl.\\nP2TT5T 4- C2H5 \\\\H AUT JL C 2 H5^ n\\nC H l Na NaI C2H5\\nEthyl iodide. Sodium ethylate. Ethyl oxide.\\nIf, in the preceding experiment, the ethyl iodide be replaced\\nby methyl iodide, an extremely volatile liquid will be formed,\\nwhich is the double oxide of methyl and ethyl.\\nCH3I CW o NaI \u00c2\u00b0g 0\\nMethyl iodide. Oxide of methyl and ethyl.\\nThese classic experiments, due to Williamson, show that\\nthe oxide of ethyl contains two ethyl groups. It may be\\nregarded as alcohol in which the hydrogen atom of the group\\nhydroxy 1 is replaced by ethyl.\\nH-O-H C 2 HM)-H C 2 H5-0-C 2 H5\\nWater. Alcohol. Ethyl oxide.\\nEther may also be obtained by the action of ethyl iodide on\\nsodium oxide, or silver oxide.\\nPreparation. Ether is prepared in the arts by the action\\nof sulphuric acid on alcohol. A mixture of 9 parts of con-\\ncentrated sulphuric acid and 5 parts of alcohol of 90 per cent,\\nis heated in a flask, A (Fig. 126), and a small, continuous\\nstream of alcohol is allowed to flow into this mixture through\\nthe funnel-tube a. The temperature of the liquid, indicated by\\nthe thermometer t, should not exceed 140 or 145\u00c2\u00b0. The vapor\\ndisengaged is condensed in a Liebig s condenser, B, through", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0510.jp2"}, "509": {"fulltext": "ETHYL OXIDE.\\n503\\nwhich a stream of cold water flows continually. Under these\\nconditions, a mixture of ether and water collects in the re-\\nceiver D, together with a little akohol, and towards the close\\nof the operation, a small quantity of sulphurous acid gas is\\ndisengaged. The product is purified by washing with milk of\\nlime, and then with pure water, after which it is rectified over\\ncalcium chloride on a water-bath. Fig. 126 represents the\\napparatus used for public demonstration in the arts, the opera-\\ntion is conducted on a large scale in apparatus of an analogous\\nconstruction.\\nFig. 126.\\nTheory of Etherification. \u00e2\u0080\u0094The transformation of alcohol\\ninto ether is a true dehydration, brought about by the sul-\\nphuric acid.\\n2(C 2 H 5 .OH) (C 2 H 5 2 H 2\\nWilliamson clearly proved that it is effected in two distinct\\nphases in the first, ethylsulphuric acid and water are formed.\\ng SO\u00c2\u00b1 C2 SO WO\\nSulphuric acid. Ethylsulphuric acid.\\nIn the second, another molecule of alcohol reacts with the\\nethylsulphuric acid; ether is formed and sulphuric acid is\\nregenerated.\\nC2H H 0\\nAlcohol.", "height": "4778", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0511.jp2"}, "510": {"fulltext": "504 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nC\u00c2\u00bbH 5 0 c h 0 H g04\\nEthylsulphuric acid. Alcohol. Ether. Sulphuric acid.\\nHence the ether and water collected in the receiver are pro-\\nducts of two distinct phases of the reaction. Ethylsulphuric\\nacid is continually formed and as continually decomposed,\\nregenerating sulphuric acid ready to act upon new por-\\ntions of alcohol. However, although the operation is con-\\ntinuous, it cannot go on indefinitely the mixture blackens\\nwhile the acid is being diluted continually with water formed\\nin the first phase of the reaction, it is also in part reduced\\nby the alcohol, sulphur dioxide being formed.\\nProperties of Ether. Ether is a colorless, very mobile\\nliquid its taste is at first burning, then cooling its odor is suave\\nand agreeable, and is called ethereal. Density at 0\u00c2\u00b0, 0.7366.\\nBoiling-point under the normal pressure, 34.5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt is but slightly miscible with water, on the surface of which\\nit forms a separate layer. 9 parts of water dissolve 1 part of\\nether 36 parts of ether dissolve 1 part of water. Ether dis-\\nsolves in all proportions in alcohol and in methyl alcohol.\\nIt slightly dissolves sulphur and phosphorus, and notable\\nquantities of bromine, iodine, ferric, mercuric, and auric chlo-\\nrides, and many organic bodies, such as the oils, fats, resins,\\nalkaloids, etc.\\nIn 1846, Dr. William T. G. Morton, of Boston, discovered\\nthe fact that ether vapor when inhaled produces unconscious-\\nness and anaesthesia. This discovery has been of inestimable\\nvalue in surgery, and while other anaesthetics, such as chloro-\\nform, have been introduced, ether still seems to have the\\ngeneral preference.\\nIt is very inflammable and burns with a quite luminous\\nflame. Its vapor explodes violently when mixed with air or\\noxygen and ignited.\\nIf a heated spiral of platinum wire be suspended in a glass\\njar containing a little ether, in such a manner that the lower\\nextremity of the wire is but a little distance from the surface\\nof the liquid, the wire will soon become brightly incandescent\\nand will ignite the ether. This effect is due to the ether vapor,\\nwhich, coming in contact with the platinum, and being mixed\\nwith air, undergoes a slow combustion. Heat is thus developed,\\nand the wire becomes incandescent.\\nChlorine acts on ether with extreme energy. If the action", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0512.jp2"}, "511": {"fulltext": "SULPHYDRATE AND SULPHIDE OF ETHYL. 505\\nbe moderated, various products of substitution are obtained,\\namong which the following have been well studied\\nC 2 H*C1\\nMonochlorether C 2 liquid boiling at 98-99\u00c2\u00b0.\\nDichlorether C2 ^h5 li( l uid boiling at 140-147\u00c2\u00b0.\\nP2T13P12\\nTetrachlorether n2Ti3n\\\\i^ liquid, density 1.5.\\nQ2Q5\\nPerchlorether C 2 C1 5 colorless crystals, fusible at 69\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe last is a solid body, crystallizing in octahedra. By the\\naction of heat it is decomposed into carbon sesquichloride and\\nperchloraldehyde (Malaguti).\\nC2ci5 C2C16 C2C14\\nPerchlorether. Carbon sesquichloride. Perchloraldehyde.\\nWhen two parts of bromine are added to one part of ether\\nand the mixture is cooled, a garnet-colored compound of bro-\\nmine and ether, (C 2 H 5 2 O.Br 2 separates. It crystallizes in thin\\nplates, fusible at 22\u00c2\u00b0, and is easily decomposed (Schutzen-\\nberger).\\nSULPHYDRATE AND SULPHIDE OF ETHYL.\\nTwo bodies are known which are intimately related, as re-\\ngards their constitutions, with alcohol and ether. They are\\nthe sulphydrate and the sulphide of ethyl. The first, formerly\\nknown as mercaptan, represents alcohol containing an atom of\\nsulphur instead of an atom of oxygen the second represents\\nether in which the oxygen atom is replaced by sulphur.\\nC 2 H 5 .OH (C 2 H 5 2\\nEthyl hydrate. Ethyl oxide.\\nC 2 H 5 .SH (C 2 H 5 2 S\\nEthyl sulphydrate. Ethyl sulphide.\\nEthyl sulphydrate is obtained by distilling a concentrated\\naqueous solution of potassium sulphydrate with a solution of\\npotassium ethylsulphate.\\nIt may also be prepared by passing vapor of ethyl chloride\\ninto an alcoholic solution of potassium sulphydrate. The liquid\\nis distilled as soon as it is saturated with ethyl chloride, and\\nwater is added to the distillate. Ethyl sulphydrate separates.\\nKSH C 2 H 5 C1\\nKC1\\nC 2 H 5 .SH\\nium sulphydrate. Ethyl chloride.\\nEthyl sulphydrate.\\nW 43", "height": "4800", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0513.jp2"}, "512": {"fulltext": "506 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nEthyl sulphydrate is a transparent, colorless liquid, very mo-\\nbile, and having a fetid odor. Density at 21\u00c2\u00b0, 0.835. Boil-\\ning-point, 36.2\u00c2\u00b0 (Liebig).\\nIt reacts energetically with mercuric oxide, forming water\\nand a white, crystalline body which represents ethyl sulphy-\\ndrate in which the hydrogen is replaced by mercury. Hence\\nthe name mercaptan (mercurium captans), given to the sulphy-\\ndrate of ethyl by Zeise. This mercuric compound is insoluble\\nin water; it contains (C 2 H 5 S) 2 Hg\\nEthyl sulphide is obtained, like the sulphydrate, by double\\ndecomposition. Vapor of ethyl chloride is passed into an alco-\\nholic solution of potassium monosulphide.\\nK 2 S 2C 2 H 5 C1 2KC1 (C 2 H 5 2 S\\nPotassium sulphide. Ethyl chloride. Ethyl sulphide.\\nEthyl sulphide is a colorless liquid, having a garlicky odor.\\nIt boils at 75\u00c2\u00b0. It is insoluble in water.\\nETHYL CHLORIDE.\\nC 2 H5 J1\\nThis body is prepared by saturating alcohol with hydrochloric\\nacid gas and distilling on a water-bath. Ethyl chloride is dis-\\nengaged, and should be passed first through a wash-bottle and\\nthen through a tube containing calcium chloride, after which it\\nmay be condensed in a receiver placed in a freezing mixture.\\nBelow 11\u00c2\u00b0 ethyl chloride is a mobile, colorless liquid, having\\na penetrating and agreeable odor. It boils at 11\u00c2\u00b0 it is inflam-\\nmable, and burns with a flame tinged with green.\\nIf some solution of silver nitrate be agitated in a jar con-\\ntaining vapor of ethyl chloride, no precipitate will be formed;\\nbut if the agitation be continued after the vapor has been\\nignited, an abundant precipitate of silver chloride will be\\nformed, owing to decomposition of the silver nitrate by the hy-\\ndrochloric acid produced by combustion of the ethyl chloride.\\nEthyl chloride produces a precipitate of silver chloride when\\npassed into an alcoholic solution of silver nitrate.\\nChlorinated Derivatives of Ethyl Chloride. When ethyl\\nchloride is submitted to the action of chlorine, various com-\\npounds are successively formed by the substitution of chlorine\\nfor hydrogen, atom for atom. The following is the nomencla-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0514.jp2"}, "513": {"fulltext": "ETHYL BROMIDE. 507\\nture and composition of these chlorinated compounds, which\\nwere discovered by V. Regnault.\\nC 2 H5C1 ethyl chloride.\\nC 2 H 4 C1 2 dichlorethane (ethylidene chloride)\u00e2\u0080\u0094 boils at 57.5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nC 2 H 3 C1 3 trichlorethane\u00e2\u0080\u0094 boils at 75\u00c2\u00b0.\\nC 2 H 2 C1* tetrachlorethaoe boils at 127.5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nC 2 HC1 5 pentachlorethane\u00e2\u0080\u0094 boils at 158\u00c2\u00b0.\\nC 2 C1 6 hexachlorethane (sesquichloride of carbon).\\nIt will be noticed that the second of these compounds is\\nisomeric with ethylene chloride, or Dutch liquid, of which the\\ndescription will be found farther on. It may be obtained by\\ntreating aldehyde with phosphorus pentachloride.\\nCH 3 -CHO PCI 5 CH 3 -CHCP POCP\\nAldehyde. Dichloretbaue. Phosphorus oxychloride.\\nThis mode of formation indicates its constitution, which is\\nexpressed by the formula\\nCH 3\\nCHCP\\nTo distinguish it from its isomeride ethylene chloride,\\nCH 2 C1\\nCH 2 C1\\nit is named dichlorethane or ethylidene chloride.\\nIn the sesquichloride of carbon, C 2 C1 6 the hydrogen atoms\\nare all replaced by chlorine. Carbon sesquichloride is a crys-\\nstalline solid, melting at 162\u00c2\u00b0, and boiling at 182\u00c2\u00b0 (Faraday).\\nETHYL BROMIDE.\\nC 2 H5Br\\nEthyl bromide is prepared by distilling a mixture of alcohol,\\nbromine, and amorphous phosphorus, or a mixture of potassium\\nbromide, alcohol, and sulphuric acid diluted with its own volume\\nof water. In either case the distillate is washed with water,\\nand the oily ethyl bromide separated and dried with potassium\\ncarbonate.\\nIt is a colorless, refracting liquid, having an odor resembling\\nthat of chloroform, and a burning taste. It mixes in all pro-\\nportions with alcohol and ether, but is insoluble in water. Its\\ndensity at 15\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.4189, and it boils at 40.7\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt has been employed to a limited extent as an anaesthetic.", "height": "4795", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0515.jp2"}, "514": {"fulltext": "508 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nETHYL IODIDE.\\nC 2 H*I\\nThis important compound is prepared by the action of alco-\\nhol on iodine in presence of amorphous phosphorus. Phos-\\nphorus iodide is formed, and reacts upon the alcohol, yielding\\nethyl iodide and an acid of phosphorus. The former distils\\ninto the receiver, together with the alcohol which escapes the\\nreaction. Water is added, and the lower layer of liquid is\\nseparated, dried with calcium chloride, and rectified on a water-\\nbath.\\nEthyl iodide is a colorless liquid, but becomes brown when\\nlong kept, especially when exposed to light. Density at 0\u00c2\u00b0,\\n1.9753. Boiling-point, 72.2\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt can exchange its iodine by double decomposition, as can\\npotassium iodide. If ethyl iodide be added to an alcoholic\\nsolution of silver nitrate, a yellow precipitate of silver iodide\\nis at once formed, while ethyl nitrate remains in solution.\\nC 2 H 5 I AgNO 3 Agl (C 2 H 5 )N0 3\\nEthyl iodide. Silver nitrate. Ethyl nitrate.\\nETHYL CYANIDE.\\nC3H N CH3-CH 2 -CN\\nThis compound is formed when ammonium propionate is\\ndistilled with phosphoric anhydride.\\n(NH 4 )C 3 H 5 2 C 3 H 5 N 2H 2\\nAmmonium propionate. Ethyl cyanide.\\nFrom this mode of formation, ethyl cyanide is sometimes\\ncalled propionitrile. The same body exists in the product of\\nthe distillation of a mixture of potassium cyanide and potassium\\nethylsulphate.\\nKCN 2 S0 4 SO* C2H5.CN\\nPotassium Potassium Potassium Ethyl cyanide,\\ncyanide. ethylsulphate. sulphate.\\nBut this product, which is liquid and has a variable boiling-\\npoint, contains, independently of the true cyanide of ethyl, an\\nisomeride of that body, whose existence was foreseen by Meyer,\\nand discovered by Gautier in the product of the action of\\nethyl iodide on silver cyanide.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0516.jp2"}, "515": {"fulltext": "NITROETHANE AND ITS DERIVATIVES. 509\\nEthyl cyanide is a colorless liquid, having a penetrating and\\npleasant odor. It boils at 96.7\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWhen it is boiled with potassium hydrate, potassium propio-\\nnate is formed and ammonia is disengaged (Dumas, Malaguti,\\nand Le Blanc).\\nC 3 H 5 N KOH H 2 KC 3 H 5 2 NH 3\\nEthyl cyanide. Potassium propionate.\\nWhen ethyl cyanide is brought into contact with dilute sul-\\nphuric acid and zinc, it fixes 4 atoms of hydrogen and is\\nconverted into propylamine (Mendius).\\nC 3 H 5 N W C 3 H 9 N\\nEthyl cyanide. Propylamine.\\nEthylcarbylamine. This name was given by Gautier to the\\nisomeride of ethyl cyanide already mentioned. It is a color-\\nless liquid, having a very penetrating and intensely offensive\\nodor. It boils at 79\u00c2\u00b0. With potassium hydrate it yields po-\\ntassium formate and ethylamine.\\nC C2H5\\nC 2H5- N KOH H20= H\u00e2\u0080\u0094 N ECHO 2\\nEthylcarbylamine. Ethylamine. Potassium\\nformate.\\nETHYL NITRITE, OR NITROUS ETHER.\\nC 2 Hs.O-NO\\nThis compound is obtained by the action of nitric acid on\\nalcohol. The reaction is very violent, and abundant red vapors\\nare evolved. After passing through a wash-bottle, they are\\nconducted into a well- cooled receiver, where the ethyl nitrite\\ncondenses.\\nIt is a yellowish, very volatile liquid, whose odor recalls that\\nof apples. It boils at 18\u00c2\u00b0. It is but slightly soluble in\\nwater. Hot water immediately decomposes it into alcohol and\\nnitrous acid, the latter being itself decomposed into nitric acid\\nand nitric oxide.\\nNITROETHANE AND ITS DERIVATIVES.\\nC 2 H 5 -N0 2\\nThis isomeride of ethyl nitrite represents ethane, C 2 H 6 in\\nwhich one atom of hydrogen is replaced by the group (NO 2\\nIt is the higher homologue of nitromethane.\\n43*", "height": "4803", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0517.jp2"}, "516": {"fulltext": "510 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIt is obtained, together with a certain quantity of ethyl\\nnitrite, when ethyl iodide is treated with silver nitrite.\\nC 2 H 5 I AgNO 2 C 2 H 5 (N0 2 Agl\\nEthyl iodide. Silver nitrite. Nitrethane.\\nIt is a liquid having a peculiar, ethereal odor and boiling at\\n113-114\u00c2\u00b0. Density at 13\u00c2\u00b0, 1.0582 (V. Meyer).\\nWith nascent hydrogen, it furnishes pure ethylamine.\\nC 2 H 5 (N0 2 3H 2 C 2 H 5 (NH 2 2H 2\\nAll of the homologues of nitroethane thus yield the corre-\\nsponding amines. It is a general character of the nitro com-\\npounds, and one which is not possessed by their isomerides,\\nthe nitrous ethers. In constitution and properties, nitroethane\\napproaches nitrobenzene, as will be seen by the following\\ncomparison of their formulas\\nC 6 H 6 .H C 6 H 5 .H\\nEthane. Benzene.\\n(?H 6 (NO*) C 6 H 5 (NO\\nNitroethane. Nitrobenzene.\\nC 2 H 5 (NH 2 C 6 H 5 (NH 2\\nEthylamine. Phenylamine (aniline).\\nThe presence of the group (NO 2 confers acid properties\\nNO 2\\nupon nitroethane. Its sodium compound, C 2 H 4 is formed\\neither by the action of an alcoholic solution of sodium hydrate\\non nitroethane, or by the direct action of sodium on the same\\nbody in the latter case hydrogen is disengaged. Sodium-\\nnitroethane is very explosive (V. Meyer and Stuber).\\nWhen it is sought to prepare potassium-nitroethane by the\\naction of alcoholic potassium hydrate on nitroethane, the\\nlatter body is decomposed, yielding, among other products,\\npotassium nitrite. Now, the latter salt exerts a remarkable\\naction on nitroethane, giving rise to a new body of complex\\ncomposition, potassium ethylnitrolate.\\nEthylnitrolic acid may be obtained by a process analogous to\\nthat which has been described for the preparation of methyl-\\nnitrolic acid. Ethylnitrolic acid contains\\nCH 3\\nCfcN.OH\\nNO 2", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0518.jp2"}, "517": {"fulltext": "ETHYL NITRATE ETHYL SULPHATE. 511\\nIt crystallizes in light-yellow, transparent prisms, possessing\\na feeble bluish fluorescence and a very sweet taste. It decom-\\nposes without violence at 81-82\u00c2\u00b0 into nitrogen, nitrous vapors,\\nand acetic acid. When boiled with dilute sulphuric acid, it\\ndecomposes into acetic acid and nitrogen monoxide.\\nC 2 H*N 2 3 C 2 H 4 2 N 2\\nEthyl nitrolic acid. Acetic acid.\\nETHYL NITRATE, OR NITRIC ETHER.\\n(C 2 H5)N03\\nThis is obtained by the action of nitric acid upon alcohol in\\npresence of a small quantity of urea. The latter body prevents\\nthe reduction of the nitric acid to nitrous acid. Nitric ether\\ncondenses in the receiver. It is washed with water, dehydrated\\nwith calcium chloride, and rectified. It is a liquid, having an\\nagreeable, ethereal odor. It boils at 86\u00c2\u00b0. Density atO\u00c2\u00b0, 1.1322.\\nPotassium hydrate decomposes it, like all compound ethers,\\nforming potassium nitrate and alcohol.\\n(C 2 H 5 )N0 3 KOH C 2 H 5 .OH KNO 3\\nIt dissolves in ammonia, especially if the latter be warm,\\nyielding ammonium nitrate and ethylamine. The reaction is\\nanalogous to that of ammonia upon methyl nitrate.\\nETHYLSULPHATES.\\nC 2 H 5\\nEthylsulphuric or Sulphovinic Acid. tt SO\\nttq S0 2 This body is an example of an acid ether. It\\nresults from the substitution of a single ethyl group for one\\natom of hydrogen in sulphuric acid, which is dibasic.\\n1 1 so* 2 so 4\\nIt is formed by the action of sulphuric acid upon alcohol.\\nThe mixture of the two bodies becomes hot, and if after cool-\\ning the liquid be diluted and saturated with barium carbonate,\\nan abundant precipitate of barium sulphate will be formed, and\\na soluble salt of barium, the ethylsulphate, will remain in solu-\\ntion. A solution of ethylsulphuric acid may be obtained by\\nexactly decomposing this salt with dilute sulphuric acid.", "height": "4796", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0519.jp2"}, "518": {"fulltext": "512 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nBy boiling, ethylsulphuric acid is decomposed into sulphuric\\nacid and alcohol.\\nC 2 H 5\\nH\\n}so* h}o 2 5 }o !}so*\\nThe ethylsulphates are beautiful salts they are crystalliz-\\nable and soluble in water.\\np2TT5 P2TT5 O\\nEthyl Sulphate.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 J4jj 5 j SO* c 2 H 0 S01 This\\nbody, which represents sulphuric acid in which the two atoms\\nof hydrogen are replaced by two ethyl groups, is formed when\\nsilver sulphate is warmed with ethyl iodide double decom-\\nposition takes place, thus\\nAg 2 S0 4 2C 2 H 5 I (C 2 H 5 2 SO* 2AgI\\nIt is an oily liquid having an acrid taste. Its density is\\n1.184. It boils at 208\u00c2\u00b0, with partial decomposition.\\nETHYLSULPHONIC ACID AND ETHYL\\nSULPHITE.\\nWhen mercaptan, C 2 H 5 .SH, is oxidized by nitric acid, a\\nthick, very acid liquid is obtained, which in a vacuum solidifies\\nto a crystalline mass. It is ethylsulphonic acid, which con-\\ncentrated nitric acid oxidizes and converts into ethylsulphuric\\nacid. LTnlike the latter, ethylsulphonic acid is very stable.\\nIt is not decomposed by boiling with potassium hydrate when\\nfused with the latter, it yields potassium sulphite and alcohol.\\nC 2 H 5 .S0 3 K KOH C 2 H 5 .OH K SO 8\\nPhosphorus pentachloride converts it into ethylsulphonic\\nchloride, C 2 H 5 -S0 2 .C1, a liquid boiling at 173\u00c2\u00b0.\\nEthylsulphonic acid is analogous in its properties and con-\\nstitution to phenylsulphonic acid, and its analogues, which\\nwill be described farther on. Ethylsulphonic acid is the sul-\\nphonic derivative of ethane.\\nC 2 H 6 ethane. C 6 H6 benzene.\\nC 2 H5.S0 3 H ethylsulphonic acid. C 6 H5.S0 3 H phenylsulphonic acid.\\nThe sulphonic acids may be considered as derivatives of\\na hypothetical acid, H.S0 2 .OH, to which the name unsym-\\nmetrical sulphurous acid has been given. The hydrogen atom\\nin direct combination with the sulphur is replaceable by ethyl,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0520.jp2"}, "519": {"fulltext": "ETHYL SULPHITES. 513\\nphenyl, etc., and the sulphonates result from the replacement\\nof the remaining hydrogen by metals or alcohol radicals.\\nThere is possible another sulphurous acid, symmetrical sul-\\nphurous acid HO. SO. OH, and derivatives of this acid are\\nalso known they are the sulphites of the alcohol radicals,\\nand present the structure SO(OR) 2\\n1. If silver sulphite and ethyl iodide be heated together,\\na double decomposition takes place, yielding silver iodide and\\nethyl sulphonate.\\nAgS0 2 .OAg 2C2H5I 2AgI C 2 H5.S0 2 .OC 2 H5\\nSilver sulphite. Ethyl iodide. Ethyl sulphonate.\\nThis is the ether of the ethylsulphonic acid which has\\nbeen described. It may be obtained by the action of ethyl-\\nsulphonic chloride on sodium ethylate.\\nC 2 H5.S0 2 .C1 C 2 H5.0Na NaCl C 2 H5.S0 2 .OC 2 H5\\nIt is a liquid, boiling at 208\u00c2\u00b0, and having at 0\u00c2\u00b0 a density\\nof 1.47.\\n2. By the action of thionyl (sulphuryl) chloride on absolute\\nalcohol, ethyl sulphite is obtained isomeric with the preceding.\\nSO \u00c2\u00a3J 2C 2 H5.0H 2HC1 so oc 2 H5\\nThionyl chloride. Symmetric ethyl sulphite.\\nThis ether corresponds to ethyl sulphate. When heated\\nwith water it is decomposed into sulphurous acid and alcohol.\\nPhosphorus pentachloride converts it into ethylsulphurous\\nchloride, boiling at 122\u00c2\u00b0.\\nSO OC 2 H5 PC15 P0C13 C2H5C1 SO OC 2 H5\\nEthyl sulphite. Ethylsulphurous chloride.\\nWhen it is treated with an equivalent quantity of potas-\\nsium hydrate in alcoholic solution, potassium ethylsulphite\\nseparates in brilliant scales.\\nWe have, therefore, two distinct series of compounds, viz.\\nSiv\\nThionyl chloride.\\nso ol\\nSTl 2 OH\\nSulphurous acid (unknown).\\nUnsymmetrical sulphurous acid (unknown)\\nSO OC 2 H5\\nso* g= 6\\nPotassium ethylsulphite.\\nEthylsulphonic acid.\\nU ^OC 2 H5\\nS02 ^OC 2 H5\\nbU \\\\C 2 H 5\\nEthyl sulphite.\\nEthyl sulphonate.\\nhh", "height": "4798", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0521.jp2"}, "520": {"fulltext": "514 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nPHOSPHORIC ETHERS.\\nOrthophosphoric acid forms three ethyl ethers, and in general\\nthree series of ethers corresponding to the three series of ortho-\\nphosphates.\\nPO(OH) 2 (OC 2 H 5 PO(OH)(OC 2 H 5 2 PO(OC 2 H 5 3\\nMonethylphosphoric acid. Diethylphosphoric acid. Triethylphosphate.\\nWe can only describe triethylphosphate, which may be ob-\\ntained by the action of anhydrous ether on phosphoric anhy-\\ndride, or by the action of phosphorus oxychloride on sodium\\nethylate.\\nPOC1 3 3C 2 H 5 .ONa 3NaCl PO(OC 2 H 5 3\\nDe Clermont has obtained it by the reaction of ethyl iodide\\nwith silver phosphate.\\nIt is a syrupy liquid, soluble in water, alcohol and ether.\\nIts density at 12\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.072. It boils at 215\u00c2\u00b0. It is readily\\ndecomposed by water into alcohol and diethylphosphoric acid.\\nPO(OC 2 H 5 3 IPO PO 2fl5)2 C 2 H 5 .OH\\nNORMAL ETHYL BORATE.\\nB(OC 2 H 5 3\\nTriethyl borate, corresponding to boron trichloride, BC1 3 is\\nobtained by distilling borax with potassium ethylsulphate. It\\nis also formed, independently of other boric ethers, by the\\naction of boron trichloride on absolute alcohol. It is a color-\\nless, limpid liquid, boiling at 119\u00c2\u00b0. Density, 0.885. It burns\\nwith a green flame. Water decomposes it into boric acid and\\nalcohol.\\nETHYL SILICATES.\\nEbelmen has described several silicates of ethyl. To silicon\\ntetrachloride, SiCl 4 there corresponds an ortho-silicic ether,\\nSi(OC 2 H 5 4 to the chloride, Si 2 Cl 6 there corresponds an ether,\\nSi 2 (OC 2 H 5 6 A metasilicic ether, SiO(OC 2 H 5 2 has also been\\ndescribed, but its existence is not certainly established.\\nEthyl orthosilicate, Si(OC 2 H 5 4 is a colorless liquid, boiling\\nat 165-168\u00c2\u00b0, and having a density of 0.933. It burns with\\na brilliant white light, diffusing a smoke of silicic acid. It is\\ninsoluble in water, which gradually decomposes it into alcohol", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0522.jp2"}, "521": {"fulltext": "ETHYL ORTHOCARBONATE. 515\\nand silicic acid, the latter being deposited as a very hard,\\nvitreous mass.\\nEthyl disilicate, Si 2 (OC 2 H 5 6 is formed by the action of\\nsilicon chloride on alcohol not absolutely free from water.\\nETHYL ORTHOCARBONATE.\\nC(OC 2 H5)\u00c2\u00b1\\nBasset obtained this ether by causing sodium ethylate to\\nreact with chloropicrin.\\nC(N0 2 )C1 3 4C 2 H 5 .ONa NaNO 2 3NaCl C(OC 2 H 5 4\\nChloropicrin. Sodium ethylate. Sodium nitrite. Ethyl orthocarbonate.\\nIt is an ethereal liquid, boiling at 158-159\u00c2\u00b0. Its conversion\\ninto guauidine by the action of ammonia has already been\\nindicated (page 473).\\nEthyl orthocarbonate corresponds to an unknown ortho-\\ncarbonic acid which would be derived from carbon tetrachloride.\\nCC1 4 C(OH)* C(OC 2 H 5\\nETHYL CARBONATE.\\nC2H5J C2H5.0^ C0\\nEttling obtained this compound by introducing potassium or\\nsodium little by little into ethyl oxalate heated to 130\u00c2\u00b0. The\\nmetal dissolves, disengaging carbon monoxide. A brown mass\\nis obtained, which must be distilled with water. The ethyl car-\\nbonate which passes over is dehydrated with calcium chloride\\nand distilled.\\nIt may also be obtained by double decomposition by heating\\nethyl iodide with silver carbonate (P. de Clermont), or by the\\naction of ethylchlorocarbonate (page 516) on sodium ethylate.\\nco oc 2 ip C2fl5 0Na co o(?{p NaCL\\nEthyl carbonate is a colorless liquid, having a pleasant,\\nethereal odor its density at 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 0.9998, and it boils at 125\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIn the cold, ammonia converts it into ethyl carbamate, or\\nurethane, a body soluble in water and alcohol, and crystallizable\\nin large tables fusible at 51-52\u00c2\u00b0, and boiling at 180\u00c2\u00b0 (Dumas).\\ncm\u00c2\u00a3 co NH3 C3H?o co C2H5 OH\\nEthyl carbonate. Ethyl carbamate.", "height": "4801", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0523.jp2"}, "522": {"fulltext": "516 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIt yields urea and alcohol when heated to 100\u00c2\u00b0 with am-\\nmonia.\\nC2H5:o CO 2NH3 C0 NH 2 2CH5.0H\\nEthyl carbonate. Urea.\\nETHYL CHLOROCARBONATE.\\nCI-\\nC 2 H50\\nCO\\nDumas obtained this ether by passing carbonyl chloride\\ninto alcohol. Water is added to the product of the reaction,\\nand the insoluble liquid is separated, dried, and distilled.\\nC0 C 2 H5.0H HCl C 2 H 5o co\\nCarbonyl chloride. Ethyl chlorocarbonate.\\nIt is a liquid having a pungent, ethereal odor. It boils at\\n94\u00c2\u00b0. Hot water decomposes it. Ammonia converts ii into\\nethyl carbamate, or urethane.\\n0\u00c2\u00bbH5.0 C 2NIF NH4C1 C2H?0 C0\\nETHYL ISOCYANATE.\\nC 2 H5-N=CO\\nThis compound is prepared by distilling on an oil-bath a\\nmixture of 2 parts of potassium ethylsulphate and 1 part of\\nrecently-prepared and well-dried potassium isocyanate. The\\nproduct which condenses in the receiver is rectified on a water-\\nbath (Wurtz). Ethyl isocyanate is a colorless liquid, having a\\nvery irritating odor. It boils at 60\u00c2\u00b0. Potassium hydrate de-\\ncomposes it into carbonic acid gas and ethylamine. It com-\\nbines with ammonia, developing heat and producing ethylurea\\n(page 481).\\nThe bodies which were formerly known as cyanic acid and\\nethyl cyanate, are only isomerides of the oxygen compounds\\nof cyanogen. They have been described as isocyanic acid\\nand isocyanate of ethyl. The true cyanic ether, (C 2 H 5 .0)CN 7\\nor rather a polymeride of that body, has been obtained by\\nCloez. It is formed by the action of cyanogen chloride on\\nethylate of sodium.\\nCNC1 Na.OC 2 H 5 CN.OC H 5 NaCl\\nCyanogen chloride. Sodium ethylate. Ethyl cyanate.\\nPotassium hydrate decomposes the true ethyl cyanate, like", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0524.jp2"}, "523": {"fulltext": "SATURATED HYDROCARBONS. 517\\nall other compound ethers, into alcohol and the corresponding\\npotassium salt (cyanate), or into the decomposition products of\\nthat body, carbon dioxide and ammonia.\\nCYANURIC ETHERS.\\nWhen potassium isocyanate is distilled with ethyl sulphate,\\nbesides the ethyl isocyanate which has just been described, there\\nis formed also the isocyanurate.\\nC 3 3 N 3 (C 2 H 5 3 (CO) 3 =(N.C 2 H 5 3\\nThe latter condenses in a solid white mass which may be\\npurified by recrystallization from boiling alcohol. It crystallizes\\nin brilliant prisms, fusible at 175\u00c2\u00b0 it boils at 296\u00c2\u00b0 (A. Wurtz).\\nBoiling potassium hydrate decomposes it, like the isocyanate,\\nwith disengagement of carbon dioxide, a reaction which justi-\\nfies the constitution indicated by the preceding formula.\\nThe cyanuric ether C 3 N 3 (OC 2 H 5 3 corresponding to the\\nnormal cyanuric acid (page 476), is not known.\\nThe mother liquor from which triethyl isocyanurate has\\ndeposited, contains diethyl isocyanurate, C 3 3 N 3 H(C 2 H 5 2\\nwhich crystallizes in six-sided prisms, fusible at 173\u00c2\u00b0.\\nNormal methyl cyanur ate is formed by the action of cyanogen\\nchloride on sodium methylate.\\n3CNC1 3CH 3 .ONa 3NaCl C 3 N 3 (OCH 3 8\\nIt crystallizes in needles fusible at 132\u00c2\u00b0. It boils between\\n160 and 170\u00c2\u00b0, and at this temperature is converted into its\\nisomeride methyl isocyanurate, fusible at 175\u00c2\u00b0, and boiling at\\n296\u00c2\u00b0. By the action of boiling potassium hydrate, it is de-\\ncomposed into potassium cyanurate and methyl alcohol.\\nSERIES OF SATURATED HYDROCARBONS.\\nC 2 H 2n 2\\nTo methane and ethane, which have already been described,\\nare related numerous hydrocarbons belonging; to the same\\nseries, C n H 2n They are called saturated because no hydro-\\ncarbons are known in which the number of hydrogen atoms\\nexceeds that indicated by the preceding formula. Again, the\\nhydrocarbons in question can fix directly no other atoms. For\\nexample, in order that chlorine can enter into one of their\\nmolecules, hydrogen must first be removed, and this displace-\\n44", "height": "4801", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0525.jp2"}, "524": {"fulltext": "518 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nment is known to take place, atom for atom, according to the\\nlaw of substitution. Thus, if chlorine be made to act upon\\nthe hydrocarbon C 6 H U (hexane), the compounds C 6 H 13 C1,\\nC 6 H 12 C1 2 C 6 H U C1 3 maybe obtained successively. Let us con-\\nsider the first of these compounds, C 6 H 13 C1. The CI may be\\nreplaced by the group OH, and the chloride is thus converted\\ninto an alcohol. For this purpose the chloride is caused to\\nreact with a silver salt, the acetate, for example, and hexyl\\nacetate is formed by double decomposition.\\nC 6 H 13 C1 AgC 2 H 3 2 C 6 H 13 .C 2 H 3 2 AgCl\\nHexlyl chloride. Silver acetate. Hexyl acetate.\\nBoiling potassium hydrate will transform this ether into\\nhexyl hydrate.\\nC 6 H 13 .C 2 H 3 2 KOH KC 2 H 3 2 C 6 H 13 .OH\\nHexyl acetate. Potassium acetate. Hexyl hydrate.\\nThis series of reactions permits of the successive transforma-\\ntion of any hydrocarbon of the saturated series into a chloride,\\nan acetate, and a hydrate, and the latter is the alcohol corre-\\nsponding to the hydrocarbon. The following is the series of\\nsaturated hydrocarbons\\nCH 4 methane.\\nC 2 H 6 ethane.\\nC 3 H 8 propane.\\nOH^ butanes.\\nC 5 H 12 pentanes.\\nC 6 H 14 hexanes.\\nC 7 H 16 heptanes.\\nC 8 H 18 octanes.\\nC 9 H 20 nonanes.\\nC 10 H 22 decanes, etc.\\nAll of these hydrocarbons, after the fourth of the series, up\\nto the term C 16 H 34 have been obtained from petroleum and\\nthe products of distillation of bitumen and peat. Towards\\nthe close of the distillation, when the temperature passes above\\n300\u00c2\u00b0, the products which distil condense to a solid mass on\\ncooling. When properly purified, this solid forms a colorless,\\ntranslucent mass, which has received the name paraffin. It\\nis probably a mixture of several hydrocarbons of the series\\nC n H 2n+2 Its point of fusion varies between 45 and 65\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAll of the compounds belonging to this series cannot be\\ndescribed here, but we may briefly consider their constitution.\\nThe third member of the series, propane, C 3 H 8 has the con-\\nstitution indicated by the formula CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 3 It is a gas\\nwhich liquefies at 17\u00c2\u00b0.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0526.jp2"}, "525": {"fulltext": "PETROLEUM. 519\\nIts higher homologue, butane, C 4 H 10 has the constitution\\nCH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 3 and can be obtained by the action of\\nzinc or sodium on ethyl iodide.\\n2C 2 H 5 I Na 2 2NaI OH 10\\nIt is a colorless gas, condensable at +1\u00c2\u00b0. But we have\\nhere a remarkable instance of isomerism. There is another\\nbutane, isomeric with the preceding, and having the consti-\\nCH 3\\ntution expressed by the formula CH 3 -CH pTT3. It is tri-\\nmethyl-methane, CH(CH 3 3 while normal butane is dimethyl-\\nethane, C 2 H 4 (CH 3 2 or propyl-methane, CH 3 (C 3 H 7 The sig-\\nnification of these words and formulae is evident. Trimethyl-\\nmethane is methane, CH 1 in which three atoms of hydrogen\\nare replaced by three methyl groups. The difference in the\\natomic grouping is attended by a difference in properties.\\nTrimethyl-methane is a gas which condenses only at 17\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe succeeding terms of the series present isomerisms of\\nthe same kind, but much more numerous as their molecular\\ncomplication is greater. They need not be described here, since\\nthe same general principles apply to all.\\nPETROLEUM.\\nPetroleum, or rock oil, was known to the ancients, oil-springs\\nexisting in Persia, India, Italy and Russia. It was used by\\nthe American Indians, but until 1859 mineral oil was obtained\\nonly in small quantities, usually by the distillation of argil-\\nlaceous rocks saturated with hydrocarbons, such as boghead\\ncoal. In 1859 the discovery of numerous and prolific oil-\\nbearing soils in Northwestern Pennsylvania led to the method\\nnow employed of sinking deep wells, from which the oil either\\nflows naturally, by reason of interior pressure, or is pumped by\\nmachinery. A single well has furnished two thousand barrels\\nof oil a day.\\nCrude petroleum is usually dark brown in color, often\\nhaving a greenish reflection. It is sometimes mobile, some-\\ntimes viscous like molasses. Its density varies from 0.75 to\\n0.92. By fractional distillation it can be separated into a large\\nnumber of hydrocarbons, most of which are homologues of\\nmarsh gas. Schorlemmer, and Pelouze and Cahours, have thus\\nsucceeded in isolating from petroleum the whole saturated series\\nfrom C*H 10 to C 16 H 34 American petroleum consists almost", "height": "4797", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0527.jp2"}, "526": {"fulltext": "520 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nentirely of hydrocarbons of the series C n H 2n 2 while Russian\\npetroleum contains considerable quantities of the naphthenes,\\na series of hydrocarbons related to benzene.\\nFor commercial purposes the crude oil is subjected to frac-\\ntional distillation that is, it is heated, and the fractions pass-\\ning over at different temperatures are collected separately.\\nUnder such circumstances, American petroleum at 70\u00c2\u00b0 gives\\noff the volatile hydrocarbons, which constitute petroleum\\nether gasoline distils between 70\u00c2\u00b0 and 90\u00c2\u00b0, and the portion\\npassing between 90\u00c2\u00b0 and 150\u00c2\u00b0 is known as benzine. Above\\n150\u00c2\u00b0, and up to about 300\u00c2\u00b0, refined petroleum, or kerosene, is\\ncollected. From the latter temperature up to 400\u00c2\u00b0 heavy\\noils of a density from 0.83 to 0.9, and valuable as lubricants,\\nare obtained. Much paraffine distils towards the end of the\\noperation, and a residue of coke remains in the retort.\\nPetroleum ether having a density of about 0.60 is used for\\nthe artificial production of cold, and as a solvent for fatty\\nmatters, and gasolene having a density of 0.63 serves for the\\nmanufacture of an illuminating gas. Benzine, which must\\nnot be confounded with benzene (page 671), is largely em-\\nployed on account of its solvent powers for resins, fats, oils,\\netc., especially in cleaning and scouring.\\nKerosene, or illuminating oil, should contain no product\\nwhose boiling point is below 150\u00c2\u00b0. The comparative safety of\\nthe oil is usually determined by slowly heating it, and observing\\nby means of a thermometer the temperature at which it\\nemits inflammable vapors, and that at which the oil itself\\nignites. A lighted match is passed over the surface of the\\nwarm oil until the flashing point and igniting point are attained.\\nThe former should not be below 60\u00c2\u00b0, and the latter not lower\\nthan 65.5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nSERIES OF ALCOHOLS.\\nEthyl alcohol, of which the more important compounds\\nhave been briefly described, is not the only product of the fer-\\nmentation of saccharine liquids. Other alcohols are formed in\\nsmall quantity in this reaction, which is conducted on an exten-\\nsive scale in the arts. Among these alcohols of fermentation\\nare the following\\nPropyl alcohol, or propyl hydrate, C 3 H 7 .OH\\nButyl alcohol, or butyl hydrate, C 4 H 9 .OH\\nAmyl alcohol, or amyl hydrate, C 5 H 11 .OH\\nHexyl alcohol, or hexyl hydrate, C 6 H 13 .OH\\nHeptyl alcohol, or heptyl hydrate, C 7 H 15 .OH", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0528.jp2"}, "527": {"fulltext": "SERIES OF ALCOHOLS. 521\\nTo each of these alcohols correspond numerous ethereal com-\\npounds in which the roups propyl, C 3 H 7 butyl, C 4 H 9 amyl,\\nC 5 H U etc., are substituted for the hydrogen of the hydracids\\nand oxy acids. To each of these alcohols correspond also an\\naldehyde and an acid, just as ordinary aldehyde and acetic acid\\ncorrespond to ordinary alcohol or ethyl hydrate.\\nCH 3 CH 3 CH 3\\nCH 2 .OH CHO CO.OH\\nAlcohol. Aldehyde. Acetic acid.\\nCH 2 -CH 3 CH 2 -CH 3 CH2-CH 3\\nCH2.0H CHO CO.OH\\nPropyl alcohol. Propaldehyde. Propionic acid.\\nC 3 H T C 3 H? C 3 H?\\nCH20H CHO CO.OH\\nButyl alcohol. Butaldehyde. Butyric acid.\\nAll of these alcohols contain a group CEP.OH united to a\\ngroup or radical, C n H 2n+1 When they are converted by oxi-\\ndation into aldehydes and acids, the group CH 2 .OH is trans-\\nformed into a group CHO, characteristic of the aldehydes, or\\na group CO.OH, characteristic of the acids. These alcohols\\nare said to be primary. Beginning with butyl alcohol, the\\nprimary alcohols may have several isomeric modifications, as\\nwill be seen shortly. Independently of the primary alcohols,\\nthere are others, isomeric with the preceding, but distinguished\\nfrom them by the fact that they do not yield corresponding\\naldehydes and acids when oxidized. These iso-alcolwls are\\ndivided into secondary, which contain the group CH.OH, and\\ntertiary, which contain the group C.OH (Kolbe). Without\\nentering into the details of this subject, we may cite two\\nexamples\\n1. By the action of nascent hydrogen acetone yields second-\\nary propyl alcohol, which oxidation reconverts into acetone.\\nCH 3 CH 3 CH 3 CH 3\\nCO H2 CH.OH CH.OH H 2 CO\\nCH 3 CH 3 CH 3 CH 3\\nAcetone. Isopropyl alcohol.\\n2. Butlerow discovered an isomeride of butyl alcohol, and\\nnamed it tertiary butyl alcohol its constitution is thus ex-\\npressed\\nCH 3\\nCH 3 -C.OH\\nCH 3\\n44*", "height": "4797", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0529.jp2"}, "528": {"fulltext": "522 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThis alcohol contains, as is seen, the group C.OH. It yields\\nneither aldehyde nor acid by oxidation.\\nIn the primary alcohols, the OH is united to a C which is\\ncombined with only one other carbon atom in the secondary\\nalcohols, to a C united to two other carbon atoms while in\\nthe tertiary alcohols, the C to which the hydroxyl is attached\\nis joined to three other atoms of carbon.\\nIn order to exactly designate the class of any alcohol by\\nits name, Kolbe proposed to consider all alcohols as derived\\nfrom methyl alcohol, which he named carbinol. The replace-\\nment of one of the hydrogen atoms in the CH 3 group by a\\nhydrocarbon radical would yield a mono-substituted carbinol\\nor primary alcohol the disubstituted carbinols are secondary\\nalcohols, while the tertiary alcohols are trisubstituted carbi-\\nnols. This may be more clearly understood by the aid of\\nthe following formula\\n(C 2 H 5 )CH 2 .OH (C 2 H 5 2 CH.OH (CH 3 3 C.OH\\nEthyl carbinol. Diethyl carbinol. Trimethyl carbinol.\\nPrimary propyl alcohol. Secondary (is amyl alcohol. Tertiary butyl alcohol.\\nPROPYL ALCOHOLS.\\nC 3 H 8\\nNormal Propyl Alcohol.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 .OH.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This was\\ndiscovered by Chancel in the oily liquid remaining after the\\ndistillation of brandy. It is a spirituous liquid, boiling at 98\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIts iodide, C 3 H 7 I, boils at 104.5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIsopropyl Alcohol, CH 3 -CH.OH-CH 3 is prepared by the\\naction of sodium amalgam upon acetone in aqueous solution,\\naccording to the reaction given on the previous page.\\nIt boils at 81\u00c2\u00b0. When propylene gas is heated with hydri-\\nodic acid, isopropyl iodide, C 3 H 7 I, is obtained, boiling at 92\u00c2\u00b0.\\nC 3 H 6 HI C 3 ITI\\nPropylene. Isopropyl iodide.\\nBUTYL ALCOHOLS.\\nC 4 H 10 O\\nThere are four butyl alcohols. The best known is the\\nButyl Alcohol of Fermentation, or isopropylcarbinol.\\nIn 1852, Wurtz obtained it from the fusel-oil from the rec-\\ntification of beet-root alcohol. It is a colorless liquid, having\\na penetrating odor analogous to that of amyl alcohol, but more\\nspirituous. It dissolves in 10.5 times its volume of water. It", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0530.jp2"}, "529": {"fulltext": "SERIES OF ALCOHOLS. 523\\nboils at 109\u00c2\u00b0, and yields on oxidation an acid isomeric with\\nbutyric acid and called isobutyric. Its density at 18\u00c2\u00b0 is 0.805.\\nIt may be regarded as ordinary alcohol in which two atoms\\nof hydrogen are replaced by two methyl groups.\\nCH 3 CH(CH 3 2\\nCH2.0H CH 2 .OH\\nAlcohol. Isolmtyl alcohol.\\nNormal Butyl Alcohol is isomeric with the alcohol of fer-\\nmentation, and by oxidation yields butyric aldehyde and butyric\\nacid. Lieben obtained this alcohol by the action of sodium\\namalgam in presence of water on butaldehyde.\\nC 3 H7 x m c*W\\nH 2\\nCHO CH2.0II\\nButaldehyde. Normal butyl alcohol.\\nNormal butyl alcohol is a liquid having a pleasant odor. It\\nboils at 117\u00c2\u00b0. Its density at Q is 0.824.\\nFitz has obtained this alcohol, as well as ethyl alcohol and\\nnormal propyl alcohol, by the decomposition of glycerol under\\nthe influence of a peculiar organized ferment.\\nSecondary Butyl Alcohol was obtained by De Luynes by\\nthe reduction of erythritol (paoe 633). This alcohol is second-\\nary, having the constitution CH 3 -CH 2 -CH(OH)-CH 3 It\\nboils at 98-100\u00c2\u00b0. Density at 0\u00c2\u00b0, 0.85. The corresponding\\niodide, CH 3 -CH 2 -CHI-CH 3 boils at 118\u00c2\u00b0. It is formed by\\nthe following reaction\\nC\u00c2\u00b1H 10 O THI C 4 H 9 I 4H 2 3P\\nErythritol. Secondary butyl iodide.\\nTertiary Butyl Alcohol, discovered by Butlerow, has re-\\nceived the name trimethylcarbinol, on account of its constitution,\\nwhich has already been indicated. It is a compound crystal-\\nlizing in right-rhombic prisms, melting at 23\u00c2\u00b0. It boils at\\n83-84\u00c2\u00b0, and is soluble in all proportions of water.\\nIn conclusion, four alcohols are known having the composi-\\ntion C 4 H 10 O, and presenting a remarkable instance of isomer-\\nism. Their constitutions are again indicated in the following\\nformulae\\nCH 3\\nCH 3\\nCH 3\\nCH 3\\nCH 2\\nCH 3 -CH\\nCH 2\\nCH 3 -C.OH\\nCH2\\nCH2.0H\\nCH.OH\\nCH 3\\nCH2.0H\\nNormal primary\\nbutyl alcohol.\\n(Lieben.)\\nPrimary isobutyl\\nalcohol (fermentation).\\n(Wurtz.)\\nCH 3\\nSecondary butyl\\nalcohol.\\n(De Luynes.)\\nTertiary butyl\\nalcohol.\\n(Boutlerow.)", "height": "4801", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0531.jp2"}, "530": {"fulltext": "524 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nAMYL ALCOHOLS.\\nC 5 H liJ\\nTheory predicts the existence of eight isomeric auiyl alcohols\\n1. Four primary alcohols which may be regarded as formed\\nby the substitution of various alcoholic groups for one atom of\\nhydrogen of the methyl group in methyl alcohol.\\nH C-(CH 3 3 CH ^2H 3 5 CH2.C*H7 CIP-CWi\\nCH2.0H CH 2 .OH CH2.0H CH 2 .OH CIP.OH\\nMethyl alcohol. Tertiary- Active amy 1 Normal amy 1 Amyl alcohol of fer\\nbutylcarbinol. alcohol. alcohol. mentation.\\n(Unknown.) Butyl carbiuol. Isobutylcarbinol.\\n2. Three secondary alcohols, in which two atoms of hydrogen\\nof the methyl group in methyl alcohol are replaced by alcoholic\\ngroups.\\nh c 2 hs c 3 h* cmn\\nH-CH.OH C 2 H5-CH.OH CH 3 -CH.OH CH 3 -CH.OH\\nMethyl alcohol. Diethylcarbinol. Propylmethylcarbinol. Isopropylmethyl-\\ncarbinol.\\n3. One tertiary alcohol, in which one ethyl group and two\\nmethyl groups replace the three hydrogen atoms of the CH 3\\nin methyl alcohol.\\nH\\nC 2 H5\\nH-C-OH\\nCH 3 -C.OH\\ni\\nH\\nCH 3\\nMethyl alcohol. Dimethylethylcarbinol.\\nAll are known with the exception of tertiary-butylcar-\\nbinol.\\nNormal Amyl Alcohol, CII 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 .OH.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nLieben obtained this compound by the action of nascent\\nhydrogen on valeral, the corresponding aldehyde. It is a\\nliquid, almost insoluble in water, boiling at 137\u00c2\u00b0. Its density\\nat 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 0.829. Oxidizing agents convert it into normal\\nvaleric acid.\\nThe corresponding chloride, C 5 H n Cl, boils at 106-107\u00c2\u00b0. It\\nmay be prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid upon the\\nnormal alcohol, and has also been obtained by the action of\\nchlorine on normal pentane, CH 3 -(CH 2 3 -CH 3 as described on\\npage 504.\\nAmyl Alcohol of Fermentation. This consists in great\\npart of inactive isobutyl carbinol, ^3 CH-CH 2 -CH 2 .OH,\\nbut contains also a variable quantity of active amyl alcohol.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0532.jp2"}, "531": {"fulltext": "AMYL ALCOHOLS. 525\\nIt may be obtained by fractional distillation of the fusel oil\\nfrom beet-root and potatoes, as well as of that from the marc\\nof grapes, whiskey, etc. These products are only the residues\\nof the distillation of alcohol from various sources. The\\ninactive amy! alcohol or isobutylcarbinol may be separated by\\nthe following process, indicated by Pasteur.\\nBy treatment with sulphuric acid the crude amyl alcohol is\\nconverted into amylsulphuric acid. The liquid is diluted with\\nwater, neutralized with barium carbonate, and filtered. Two\\nbarium amylsulphates are thus obtaiued, of which the one is\\nless soluble than the other, and crystallizes first when the solu-\\ntion is evaporated, while the other remains in the mother\\nliquid. The former is derived from the inactive alcohol, the\\nlatter from the active alcohol these alcohols are obtained by\\ndecomposing the corresponding barium salts with sulphuric acid,\\nfiltering, and distilling with water the free amylsulphuric acids.\\nOpoRH\\nS 2 OH H2 s 2 OH 2 C 5 H n .OH\\nAmylsulphuric acids. Sulphuric acid. Amyl alcohols.\\nIsobutylcarbinol has been obtained by synthesis, and the\\nprocess clearly proves its constitution (Balbiano). The con-\\nstitution of butyl alcohol of fermentation has been established\\nwith certainty by Erlenmeyer. This alcohol may be converted\\nsuccessively into iodide and cyanide, and this, by decomposition\\nwith potassium hydrate, into inactive valeric acid. The barium\\nsalt of the latter acid when distilled with calcium formate\\nyields the corresponding aldehyde, valeraldehyde (Piria), and\\nthis is converted into inactive amyl alcohol by the action of\\nnascent hydrogen.\\nCH3 CH CH2 -CHO H 2 ^3 CH-CH 2 -CH 2 .OH\\nValeraldehyde. Isobutylcarbinol.\\nProperties. Pure isobutylcarbinol is a colorless, somewhat\\noily liquid, soluble in fifty parts of water at 13\u00c2\u00b0. Its density\\nat 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 0.823, and it Wis at 131.4\u00c2\u00b0. When oxidized it\\nyields inactive valeraldehyde and acid.\\nC 5 H 12 H 2 C 5 H 10 O\\nAmyl alcohol. Valeric aldehyde (valeral).\\nC 5 H 12 O 2 H 2 C 5 H 10 O 2\\nValeric acid.\\nThe crude alcohol of fermentation is an oily liquid, of a dis-\\nagreeable odor. It boils at 129-132\u00c2\u00b0. It turns the plane of", "height": "4800", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0533.jp2"}, "532": {"fulltext": "526 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\npolarized light to the left, but its rotatory power is variable,\\nfor it contains variable proportions of active amyl alcohol.\\nWhen distilled with zinc chloride, it yields ordiuary amylene,\\nwhich is a mixture of several isomeric amylenes, trimethyl-\\nethylene being the most abundant.\\nC 5 H 12 C 5 H 10 H 2\\nAmyl alcohol. Amylenes.\\nMany amyl derivatives have been studied. They resemble\\nthe ethyl compounds, but contain, of course, the group C 5 H U\\ninstead of C 2 H 5\\nC 5 H n\\nAmyl oxide, p 5 |_| n 0, is formed, together with amylene,\\nby the action of sulphuric acid on crude amyl alcohol (William-\\nson). It is a colorless liquid, of an aromatic odor, boiling at\\n176\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAmyl chloride, C 5 H n Cl, is a colorless liquid, boiling at\\n101.4\u00c2\u00b0. Amyl bromide, C 5 H n Br, boils at 120.4\u00c2\u00b0. Amyl\\niodide, C 5 H n I, is prepared by a process similar to that which\\nyields ethyl iodide. It is a colorless liquid, boiling at 148\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt turns brown on exposure to the light.\\nAmyl nitrite, C 5 H n N0 2 is prepared by passing nitrous\\nvapors, made by the action of nitric acid on starch, into amyl\\nalcohol, and distilling the carefully washed product. It is a\\npale yellow liquid, boiling at 96\u00c2\u00b0, and having a peculiar odor\\nsomewhat like that of apples. Its vapor when inhaled pro-\\nduces dilatation of the capillary system, and violent but tran-\\nsitory headache. Its inhalation has been recommended as a\\nremedy for sea-sickness, in certain heart-affections, and as an\\nantidote in cases of poisoning by chloroform vapor.\\nActive Amyl Alcohol is contained to the extent of about\\nthirteen per cent, in crude amyl alcohol. One method of\\nseparation has already been indicated, but Le Bel has proposed\\na better method when it is desired to prepare only the active\\nalcohol. If hydrochloric acid gas be passed through the crude\\nalcohol, the inactive alcohol is first attacked and converted into\\nchloride the active alcohol then remains after the separation\\nof the inactive chloride.\\nIt boils at 127\u00c2\u00b0. It rotates the plane of polarized light to\\nthe left [a]D \u00e2\u0080\u00944.4\u00c2\u00b0. Its chloride boils at 97-99\u00c2\u00b0 its iodide\\nat 144-145\u00c2\u00b0. Oxidation converts it into active valeric acid\\nCH 3\\nhence its constitution is probably p 2 TT 5 CH-CH 2 .OH.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0534.jp2"}, "533": {"fulltext": "HIGHER ALCOHOLS. 527\\nTertiary Amyl Alcohol, or Hydrate of Amylene. This\\nalcohol is prepared by treating with hydriodic acid triinethyl-\\nethylene, described on page 574, which forms the greater part\\nof crude amylene.\\n^3 C-CH-CH 3 HI 5^3 CI-CH 2 -CH 3\\nTrimethylethylene. Trimethylethyl iodide.\\nThe iodide so formed, when acted on by water and silver\\noxide, yields the corresponding hydrate, which is tertiary amyl\\nalcohol or dimethylethylcarbinol.\\nIt is a mobile, colorless liquid, having an odor somewhat like\\ncamphor. At 12\u00c2\u00b0 it forms a crystalline mass it boils at\\n102.5\u00c2\u00b0, and at 200\u00c2\u00b0 is decomposed into amylene and water.\\nBy reason of the latter reaction, Wurtz, who discovered the\\nalcohol, named it hydrate of amylene.\\nIts chloride boils at 86\u00c2\u00b0, its bromide at 108-109\u00c2\u00b0, and its\\niodide at 127-128\u00c2\u00b0.\\nOxidation converts it into acetic acid and acetone.\\nHIGHER ALCOHOLS.\\nOf the rapidly increasing number of members of this series\\nwhich are becoming well known, we can consider but a few.\\nHexyl and Heptyl Alcohols. Faget announced that the\\nresidues from the distillation of fusel-oil from fermented\\ngrape-juice contained a small quantity of hexyl (C 6 H ]4 0) and\\nheptyl (C 7 H 16 0) alcohols, but the existence of such alcohols\\nin that product has not been corroborated.\\nNormal hexyl alcohol has been obtained from the volatile\\noil of the seeds of Her acleum giqanteum, an oil which contains\\nbutyrate of hexyl, C 6 H 13 .C 4 H 7 2 The normal alcohol boils\\nat 157-158\u00c2\u00b0.\\nNormal heptyl alcohol, C 7 H 16 0, has been prepared by the\\naction of nascent hydrogen on cenanthic aldehyde C 7 H u O.\\nIt boils at 175-177\u00c2\u00b0, and has an aromatic odor.\\nOctyl Alcohols, C 8 H 18 0.- -Normal octyl alcohol may be ex-\\ntracted from the seeds of Her acleum spondylium and Hera-\\ncleum giganteum, in which octyl acetate, C 8 H 17 .C 2 H 3 2 exists.\\nThis ether is separated and decomposed by boiling potassium\\nhydrate. Its boiling-point is between 190 and 192\u00c2\u00b0.\\nBouis discovered secondary octyl alcohol. By boiling one", "height": "4800", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0535.jp2"}, "534": {"fulltext": "528 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nof the acids produced by the saponification of castor-oil, rici-\\nnolic acid, with potassium hydrate, he succeeded in obtaining\\nsebacic acid and a new secondary alcohol. This is octyl alco-\\nhol, C 8 H 18 0, a colorless liquid having a pleasant, aromatic odor,\\nand boiling at 178\u00c2\u00b0. The following equation explains its\\nformation\\nC i8 H 34 3 _j_ 2KOH K 2 C 10 H 16 O 4 C 8 H ]8 H 2\\nRicinolic acid. Potassium sebacate. Octyl liydrate.\\nCetyl Alcohol. The solid portion of an oil which fills\\nthe cranial sinuses of the sperm-whale is called spermaceti.\\nWhen properly purified it occurs in beautiful pearly plates,\\nfusible at 49\u00c2\u00b0. It is a compound ether of which the nature\\nwas recognized by Chevreul in 1823. By submitting it to the\\naction of potassium hydrate, that chemist decomposed it into\\npalmitic acid and a new alcohol which he called ethal^ to denote\\nits relations with alcohol and ether. It is now called cetyl\\nalcohol, or cetyl hydrate.\\nCi I 6H3^ K0H 0\u00c2\u00bbH\u00c2\u00bb.OH KC^H^W\\nCetyl palmitate. Cetyl hydrate. Potassium palmitate.\\nIt belongs to the same homologous series as the preceding\\nalcohols.\\nAlcohols from Wax. The most complex alcohols of the\\nseries under consideration were obtained from wax by Brodie.\\nOrdinary beeswax is a mixture of a fatty acid, C 27 H 54 2 called\\ncerotic acid (cerin), and a compound ether, the palmitate of\\nmyricyl (myricin). The two bodies are separated by alcohol,\\nwhich readily dissolves the first, but in which the second is but\\nslightly soluble. By boiling the palmitate of myricyl with\\npotassium hydrate, it breaks up into palmitic acid and hydrate\\nof myricyl, or myricyl alcohol, C 30 H 62 O.\\nChinese wax is a compound ether it is cerotate of ceryl, and\\nmay be decomposed by caustic potassa into cerotic acid and\\nceryl hydrate, or ceryl alcohol, C 27 H 56 0. The hydrates of cetyl\\nand ceryl are solid bodies.\\nALLYL ALCOHOL.\\nC 3 H5.0H CH ^CH-CHAOH\\nAll of the alcohols thus far considered belong to the series\\nC n H 2n+2 0. There are other monatomic alcohols which belong\\nto different series, that is, in which there are different relations", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0536.jp2"}, "535": {"fulltext": "ALLYL ALCOHOL. 529\\nbetween the number of hydrogen atoms and the number of\\ncarbon atoms. Among these other alcohols, the most impor-\\ntant is allyl alcohol, or hydrate of allyl, so named because it is\\nclosely related to the essential oil of garlic, which is allyl sul-\\nphide. Another natural oil, that of mustard, is sulphocyanate\\nof allyl.\\nC 3 H 5 .OH (C 3 H 5 2 S C 3 H 5 .CNS\\nAllyl hydrate. Allyl sulphide. Allyl sulphocyanate.\\nHofmann and Cahours prepared allyl hydrate and a great\\nnumber of its derivatives artificially by the aid of allyl iodide,\\nC 3 HI 5 which is formed when glycerol is acted upon by iodide\\nof phosphorus, P 2 I 4 (Berthelot and de Luca). This iodide,\\nwhose relations to allyl alcohol are the same as those of ethyl\\niodide to ordinary alcohol, is a colorless liquid, having a slightly\\npungent, garlicky odor, and boiling at 101\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWhen heated with mercury and concentrated hydrochloric\\nacid, it yields pure propylene gas (Berthelot).\\n2C 3 H 5 I 2HC1 4Hg 2C 3 H 6 Hg 2 F Hg 2 Cl 2\\nAllyl iodide. Propylene.\\nTollens and Henninger discovered a very simple process for\\nthe preparation of allyl alcohol. It consists in heating formic\\nacid, or oxalic acid, from which the former acid is produced,\\nwith glycerol to 220\u00c2\u00b0. The allyl alcohol which distils is\\nwashed with a concentrated solution of potassium carbonate,\\nand rectified over lime. In this reaction, a monoformine of\\nglycerol is first produced, and this decomposes at 220\u00c2\u00b0 into\\ncarbon dioxide, water, and allyl alcohol.\\nro.CHO\\nC 3 H5 OH CO 2 H 2 C 3 H5.0H\\n(OH\\nMonoformine of glycerol. Allyl alcohol.\\nIt will be seen that the reaction is really a reduction.\\nAllyl alcohol is a colorless liquid, boiling at 97\u00c2\u00b0, and having\\na pungent, alcoholic odor. It dissolves in all proportions of\\nwater. Density at 0\u00c2\u00b0, 0.858. Allyl alcohol is an unsaturated\\ncompound it can fix directly two atoms of hydrogen, so form-\\ning normal propyl alcohol. It combines directly with bromine,\\nforming dibromopropylalcohol. CH 2 Br-CHBr-CH 2 OH.\\nAcrolein, a volatile liquid that is formed in the distillation\\nof fatty bodies, is the aldehyde of allyl alcohol. Acrylic acid\\nis the corresponding acid.\\nX ii 45", "height": "4802", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0537.jp2"}, "536": {"fulltext": "530\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nCOMPOUND AMMONIAS, OR AMINES.\\nWurtz gave these names to the basic combinations resulting\\nfrom the substitution of alcoholic radicals, such as methyl,\\nethyl, etc., for the hydrogen of ammonia, This substitution\\nmay be more or less complete 1, 2, or 3 atoms of hydrogen\\nmay be replaced by as many alcoholic groups. Hence there\\nare various classes of amines they are designated by the names\\nprimary, secondary, and tertiary.\\nPRIMARY AMINES.\\nSECONDARY AMINES.\\nTERTIARY AMINES.\\nH\\nCH 3\\nown\\ncH n\\nH [-N\\nH ^N\\nCH 3 N\\nchs In\\nHj\\nhJ\\nHJ\\nCH 3 J\\nAmmonia.\\nMethylamine.\\nDimethylamine.\\nTrimethylamine.\\nC2H n\\nc 2 irn\\nC 2 H*\\nH ^N\\nC 2 1T5 N\\nC 2 H* I N\\nhJ\\nHJ\\nC 2 H5j\\nEthylamine.\\nDiethylamine.\\nTriethylamine.\\nLastly, bases are known which are the most energetic of\\nall, and may be considered as derived from the hypothetical\\nhydrate of ammonium by the substitution of alcoholic radicals\\nfor 4 atoms of hydrogen.\\nH]\\nC 2 H5]\\nH\\nH\\n-N.OH\\nC2H5 Inoh\\nC 2H5 rn.vn.\\nC 2 H5J\\nH\\nAmmon 1\\num hydrate.\\nHydrate of tetrethylammonium.\\nThe latter ammoniated bases, as well as the secondary and\\ntertiary amines, were discovered by Hofmann.\\nThe compound ammonias, or amines, are formed in the fol-\\nlowing reactions\\n1, By the decomposition of an isocyanic or isocyanuric ether\\nby potassium hydrate. In this case primary amines are obtained\\n(A. Wurtz).\\nC0=N-C 2 H5 2KOH NH 2 (C 2 H5) K 2 C0 3\\nEthyl isocyanate. Ethylamine.\\n2. By the action of alcoholic bromides or iodides on ammo-\\nnia (A. W. Hofmann).\\nCWI\\nEthyl iodide.\\n2C 2 H I NH3\\n3C\u00c2\u00bbB 6 I\\nNH 3 NH\u00c2\u00bb(C\u00c2\u00bbH5)HI\\nEthylamine hydriodide.\\nNH(C 2 fl5j 2 HI HI\\nDiethylamine hydriodide.\\nNil 3 NH(C 2 H5)3HI 2HI\\nTriethylamine hydriodide,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0538.jp2"}, "537": {"fulltext": "COMPOUND AMMONIAS. 531\\n3. By decomposing carbylaniines by dilute acids (Gautier).\\n4. By the reduction of nitromethane and its homologues by\\nnascent hydrogen (V. Meyer, see p. 494).\\n5. By the action of nascent hydrogen on the alcoholic cya-\\nnides, also called nitriles (Mendius).\\nCH3.CN H* CH3-CH2-NH?\\nMethyl cyanide, or acetonitrile. Ethylamine.\\n6. By reducing oxinies (p. 554) or hydrazones (p. 554) in\\nalcoholic solution by means of nascent hydrogen (E. Fischer).\\nGeneral Properties. The amines are energetic bases, pre-\\nsenting great analogies with ammonia, having a similar odor,\\na like solubility in water, and the same pronounced alkaline\\nreaction. The more simple are combustible gases or volatile\\nliquids. The basic energy increases with progressive substitu-\\ntions thus triethylamine is a stronger base than either ethyl-\\namine or ammonia, both of which it displaces from their com-\\nbinations. The hydrates of the quaternary bases, or compound\\nammoniums, are almost as caustic as potassium hydrate. All\\nof the compound ammonias form with platinic chloride crystal-\\nlizable double salts comparable to ammonio-platinic chloride.\\nThey can replace ammonia in ammonia alum.\\nWhen the hydrochlorides of the amines are subjected to de-\\nstructive distillation, they decompose into an alcoholic chloride\\nand a lower amine, a reaction which allows the molecules to be\\nsimplified by a sort of inverse substitution.\\nN(CH 3 )*C1 N(CH 3 3 CH 3 C1\\nTetramethylammoniuni chloride. Trimethylaraine.\\nN(CH 3 3 .HC1 NH(CH 3 2 CH 3 C1\\nTrimethylamine hydrochloride. Dimethylamine.\\nNH(CH 3 )2.HC1 NH2(CH 3 CH 3 C1\\nDimethylamine hydrochloride. Methylamine.\\nAction of Nitrous Acid. This acid converts primary amines\\ninto alcohols, water being formed and nitrogen disengaged.\\nNH 2 (C 2 H 5 HO.NO C 2 H 5 .OH H 2 N 2\\nWith the same acid the secondary amines undergo a remark-\\nable reaction, giving rise to ?ziYroso-bases, or nitroso-zmines,\\nformed by the substitution of the group nitrosyl, NO, for the\\nsingle atom of hydrogen in the ammonia residue NH (imidogen).\\n/H /NO\\nN^-CH 3 NO OH N(-CH 3 H 2\\nX CH 3 X CH 3\\nPimethylamine. Jfitrosodimethylamine.", "height": "4799", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0539.jp2"}, "538": {"fulltext": "532 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe nitrosamines are oleaginous liquids, insoluble in water\\nthey can be distilled without decomposition, and, generally, are\\nunalterable by either acids or alkalies. On the addition of\\nphenol and sulphuric acid they produce intense colors. When\\ntheir alcoholic solutions are treated with zinc and acetic acid,\\nthe nascent hydrogen evolved converts them into disubstituted\\nhydrazines (see below).\\nIn the amines, nitrogen acts as a triatomic element or tri-\\nvalent; but it may assume two other atomicities. In sal-\\nammoniac, it is pentatomic, and it may play precisely the same\\npart in the amines.\\nCl (OH)\\nH\\n1\\nC 2 H5\\n1\\nH\\nH\\nN\\nN\\nN\\nH H\\nC 2 H5 C 2 H5\\nH H\\nLmmonia.\\nTriethylamine.\\nAmmonium\\nchloride.\\n(C 2 H5)\\nN\\n(C 2 H5)\\n(C 2 H5) (C 2 H5)\\nTetrethylammonium\\nhydrate.\\nRelated to the amines are various organic combinations\\nwhich have the same constitution, but in which the nitrogen\\nis replaced by an analogous element, such as phosphorus,\\narsenic, or antimony. A great number of these bodies have\\nbeen discovered, of which the more important are\\nC 2 H5 C 2 H5 C 2 H5\\nC 2 H5 P C 2 H5 As C 2 II5 Sb\\nC 2 H5 C 2 H5 J C 2 H 5 j\\nTriethylphosphine. Trietliylarsine. Triethylstibine.\\nHydrazines. The nitrogenized bases that have just been\\nconsidered belong either to the type NX 3 or to the type NX 5\\nA new class of compounds has recently been discovered, be-\\nlonging to the type N 2 X 4\\nIt is evident that the group NH 2 (amidogen) cannot exist\\nin the free state. Hydrazine, discovered and described by\\nCurtius, consists of two such groups, NH 2 -NH 2 It is dia-\\nmide (page 160).\\nDerivatives of hydrazine, in which one or two atoms of\\nhydrogen are replaced by organic radicals, had previously\\nbeen obtained by Fischer, who described ethylhydrazine,\\nNH 2 -NH(C 2 H 5 and diethylhydrazine\\nN(C 2 H 5 2 -NH 2\\nDimethyl- and diethylhydrazine are formed by the action\\nof nascent hydrogen on the corresponding nitroso compounds\\n(page 531).", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0540.jp2"}, "539": {"fulltext": "METHYLAMINE. 533\\n^3 N-N0 H* H 2 N C CH3 2\\nThese hydrazines are closely related to the amines by their\\nchemical and physical properties. They are very volatile\\nliquids, having an ammoniacal odor, and soluble in water,\\nalcohol, and ether.\\nMETHYLAMINE.\\nCH3)\\nCIMST H N\\nhJ\\nThis body may be prepared by boiling together potassium\\nhydrate and methyl cyanate or cyanurate, and passing the\\nvapors which are disengaged into dilute hydrochloric acid;\\nmethylamine hydrochloride is thus formed.\\non CH3 1\\nc Jp$ N 2K0H K*C03 H^N\\nMethyl cyanate. Methylamine.\\nThe solution is evaporated to dryness, and the residue fused\\nand allowed to cool it is then mixed with double its weight\\nof powdered quick-lime, and the mixture gently heated. The\\nmethylamine disengaged may be collected over mercury.\\nIt is a colorless gas, which condenses to a light liquid at a\\ntemperature a few degrees below 0\u00c2\u00b0. It is inflammable, and\\nburns with a pale flame. Its odor is strongly ammoniacal and,\\nat the same time, recalls that of the sea. It is the most solu-\\nble of all gases. 1 volume of water at 12.5\u00c2\u00b0 absorbs 1153\\nvolumes of methylamine. The aqueous solution possesses the\\nodor of the gas, a caustic taste, and a strong, alkaline reaction.\\nLike ammonia, it precipitates the oxides from solutions of the\\nmetallic salts.\\nIf a solution of methylamine be added to a solution of cupric\\nsulphate, a light-blue precipitate is first formed, but disappears\\nif an excess of methylamine be added, yielding a beautiful blue\\nsolution.\\nMethylamine Hydrochloride, CH 5 N.HC1, differs from am-\\nmonium chloride by its solubility in boiling alcohol, from which\\nit is deposited on cooling in large, colorless, deliquescent plates.\\nWith platinic chloride it forms a yellow precipitate, soluble in\\nboiling water, from which it crystallizes in golden-yellow scales.\\nIt is a chloroplatinate, (CH 5 N.HCl) 2 .PtCl 4\\n45*", "height": "4801", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0541.jp2"}, "540": {"fulltext": "534 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nDIMETHYLAMINE, TRIMETHYLAMINE, TETRA-\\nMETHYLAMMONIUM HYDRATE.\\nThese compounds were discovered by Hofmann.\\nDimethylamine, (CH 3 2 NH, is a combustible gas which lique-\\nfies at 8\u00c2\u00b0.\\nTrimethylamine, (CH 3 3 N, exists ready formed in the Clieno-\\npodium vulvaria, in the flowers of Crataegus oxyacantha, in\\nherring-brine, in cod-liver oil, and in coal-gas tar. Vincent\\nextracts large quatities of it from the residues of the distilla-\\ntion of fermented beet-juice.\\nAt ordinary temperatures it is a gas it liquefies at 9\u00c2\u00b0. It is\\nvery soluble in water and in alcohol. It has a strong, ammoniacal\\nodor, and an intense, alkaline reaction. It unites directly with\\nmethyl iodide, forming the iodide of tetramethylammonium.\\n(CH 3 3 N CH 3 I (CH 3 4 NI\\nThis iodide possesses all the appearances of a salt. It is\\nsoluble in water, and the solution treated with silver oxide yields\\nsilver iodide and tetramethylammonium hydrate.\\n2(CH 3 4 NI Ag 2 H 2 2AgI 2(CH 3 4 N.OH\\nThe latter body is very soluble in water, and the solution is\\ncaustic. When submitted to dry distillation, it decomposes into\\ntrimethylamine and methyl alcohol.\\n(CH 3 4 N.OH CH 3 .OH (CH 3 3 N\\nETHYLAMINE.\\nC 2 H5)\\nC 2 H* N H I N\\nHj\\nEthylamine is prepared by a process analogous to that which\\nyields methylamine cyanate or cyanurate of ethyl is decom-\\nposed with boiling potassium hydrate, and the vapors are con-\\ndensed in very dilute hydrochloric acid. The dry ethylamine\\nhydrochloride is then treated with quick-lime (A. Wurtz).\\nAnother process has been indicated by Hofmann. It consists\\nin causing ammonia to react upon the bromide or iodide of\\nethyl.\\nin C 2 H5)\\nC 2 H5Er 4- H N H N.HBr\\nHJ Hj\\n^Ethylamine hydro bromide.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0542.jp2"}, "541": {"fulltext": "DIETHYLAMINE. 535\\nEthylamine is a light, mobile, colorless liquid it boils at\\n18.7\u00c2\u00b0. Its odor is strong and exactly resembles that of am-\\nmonia.\\nEthylamine is inflammable. It mixes with water, alcohol,\\nand ether in all proportions. Its aqueous solution is caustic,\\nand precipitates most of the metallic salts like solution of am-\\nmonia, and, like the latter, redissolves cupric hydrate, forming\\na blue liquid.\\nEthylamine Hydrochloride, C 2 H 7 N.HCL\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This salt crys-\\ntallizes in large, deliquescent plates, soluble in absolute alcohol.\\nIts aqueous solution yields with platinic chloride a precipitate\\ncomposed of yellow scales, soluble in boiling water, and consti-\\ntuting a chloro-platinate, (C 2 H 7 N.HCl) 2 .PtCP.\\nDIETHYLAMINE, TRIETHYLAMINE, TETRETHYL-\\nAMMONIUM HYDRATE.\\nC 2 H 5\\nDiethylamine, C 2 H 5 N. was obtained by Hofmann by heat-\\nH\\ning ethylamine with ethylbromide, and decomposing the die-\\nthylamine hydrobromide formed by an alkali.\\nC 2 H5 C 2 H5\\nH N C 2 H5Br C 2 H* X.HBr\\nHj Hj\\nEthylamine. Diethylamine hydrobromide.\\nThe free base is a liquid having an ammoniacal odor and\\nboiling at 57.5\u00c2\u00b0\\nTriethylamine may be formed by the action of ethyl bro-\\nmide on diethylamine triethylamine hydrobromide is formed,\\nC 2 H 5\\nC 2 H 5 N.HBr, from which alkalies cause the disengagement\\nC 2 H 5\\nof triethylamine, a colorless liquid, boiling at 91\u00c2\u00b0 its odor\\nis ammoniacal and its reaction strongly alkaline.\\nTetrethylammonium Hydrate. When a mixture of ethyl\\niodide and triethylamine is heated on a water-bath, the two\\nbodies combine, forming the compound which Hofmann has\\nnamed tetrethylammonium iodide.\\nC 2 H 5 I (C 2 H 5 3 N (C 2 H 5 4 N.I\\nEthyl iodide. Triethylamine. Tetrethylammonium iodide.\\nWhen this is treated with silver oxide and water, it yields\\nsilver iodide and tetrethylammonium hydrate, (C 2 H\u00c2\u00b0) 4 N.OH, a", "height": "4784", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0543.jp2"}, "542": {"fulltext": "536 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\npowerful base, which is erystallizable and soluble in water.\\nIts alkalinity is comparable to that of potassium hydrate.\\nETHYLPHOSPHINES.\\nPrimary, secondary, and tertiary ethylphosphines are known,\\nas well as the compounds of tetrethylphosphonium.\\nC*H\u00c2\u00ab0 C 2 HM C*H5) gg] v\\nH P C 2 H5 P Cms P 2 tt. p_\\nH j HJ C2H5J CH 5 j\\nEthylphosphine. Diethylphosphine. Triethylphosphine. Tetrethylphosphonium.\\n(Primary.) (Secondary.) (Tertiary.)\\nThe first two were discovered by Hofmann. The third by\\nHofmann and Cahours, who obtained it by the action of\\nphosphorus trichloride on zinc ethyl.\\n2PCP 3[Zn(C 2 H 5 2 2[P(C 2 H 5 3 3ZnCl 2\\nZinc ethyl. Triethylphosphine.\\nThe operation must be conducted out of contact with the\\nair, and the zinc ethyl must be diluted with anhydrous ether.\\nMonethylphosphine and diethylphosphine are produced when\\nethyl iodide is made to react upon phosphonium iodide, PH 4 I,\\nhydriodide of hydrogen phosphide (page 177), in presence of\\nan excess of zinc oxide.\\n2C 2 H5I 2PIM ZnO 2[(C 2 H5)H 2 P.HI] Znl 2 H 2\\n2C 2 H5I PH 4 I ZnO (C 2 H5) 2 HP.HI Znl 2 H 2\\nAs both reactions are accomplished simultaneously, both\\nphosphines are obtained at the same time. They are separated\\nby the action of water upon the two hydriodides which are\\nformed. That of monethylphosphine is decomposed by water,\\nwhile that of diethylphosphine is only decomposed by the alka-\\nlies. It is sufficient then to add water to the product of the\\nreaction in order to set free the monethylphosphine when\\nthe latter has been completely expelled by heat, potassium hy-\\ndrate added to the residue will cause the disengagement of the\\ndiethylphosphine. These operations should be conducted in a\\ncurrent of hydrogen.\\nMonethylphosphine, (C 2 H 5 )H 2 P. This is a colorless liquid,\\nlighter than water, in which it is insoluble, and boiling at 25\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt has a most disagreeable odor. It takes fire on contact with\\nchlorine or nitric acid. Its hydriodide crystallizes in beautiful,\\nwhite, quadrangular tables.\\nDiethylphosphine, (C 2 H 5 2 HP. A colorless liquid, lighter", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0544.jp2"}, "543": {"fulltext": "PRODUCTS OF OXIDATION OF ETHYLPHOSPHINES. 537\\nthan water, and boiling at 85\u00c2\u00b0. It is very avid of oxygen, and\\nsometimes takes fire spontaneously on contact with the air.\\nTriethylphosphine, (C 2 H 5 3 P. This is a colorless liquid,\\nboiling at 127.5\u00c2\u00b0. Density at 15\u00c2\u00b0, 0.812. It combines di-\\nrectly with oxygen, forming triethylphosphine oxide, (C 2 H 5 3 PO.\\nThe latter is a crystalline solid, very soluble in water and in\\nalcohol. It distils at 240\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWhen treated with ethyl iodide, triethylphosphine yields\\ntetrethylphosphonium iodide, (C 2 H 5 4 PI, a compound which\\nmay be obtained in beautiful crystals. When this iodide is\\nacted upon by moist silver oxide, it furnishes the corresponding\\nhydrate, which is an energetic base.\\n2[(C 2 H 5 4 PI] Ag 2 H 2 2AgI 2[(C 2 H 5 )*P.OH]\\nTetrethylphosphoniuni Tetrethylphosphonium\\niodide. hydrate.\\nPRODUCTS OF OXIDATION OF ETHYLPHOS-\\nPHINES.\\nWhen the ethylphosphines are treated with fuming nitric\\nacid under suitable conditions, they act in a characteristic man-\\nner. Monethylphosphine is transformed into a dibasic acid,\\nmonethylphosphinicy diethylphosphine yields a monobasic acid,\\ndiethylpliosphinic. Triethylphosphine yields an indifferent\\noxide, which has already been mentioned. Now. if it be remem-\\nbered that under the same circumstances hydrogen phosphide\\nfurnishes phosphoric acid, it will be seen that the preceding\\noxidation compounds may be regarded as phosphoric acid, in\\nwhich 1, 2, or 3 groups OH are replaced by as many ethyl\\ngroups.\\nf H\\nfOH\\nV\\\\ H\\nPO^ OH\\nU\\n(OH\\nHydrogen phosphide.\\nPhosphoric acid.\\nfC 2 H5\\nf C 2 H*\\nP^ H\\nVO\\\\ OH\\n(h\\n(OH\\nMonethylphosphine.\\nMonethylphosphinic acid.\\nrc 2 H5\\nr c 2 hs\\nP C 2 H^\\nPO C 2 H*\\nu\\n(oh\\nDiethylphosphine.\\nDiethylphosphinic acid.\\nrc 2 H5\\nfC 2 H5\\nP C 2 H*\\nPO C 2 H 5\\n(C 2 H5\\nC 2 H5\\nTriethylphosphine.\\nTriethylphosphine oxide.", "height": "4787", "width": "2925", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0545.jp2"}, "544": {"fulltext": "538 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe compounds of arsenic and ethyl are entirely analogous\\nto the phosphines they have already been alluded to. Besides\\nthese, there are ethylic combinations corresponding to cacodyl\\nand its derivatives.\\nSILICON-ETHYL.\\nSi(C 2 H5j4\\nThis compound is obtained by treating silicon chloride with\\nzinc ethyl.\\nSiCl* 2Zn(C 2 H 5 2 2ZnCl 2 Si(C 2 H 5 4\\nSilicon- tetrethyl is a colorless, mobile liquid, not decomposed\\nby water, combustible, burning with a brilliant white flame and\\nproduction of white fumes of silicic acid. It is indifferent to\\nthe action of reagents, and acts in all points like a hydrocarbon,\\nC(C 2 H 5 4 C 9 H 20 in which one atom of carbon is replaced by\\nan atom of silicon. Its analogue, silicon-methyl, a liquid boil-\\ning at 30\u00c2\u00b0, corresponds to tetramethylmethane, C 5 H 12 a hydro-\\ncarbon boiling at 10\u00c2\u00b0.\\nSi(C 2 H 5 4 Si(CH 3 4 C(CH 3\\nSilicon-ethyl. Silicon-methyl. Tetramethylmethane.\\nThe following facts, discovered by Friedel, show the analogy\\nbetween these compounds of silicon and the corresponding hydro-\\ncarbons\\nWhen silicon-ethyl is submitted to the action of chlorine, an\\natom of hydrogen is exchanged for an atom of chlorine, and\\nthe chloride Si(C 2 H 4 Cl)(C 2 H*) 3 is formed. The latter is a liquid\\nboiling at 185\u00c2\u00b0, and can have its chlorine atom replaced by\\nother atoms or groups, like the alcoholic chlorides. When dis-\\ntilled with potassium acetate, it yields the corresponding acetate,\\n(C 2 H 5 3 Si-C 2 H 4 .O.C 2 H 3 0, which may be saponified by potas-\\nsium hydrate, like an alcoholic acetate, the oxyacetyl group,\\nOC 2 H 3 0, being replaced by a hydroxyl group. The alcohol so\\nformed, (C 2 H 5 3 .Si-C 2 H 4 .OH, has been named by Friedel sili-\\ncononyl hydrate, on account of its analogy with nonyl hydrate.\\nSiC 8 H 19 .OH C 9 H 19 .OH\\nSilicononyl hydrate. Nonyl hydrate.\\nIt is a colorless liquid, insoluble in water, and boiling at\\n190\u00c2\u00b0.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0546.jp2"}, "545": {"fulltext": "ORGANO-METALLIC COMPOUNDS. 539\\nORGANO-METALLIC COMPOUNDS.\\nZINC-ETHYL.\\nZn (C 2 H5)2\\nOne of the more important of the compounds formed by the\\nunion of the metals with alcoholic radicals is zinc-ethyl, dis-\\ncovered by Frankland.\\nIt is prepared by heating ethyl iodide with zinc-turnings\\nand a small quantity of sodium on a water-bath. Zinc iodide\\nand zinc-ethyl are formed. When the reaction is terminated,\\nthe product is distilled and that portion collected which passes\\nabove 115\u00c2\u00b0. All these operations are conducted in an at-\\nmosphere of carbon dioxide.\\nZinc-ethyl is a colorless, mobile, and highly-refractive liquid.\\nIt has a peculiar, penetrating, and very disagreeable odor. It\\nboils at 118\u00c2\u00b0. It takes fire spontaneously on contact with the\\nair, burning with a green flame, and producing white fumes\\nof zinc oxide.\\nIf water be added to a small quantity of zinc-ethyl contained\\nin a tube, a brisk effervescence at once takes place, and a white\\ndeposit is formed. The gas is ethane, and the deposit is zinc\\nhydrate.\\nZn(C 2 H 5 2 2H 2 Zn(OH) 2 -f 2C 2 H 6\\nZinc-ethyl will enter into double decompositions, and is\\nmuch used in the synthesis of organic substances.\\nBy the action of phosphorus trichloride on this body, Hof-\\nmann and Cahours obtained triethylphosphine and zinc chloride.\\nThere is a zinc-methyl, Zn(CH 3 2 corresponding to zinc-\\nethyl.\\nMERCUR-METHYL AND MERCUR-ETHYL.\\nThese compounds were obtained by Frankland and Duppa,\\nby the action of methyl and ethyl iodides on sodium amal-\\ngam, in presence of a small quantity of acetic ether.\\nMercur-ethyl is a colorless, inflammable liquid, insoluble in\\nwater. Density, 2.44. Boiling-point. 158-160\u00c2\u00b0. It is one\\nof the most dangerous poisons known. The inhalation of its\\nvapor, even in small quantity, will produce fatal poisoning.", "height": "4779", "width": "2902", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0547.jp2"}, "546": {"fulltext": "540 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nChlorine, bromine, and iodine instantly decompose mercur-\\nethyl with formation of a compound of mercur-monethyl.\\nH s{?ff p C2H51 H g{i 2H5\\nMercur-ethyl. Ethyl iodide. Mercur-monethyl iodide.\\nSTANNETHYLS.\\nThe discovery of the numerous compounds of tin and ethyl\\nis due to Lowig. Their history has been completed by Frank-\\nland, Cahours, and Eiche.\\nAs the nomenclature and constitution of the stannethyls\\nhave already been indicated (page 457), we need only consider\\na few of these interesting compounds.\\nStannodiethyl, Sn(C 2 H 5 2 The iodide of this compound\\nis obtained when ethyl iodide is heated with tin-filings to about\\n180\u00c2\u00b0. This iodide, Sn(C 2 H 5 )T, purified by crystallization in\\nalcohol, furnishes free stannodiethyl when its solution is treated\\nwith zinc, which removes the iodine.\\nStannodiethyl is an oily, yellow liquid, which does not vola-\\ntilize without decomposition. When heated to 150\u00c2\u00b0 it begins\\nto boil, but the greater part of it is decomposed into stanno-\\ntetrethyl and tin.\\n2[Sn(C 2 H 5 2 Sn(C 2 H 5 4 Sn\\nThe iodide of stannodiethyl crystallizes in joale yellow needles.\\nIn its solution, the alkalies precipitate the oxide Sn(C 2 H 5 2 0,\\nwhich forms an amorphous, white precipitate, insoluble in water\\nand alcohol, but soluble in the alkalies and acids with which it\\nforms salts.\\nStannotriethyl or Sesquistannethyl, Sn 2 (C 2 H 5 6 (C 2 H 5 3\\nSn-Sn(C 2 H 5 3 This is formed, together with the preceding\\ncompound, by the reaction of ethyl iodide on an alloy of tin and\\nsodium. It is separated by fractional distillation it boils between\\n265 and 270\u00c2\u00b0. It plays the part of a radical and combines\\ndirectly with oxygen. The oxide contains Sn 2 (C 2 H 5 6\\n[Sn(C 2 H 5 3 2 0. It combines with the elements of water, form-\\ning a hydrate, Sn(C 2 H 5 3 .OH, crystallizable in prisms. These\\ncrystals are fusible at 44\u00c2\u00b0. The oxide distils at 272\u00c2\u00b0. It\\nreacts with the acids to form crystallizable salts.\\n[Sn(C 2 H 5 3 2 2HN0 3 2[Sn(C 2 H 5 3 .N0 3 H 2\\nStannotriethyl oxide. Stannotriethyl nitrate.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0548.jp2"}, "547": {"fulltext": "VOLATILE FATTY ACIDS. 541\\nThe iodide, Sn(C 2 H 5 3 I, is a liquid having a mustard-like\\nodor, and distilling without decomposition towards 235-238\u00c2\u00b0.\\nDensity at 15\u00c2\u00b0, 1.833.\\nStannotetrethyl, Sn(C 2 H 5 4 Colorless liquid, almost odor-\\nless, and boiling at 181\u00c2\u00b0. Density, 1.187. It is formed by\\nthe action of zinc ethyl on stannodiethyl iodide.\\nSn(C 2 H 5 2 I 2 Zn(C 2 H 5 2 Sn(C 2 H 5 Znl 2\\nStannnodiethyl iodide. Zinc-ethyl. Stannotetrethyl.\\nIt is a saturated compound, and does not enter into combi-\\nnation, but by the action of energetic reagents it yields com-\\npounds of stannodiethyl or stannotriethyl. Thus, with iodine,\\nthe following reaction takes place\\nSn(C 2 H 5 4 I 2 Sn(C 2 H 5 3 I C 2 H 5 I\\nVOLATILE FATTY ACIDS DERIVED\\nFROM THE ALCOHOLS.\\nModes of Formation and Constitution. These acids result\\nfrom the oxidation of the alcohols of which the principal com-\\npounds have been described. They are formed in a great num-\\nber of reactions, and many of them exist already formed in\\nnature, either in the free state or in combination in neutral\\nfatty compounds, that is, the oils and fats.\\nTheir composition is expressed by the general formula C n H 2n\\nO 2 they contain one more atom of oxygen and two atoms of\\nhydrogen less than their corresponding alcohols.\\nTheir principal modes of formation are as follows\\n1. By oxidation of an alcohol\\nCffO O 2 CH 2 2 -4- H 2\\nMethyl alcohol. Formic acid.\\n2. By oxidation of an aldehyde:\\nC 2 H*0 C 2 H 4 2\\nAldehyde. Acetic acid.\\n3. By the decomposition of an organic cyanide with boiling\\npotassium hydrate:\\nCH 3 CH 3\\ni KOH H 2 i -f- NH 3\\nCX T CO.OK T\\nMethyl cyanide. Potassium acetate.\\n46", "height": "4795", "width": "2915", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0549.jp2"}, "548": {"fulltext": "542 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe acetic acid is formed in this last reaction, by the union\\nof the carbon of the cyanogen group with the oxygen of both\\nthe potassium hydrate and the water, the hydrogen of these\\ntwo bodies combining with the nitrogen of the cyanogen to\\nform ammonia. It may then be admitted that acetic acid con-\\ntains a radical carbonyl, CO, united on the one hand with a\\nmethyl group (that of the methyl cyanide), and on the other\\nwith a hydroxy 1 group, OH.\\nThe other acids of the series possess an analogous constitu-\\ntion.\\nCH 3 C 2 H5 C 3 IT C 4 H9\\nCO.OH CO.OH CO.OH CO.OH etc.\\nAcetic acid. Propionic acid. Butyric acid. Valeric acid.\\n4. A method of synthesis, discovered by Wanklyn, furnishes\\na direct support to this theory of the constitution of the nitty\\nacids. That chemist realized the synthesis of acetic and pro-\\npionic acids by passing a current of carbonic acid gas over\\nsodium-methyl and sodium-ethyl, organo-metallic compounds\\nwhich result from the action of sodium upon zinc-methyl and\\nzinc-ethyl.\\nNaCH 3 CO.O _\\nCO.ONa\\nSodium-methyl. Sodium acetate.\\nC 2 H 5\\nNaC2H CO.O i\\nCO.ONa\\nSodium-ethyl. Sodium propionate.\\nGeneral Properties. 1. The volatile fatty acids of the series\\nC n H 2n 2 are monobasic each contains one atom of hydrogen\\nwhich may be replaced by an equivalent quantity of a metal.\\n2. When submitted to dry distillation, many of their salts\\nyield a ketone and a carbonate.\\nCH3-CO.O^ r\\nCH 3 -CO.O- ba\\nCalcium acetate.\\n3. The same reaction may produce an aldehyde and a hydro-\\ncarbon of the series C n H 2n (Chancel).\\nC 3 H*\\n(C 3 H?-CO.O) 2 Ca i C 3 H6 CaCO 3\\nCHO\\nQalcium butyrate. ^utaldehy^e. Propylene.\\nCH 3\\nCO\\nCaCO 3\\nCH 3\\nAcetone.\\nCalcium carbonate.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0550.jp2"}, "549": {"fulltext": "FORMIC ACID. 543\\n4. When a mixture of a salt of a fatty acid and a formate\\nis subjected to dry distillation, the principal product of the\\nreaction is an aldehyde (Piria).\\nCH3\\nCH3-C0.0K H-CO.OK i R2C0 3\\nPotassium acetate. Potassium formate. Aldehyde.\\n5. The fatty acids are converted into chlorides by the action\\nof phosphorus pentachloride, or oxy chloride (Gerhardt).\\nC 2 H 3 O.OK PCI 5 C 2 H 3 0.C1 POC1 3 KC1\\nPotassium acetate. Acetyl chloride. Phosphorus\\noxychloride.\\n6. By the action of these chlorides upon the salts of the\\nfatty acids, the anhydrides of the acids are formed (Gerhardt).\\nC2H3 CH3.0C1 KC1 gg\u00c2\u00b0}o\\nPotassium acetate. Acetyl chloride. Acetic anhydride.\\n7. When subjected to the action of phosphoric anhydride,\\nthe ammonium salts of these acids lose 2H 2 and are con-\\nverted into nitriles or cyanogen ethers (Dumas, Malaguti and\\nLe Blanc, Frankland and Kolbe).\\nCH*\\nCH 3\\ni\\n2H*0\\n4- 1\\nCN\\nCO.O(NH\u00c2\u00b1)\\nAmmonium acetate.\\nAcetonitrile.\\n(Methyl cyanide.)\\nFORMIC ACID.\\nCH 2 2\\nThis acid, which was discovered by S. Fischer in 1760, in\\nred ants, is formed in a great number of reactions, particularly\\nin the oxidation of methyl alcohol, in the decomposition of\\nhydrocyanic acid by acids or alkalies, in the distillation of oxalic\\nacid, and in the oxidation of many organic matters, such as\\nstarch, sugar, etc. Berthelot achieved its direct synthesis by\\nheating carbon monoxide for a Ions; time to 100\u00c2\u00b0 in sealed\\nflasks containing a concentrated solution of potassium hydrate.\\nCO KOH HCO.OK\\nPotassium formate.\\nPreparation. Formic acid is best prepared by heating\\noxalic acid with glycerol the latter is found unchanged after\\nthe reaction, but the oxalic acid is decomposed according to\\nthe equation C 2 4 H 2 H.COOH CO 2", "height": "4781", "width": "2920", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0551.jp2"}, "550": {"fulltext": "544 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nEqual weights of the two substances are heated to about\\n110\u00c2\u00b0 in a retort connected with a condenser; carbon dioxide\\nis disengaged and dilute formic acid distils over. When the\\naction has ceased, a fresh quantity of oxalic acid is added and\\nthe heating continued the same decomposition takes place,\\nbut a more concentrated formic acid (56 per cent.) collects\\nin the receiver. As the glycerol does not suffer a permanent\\nchange, the operation may be made continuous by adding\\nfresh quantities of oxalic acid to the retort.\\nAnhydrous formic acid is prepared by decomposing the dry\\nlead salt in a current of hydrogen sulphide.\\n(HCOO) 2 Pb H 2 S 2HCOOH PbS\\nProperties. Formic acid is a colorless liquid, having a\\npungent odor and a very acid taste. It boils at 99\u00c2\u00b0, and solid-\\nifies to a crystalline mass at 8.5\u00c2\u00b0. It mixes with water in all\\nproportions.\\nIf an excess of sulphuric acid be added to a small quantity\\nof formic acid contained in a test-tube, and a gentle heat be\\napplied, a regular disengagement of gas will take place it may\\nbe ignited at the mouth of the tube, and will burn with a blue\\nflame. It is carbon monoxide, formed according to the equa-\\ntion CH 2 2 CO H 2 0.\\nIf formic acid be added to solution of silver nitrate, and\\nthe liquid heated, it soon becomes clouded silver is pre-\\ncipitated, and carbon dioxide disengaged. The formic acid\\nbecomes oxidized in reducing the silver nitrate.\\nCH 2 2 CO 2 IPO\\nChlorine determines an analogous decomposition.\\nCH 2 2 CI 2 CO 2 2HC1\\nFormates. Formic acid is an energetic acid, perfectly neu-\\ntralizing the bases. It is monobasic; one of its hydrogen\\natoms can be replaced by an equivalent quantity of metal. The\\nformates are soluble the most characteristic are cupric for-\\nmate, Cu(CH0 2 2 -f- 4H 2 0, which crystallizes in magnificent,\\noblique rhombic prisms, and lead formate, Pb(CH0 2 2 which\\nforms long, colorless needles, slightly soluble in cold water.\\nAmmonium formate, which is obtained by saturating formic\\nacid with ammonia, crystallizes in prisms which are very solu-\\nble in water. When quickly heated to about 200\u00c2\u00b0, it breaks\\nup into hydrocyanic acid (formonitrile) and water (Pelouze).\\n(NIP)CHO 2 2H 2 CNH", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0552.jp2"}, "551": {"fulltext": "ACETIC COMBINATIONS. 545\\nFOKMALDEHYDE.\\nCH 2 H-CHO\\nHofmann obtained this body by the slow combustion of\\nmethyl alcohol, brought about by a spiral of platinum wire.\\nCH*0 H 2 CH 2\\nIt is also formed in the distillation of barium and calcium\\nformates. Formaldehyde is known only as a vapor at high\\ntemperatures, and in aqueous solution. The latter has a\\npungent odor and powerful antiseptic properties formalin\\nis a 40 per cent, solution of it used as an antiputrescent and\\ncaustic. On evaporation of its aqueous solution, formalde-\\nhyde becomes polymerized, an amorphous solid called para-\\nformaldehyde being produced. Dilute solutions of alkaline\\nhydroxides convert the aldehyde into formose, a mixture of\\npolymers containing acrose, (CH 2 0) 6 related to the sugars.\\nACETIC COMBINATIONS.\\nIt may be assumed that these compounds contain the mon-\\natomic radical acetyl (C 2 H 3 0) (CEP-CO) which may be\\nregarded as oxidized ethyl.\\nCH 3 CH 3\\n(C 2 H5) i (C 2 H 3 0) i\\nv -CH 2 -CO\\nEthyl. Acetyl.\\nDiacetyl contains twice this radical, aldehyde is the hy-\\ndride, and acetic acid the hydroxide. Besides these, there\\nare known the oxide and chloride of acetyl, methyl acetyl\\n(acetone), acetyl ammonia or acetamide, etc.\\nThe following formulae indicate the relations of these bodies\\nC 2 H 3 O.C 2 H 3 C 2 H 3 O.OH\\nDiacetyl. Acetyl hydrate (acetic acid).\\nC 2 H 3 O.H (C 2 H 3 0) 2\\nAretyl hydride (aldehyde). Acetyl oxide (acetic anhydride).\\nC 2 H 3 0.C1 C 2 H 3\\nAcetyl chloride. H N\\nC 2 H 3 O.CH 3 H j\\nAcetyl methylide (acetone). Acetamide.\\nACETIC ACID.\\nC 2 H*0 2\\nAcetic acid is the acid of vinegar. It is the product of the\\noxidation of alcohol. It is formed in a number of other reac-\\ntions, among which we may mention the oxidation of aldehyde,\\nkk 46*", "height": "4789", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0553.jp2"}, "552": {"fulltext": "546\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nthe decomposition of methyl cyanide by potassium hydrate, the\\naction of carbon dioxide on sodium-methyl, and the dry distil-\\nlation of a great number of organic substances, such as wood,\\nstarch, gum, sugar, etc.\\nPreparation. The large quantities of acetic acid employed\\nin the arts are obtained by the destructive distillation of wood.\\nThe operation is conducted in large iron cylinders, heated\\ndirectly by a fire (Fig. 123). The products of the distillation\\nFig. 127.\\nconsist of liquids and gases. The liquids are condensed in a\\nlarge worm, tt, cooled by a continual circulation of cold water\\nthrough surrounding pipes mm the gases are conducted back\\nto the fire-grate by the pipe h. The condensed product consists\\nof an aqueous portion and of tar. The greater part of the\\nlatter is separated by a new distillation the first portions\\nwhich pass contain wood-spirit, after which acetic acid distils.\\nThe acid liquid is neutralized by lime, and the calcium ace-\\ntate formed is converted into sodium acetate by adding a solu-\\ntion of sodium sulphate. The liquid, separated by filtration\\nfrom the calcium sulphate, yields on evaporation sodium ace-\\ntate, still colored brown by tarry matters. The latter are\\ndestroyed by frying the salt, that is, by heating it for some\\ntime to 250\u00c2\u00b0, a temperature which carbonizes the tar but does\\nnot affect the sodium acetate. The mass is then exhausted\\nwith water, the solution filtered, concentrated, and crystallized.\\nCrystals of pure sodium acetate are thus obtained, a salt which\\nWas formerly called pyrolignite of soda. Acetic acid is pre-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0554.jp2"}, "553": {"fulltext": "ACETIC ACID.\\n547\\npared by drying this salt and distilling it with its weight of\\nconcentrated sulphuric acid.\\nOr the dry salt may be decomposed by an exact quantity of\\nsulphuric acid. The acetic acid which separates from the\\nsodium sulphate may then be decanted, and cooled in a freez-\\ning mixture. The portion remaining liquid is separated and\\nthe solid mass constitutes pure acetic acid.\\nVinegar. Vinegar is the product of the acid fermentation\\nof wine and other alcoholic liquids. The following process is\\nlargely employed for the conversion of wine into vinegar. It\\nis the Orleans process. A small quantity of warm vinegar is\\nfirst introduced into large vats, which have already been used\\nfor the operation and are impregnated with the peculiar fer-\\nment formed quantities of wine are then added at intervals\\nof several days, the vats being maintained at a temperature\\nbetween 24 and 27\u00c2\u00b0. In a fortnight, the acetification is com-\\nplete, and a portion of the vinegar is withdrawn and replaced\\nby a new quantity of wine which also becomes converted into\\nvinegar. The process is thus continuous. Under these cir-\\ncumstances, the alcohol is converted into acetic acid by the\\ninfluence of a peculiar ferment that is called mother of vinegar.\\nIt is a vegetable product,\\namycoderm Mycoclerma\\naceti), which appears on\\nthe surface of the liquid,\\nwhere it absorbs oxygen\\nfrom the air and subse-\\nquently cedes it to the\\nalcohol (Pasteur). Its\\naction may be compared\\nto that of platinum black.\\nBy another process, a\\nmixture of weak alcohol,\\nwater, and albuminoid\\nmatter (the juice of pota-\\ntoes, beets, etc.), contain- jff a[|\\ning the elements neces-\\nsary for the production of\\nthe ferment, is allowed to\\ntrickle over beech-wood\\nshavings. The latter, which have been previously steeped in\\nstrong vinegar, are contained in a large cask, A (Fig. 124),", "height": "4787", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0555.jp2"}, "554": {"fulltext": "548 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nwhere they rest upon a double bottom perforated with holes.\\nTubes, tt, pass through the upper portion, maintaining a current\\nof air which enters at the lower portion of the cask. Under\\nthese conditions, the liquid, which spreads over the shavings\\nand exposes a considerable surface to the air, becomes oxidized\\nwith such energy that the temperature soon rises to 30\u00c2\u00b0 a\\nsecond passage of the liquid through the casks completes the\\nacetification.\\nProperties of Acetic Acid. Acetic acid is solid below 17\u00c2\u00b0,\\nand crystallizes in large plates. It boils at 118\u00c2\u00b0. Its density\\nat 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.0801. Its odor is pungent and acid. It is very\\ncorrosive. It mixes with water and alcohol in all proportions,\\nand when it is added to water there is a contraction in volume.\\nThe maximum contraction, and consequently the maximum\\ndensity of aqueous acetic acid, corresponds to a mixture con-\\ntaining C 2 H 4 2 H 2 0.\\nVapor of acetic acid passed through an incandescent porce-\\nlain tube yields gases and deposits carbon, at the same time\\nforming small quantities of acetone, benzene, phenol, and\\nnaphthalene (Berthelot).\\nPhosphorus pentachloride converts acetic acid into acetyl\\nchloride, with formation of hydrochloric acid and phosphorus\\noxychloride.\\nC 2 H 3 O.OH POP CTEPO.Cl HC1 POCP\\nAcetic acid. Acetyl chloride.\\nIf a mixture of small quantities of potassium acetate and\\narsenious oxide be heated in a test-tube, dense white vapors\\nhaving an intense and disagreeable odor of garlic will be dis-\\nengaged.\\nThis experiment permits the detection of minute traces of\\nacetic acid if the latter exist in the free state in the liquid,\\nits potassium compound must first be formed. The white\\nvapor disengaged is due to a body formerly known as fuming\\nliquor of Cadet (see page 496).\\nACETATES.\\nThe more important neutral acetates have the composition\\nK (C 2 H 3 2 or R (C 2 H 3 2 2 according as the metal which\\nreplaces the basic hydrogen of the acetic acid is univalent or\\nbivalent. There are many basic acetates.\\nPotassium Acetate, KC 2 H 3 2 This is prepared by satu-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0556.jp2"}, "555": {"fulltext": "ACETATES. 549\\nrating acetic acid with potassium carbonate and evaporating to\\ndryness. It is thus obtained in crystalline, very deliquescent\\nlaminae. It melts at 292\u00c2\u00b0, and is very soluble in water.\\nSodium Acetate, NaC 2 H 3 2 3H 2 0.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This salt is obtained\\non a large scale in the arts in the manufacture of acetic acid.\\nIt was formerly called pyrolignite of soda. It crystallizes in\\nlarge, oblique rhombic prisms, which are very soluble in water,\\nand effloresce in dry air.\\nAcetates of Lead. Neutral lead acetate, Pb(C 2 H 3 2 2\\n3H 2 0, known also as sugar of lead, is made by neutralizing\\nacetic acid with litharge. It crystallizes in transparent, efflor-\\nescent, oblique rhombic prisms, having a sweet and astringent\\ntaste. It dissolves in half its weight of cold water, and in 8\\nparts of alcohol. It melts in its water of crystallization at\\n75.5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe neutral solution of lead acetate dissolves oxide of lead,\\nforming different basic salts, according to the proportion of\\noxide dissolved. The more important of these are a dibasic\\nacetate, Pb(C 2 H 3 2 2 PbO 4H 2 0, and a tribasic acetate,\\nPb(C 2 H 3 2 2 2PbO nH 2 0. These two salts are gener-\\nally formed simultaneously when a solution of lead acetate is\\nboiled with litharge. The solution thus obtained is used in\\nmedicine as Goulard s solution. If a few drops of it be added\\nto ordinary river or well water, a cloud is produced, owing to\\nthe formation of lead sulphate and carbonate.\\nIf carbonic acid gas be passed into a solution of the sub-\\nacetate of lead, a deposit of lead carbonate is formed. In this\\nreaction, which serves for the preparation of white lead by the\\nClichy method, the excess of lead is removed from the subace-\\ntate by the carbonic acid, neutral acetate being formed and\\nremaining in solution.\\nAcetates of Copper. The neutral acetate Cu(C 2 H 3 2 2\\nH 2 0, is prepared by double decomposition by mixing hot solu-\\ntions of sodium acetate and cupric sulphate. The cupric acetate\\nis deposited on cooling in beautiful, oblique rhombic prisms\\nof a deep bluish-green color. They dissolve in 5 times their\\nweight of boiling water. The dilute aqueous solution is de-\\ncomposed by boiling, a tribasic acetate being formed, while\\nacetic acid is set free.\\nWhen cupric acetate is heated, it first loses its water of crys-\\ntallization, and decomposes when the temperature reaches 240\\nor 250\u00c2\u00b0 disengaging acetic acid, acetone, and carbon dioxide.", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0557.jp2"}, "556": {"fulltext": "550 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe residue is finely-divided copper. The product of the dis-\\ntillation is a blue liquid, which, when rectified, yields colorless\\nacetic acid mixed with a small quantity of acetone. It was\\nformerly called radical vinegar.\\nThe name verdigris is applied to a basic acetate of copper\\nconsisting mostly of a dibasic acetate, Cu(C 2 H 3 2 2 CuO\\n6H 2 0. Verdigris is prepared by exposing to the air copper\\nsheets piled up in layers with the pulp of grapes. In a few\\nweeks the metal becomes covered with bluish crusts of verdi-\\ngris, which are scraped off and delivered to commerce in the\\nform of light-blue balls. The alcohol, formed by the fermenta-\\ntion of the sugar contained in the grape-pulp, becomes oxidized\\nby the air and is converted into acetic acid, and under the in-\\nfluence of the latter, the copper itself absorbs oxygen. Water\\nand copper basic acetate are thus formed.\\nFerric Acetate, Fe(C 2 H 3 2 3 The aqueous solution of\\nthis salt possesses a blood-red color. Boiling decomposes it,\\nprecipitating ferric hydroxide and liberating acetic acid.\\nThe salt is largely used as a mordant in dyeing.\\nSilver Acetate, AgC 2 H 3 2 This salt, which is but slightly\\nsoluble in water, is precipitated when concentrated solutions\\nof sodium acetate and silver nitrate are mixed. It is deposited\\nfrom boiling water in brilliant, pearly, flexible plates, which\\ndarken on exposure to light.\\nAmmonium Acetate, (NH 4 )C 2 H 3 2 When acetic acid is\\nsaturated by a current of ammonia gas, this salt is obtained as\\na deliquescent, crystalline mass. It is very soluble in water\\nand in alcohol. When heated, it first loses ammonia, then\\nacetic acid, and acetamide finally distils.\\nNH 4 .C 2 H 3 2 H 2 C 2 H 3 O.NH 2\\nAmmonium acetate. Acetamide.\\nWhen distilled with phosphoric anhydride, ammonium\\nacetate yields methyl cyanide, or acetonitrile.\\nNH*.C 2 H 3 2 C 2 H 3 N 2H 2\\nEthyl Acetate, C 2 H 5 .C 2 H 3 2 ordinarily known as acetic\\nether, is prepared by distilling a mixture of alcohol, sulphuric\\nacid, and potassium or sodium acetate ethyl acetate passes\\nover, together with a certain quantity of alcohol which escapes\\nthe reaction. It is purified by agitation with a solution of\\ncalcium chloride, and the ether which floats is decanted, dried\\nover calcium chloride, and rectified on the water bath.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0558.jp2"}, "557": {"fulltext": "SUBSTITUTION PRODUCTS OF ACETIC ACID. 551\\nIt is a colorless liquid having a very agreeable, ethereal\\nodor. It boils at 77\u00c2\u00b0. Density at 0\u00c2\u00b0. 0.9105. It is but\\nslightly soluble in water, but dissolves in all proportions in\\nalcohol and ether. Like all compound ethers, it is readily\\ndecomposed by potassium hydrate.\\nC 2 H 5 .C 2 H 3 2 KOH KC 2 H 3 2 C 2 I^.OH\\nAmmonia converts it into acetamide and alcohol.\\nC 2 H 3 O.OC 2 H* NH 3 C 2 H 5 .OH C 2 H 3 O.XH 2\\nIt undergoes a remarkable reaction with sodium, which\\ndissolves in it, forming sodium ethylate and the compound\\nC 6 H 9 Na0 3\\n2[C 2 H 3 O.OC 2 H 5 ]STa 2 NaO.C 2 H 5 C 6 H 9 Xa0 3 H 2\\nThe body C 6 H 9 XaO s is the sodium compound of acetoacetic\\nether, C 6 H 10 O 3 C 2 H 2 (C 2 H 3 0)0-OC 2 H 5 which is derived\\nfrom acetic ether, C 2 H 3 0-OC 2 H 5 by the substitution of an\\nacetyl group, C 2 H 3 0. for one atom of hydrogen in the radical\\nacetyl. Free acetoacetic ether may be obtained by the action\\nof dilute hydrochloric acid upon the sodium compound\\nC 6 H 9 Na0 3 It is a colorless liquid having an agreeable odor,\\nand boiling at 182\u00c2\u00b0. Density at 15\u00c2\u00b0, 1.03. Sodium acetoacetic\\nether is extensively used in organic synthesis it reacts readily\\nwith many halogen compounds, such as ethyl iodide, thus\\nCH 3 -CO-Na-COO.C 2 H 5 C 2 H 5 I CH 3 -CO-CHXa-COOC 2 H 5\\nSodium acetoacetic ether.\\nCH 3 -CO-CH(C 2 H 5 )-COO.C 2 H Nal\\nEthyl acetoacetic ether.\\nThe hydrogen of the CH group in the latter compound can\\nbe successively replaced by sodium and an alkyl group, thus\\nCH 3 -CO-CISra(C 2 H 5 )-COO.C 2 H 5 andCH 3 -CO-C(C 2 H 5 2 -COO.C 2 H 5\\nSodium ethyl acetoacetic ether. Diethyl acetoacetic ether.\\nSUBSTITUTION PRODUCTS OF ACETIC ACID.\\nThree chlorinated acids are derived from acetic acid\\nMonochloracetic acid C 2 H 3 C10 2\\nDichloracetic acid C 2 H 2 C1 2 2\\nTrichloracetic acid C 2 HC1 3 2\\nMonochloracetic acid is formed when a current of chlorine\\nis passed into acetic acid heated to 100\u00c2\u00b0, and containing a\\nsmall quantity of iodine.", "height": "4778", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0559.jp2"}, "558": {"fulltext": "552 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nMoDochloracetic acid is solid, and crystallizes in deliques-\\ncent, rhomboidal tables or in prisms. It boils between 185\\nand 187.8\u00c2\u00b0. It is very corrosive. It is converted into glycollic\\nacid when heated with an excess of potassium hydrate.\\nKC 2 H 2 C10 2 KOH KC 2 H 2 (OH)0 2 KC1\\nPotassium Potassium glycollate.\\nmonochloracetate.\\nAmmonia converts it into amidoacetic acid, C 2 H 2 (NH 2\\nO.OH.\\nH2C1 NH3 _ HC1 H2 NH2\\nCO.OH CO.OH\\nMonochloracetic acid. Glycocoll.\\nTrichloracetic acid, C 2 HC1 3 2 a very important compound\\nin the history of the science, was discovered by Dumas in 1840.\\nIt was then one of the most remarkable examples of a body\\nformed by substitution, and a comparison of its properties with\\nthose of acetic acid led Dumas to announce the first idea of\\nchemical types.\\nIt is obtained by exposing acetic acid to the action of a large\\nexcess of chlorine in direct sunlight more conveniently by\\noxidizing chloral with concentrated nitric acid (page 556).\\nIt forms transparent and deliquescent crystals, fusible at\\n52.3\u00c2\u00b0, and boiling between 195 and 200\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIts aqueous solution regenerates acetic acid by the action\\nof sodium amalgam, an interesting reaction, since it furnished\\none of the first examples of inverse substitution (Melsens), as\\nthe replacement of chlorine by hydrogen is called.\\nWhen boiled with potassium hydrate, trichloracetic acid fur-\\nnishes potassium carbonate and chloroform.\\nC 2 HCF0 2 CHCP CO 2\\nACETIC ANHYDRIDE.\\n(C 2 H 3 0) 2\\nThis important body, discovered by Gerhardt in 1852, is\\nprepared by the action of one part of phosphorus oxychloride\\non three parts of dry sodium acetate. In this operation, acetyl\\nchloride is first formed, and this reacts upon an excess of so-\\ndium acetate, producing sodium chloride and acetyl acetate, or\\nacetic anhydride.\\nC 2 H 3 0.C1 2H j NaCl g^O J Q\\nAcetyl chloride. Sodium acetate. Acetic anhydride.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0560.jp2"}, "559": {"fulltext": "ALDEHYDE. 553\\nAcetic anhydride is a colorless, mobile liquid, having a\\nstrong odor of acetic acid. It boils at 138\u00c2\u00b0. When thrown\\ninto water, it sinks to the bottom, and, absorbing one molecule\\nof water, is converted into acetic acid, which dissolves. It\\nacts upon many other substances containing the hydroxyl\\ngroup, forming acetyl derivatives. For example\\n2C 2 H 5 OH (C 2 H 3 0) 2 H 2 2C 2 H 5 .C*H 3 2\\nALDEHYDE, OR HYDRIDE OF ACETYL.\\nC 2 H*0\\nThis body was discovered by Dbbereiner in 1821 its com-\\nposition and principal properties were studied by Liebig.\\nPreparation. Aldehyde is prepared by oxidizing alcohol by\\nheating it with manganese dioxide and dilute sulphuric acid,\\nor better, with potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid. The\\nvapors disengaged are condensed in a well-cooled receiver. The\\ndistilled liquid is rectified over calcium chloride, only the more\\nvolatile portion being collected. This is mixed with twice\\nits volume of ether, and the ethereal solution saturated with\\nammonia gas. Crystals are deposited which constitute a com-\\nbination of aldehyde with ammonia, and the aldehyde is ob-\\ntained from them by adding a quantity of sulphuric acid exactly\\nsufficient to form ammonium sulphate with the ammonia; a\\ngentle heat is applied, and the aldehyde vapor is passed through\\na tube filled with calcium chloride, and finally condensed in a\\nwell-cooled receiver (Liebig).\\nProperties. Aldehyde is a colorless, very mobile liquid, hav-\\ning a penetrating and somewhat suffocating odor. It boils at\\n21\u00c2\u00b0. It mixes in all proportions with water, alcohol, and ether.\\nIt combines with ammonia, forming aldehyde-ammonia\\n(Liebig).\\nC 2 H*O.NH 3 C 2 H 2 O.NH*\\nIt unites with the alkaline acid sulphites, forming crystal-\\nlizable combinations.\\nIt is readily oxidized, being transformed into acetic acid.\\nC 2 H*0 C 2 H 4 2\\nIf some aldehyde and a few drops of ammonia be added to\\na solution of silver nitrate, and a gentle heat be applied, the\\nliquid soon becomes clouded, and the sides of the vessel con-\\ntaining it are covered with a brilliant deposit of metallic silver.\\nY 47", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0561.jp2"}, "560": {"fulltext": "554 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nBy the action of sodium amalgam and water, aldehyde\\nfixes two atoms of hydrogen, and is converted into alcohol\\n(A. Wurtz). C 2 H 4 H 2 C 2 H 6 0.\\nWhen hydrochloric gas is passed into a mixture of aldehyde\\nand absolute alcohol, monochlorether is formed.\\nC 2 H 4 C 2 H5.0H HC1 H 2 C2 j? 2 H5\\nMonochlorether.\\nChlorine converts aldehyde into acetyl chloride and then\\ninto butyl chloral.\\nC 2 H 3 O.H CI 2 C 2 H 3 0.C1 HC1\\nAcetyl chloride.\\nPhosphorus pentachloride converts aldehyde into eihyt-\\nidene chloride, C 2 H 4 C1 2 thus\\nCH 3 CH 3\\ni PCP i P0C1 3\\nCHO CHC1 2\\nAldehyde. Ethylidene chloride.\\nBy the action of hydrochloric acid diluted with twice its\\nvolume of water, aldehyde doubles its molecule and is converted\\ninto a thick, colorless, neutral body, boiling at 95\u00c2\u00b0 in a vacuum\\nit is soluble in water and reduces ammoniacal silver nitrate.\\nThis body is aldol, C 4 H 8 2 (A. Wurtz).\\nWhen heated with ordinary hydrochloric acid, aldehyde gives\\ncrotonic aldehyde (Kekule).\\n2C 2 tPO H 2 C 4 H 6\\nAldehyde. Crotonic aldehyde.\\nThe same transformation takes place when aldehyde is heated\\nto 100\u00c2\u00b0 with a small quantity of zinc chloride and a trace of\\nwater.\\nAn important derivative of aldehyde, known as acetaldox-\\nime, results from the action of hydroxylamine upon aldehyde.\\nCH 3 CHO H 2 NOH CH 3 CHNOH H 2\\nHydroxylamine. Acetaldoxime.\\nThis body represents a numerous class, the oximes, which\\nare formed by the reaction of hydroxylamine with bodies\\ncontaining the carbonyl \u00c2\u00ab;roup.\\nPhenylhydrazine, H 2 N-NH.C 6 H 5 (page 676), is another\\nimportant reagent for compounds containing the carbonyl\\ngroup. It forms with them condensation products known as\\nphenylhydrazones, water being eliminated. With aldehyde\\nthe reaction is expressed as. follows\\nCH 3 .CHO H 2 N.NH.C 6 H5 CH 3 .CH=N-NH.C 6 fl* H 2", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0562.jp2"}, "561": {"fulltext": "ACETYL CHLORIDE. 555\\nLike all of its analogues, aldehyde can unite with hydro-\\ncyanic acid, forming the compound CH 3 -CH(OH)(CN), a\\nliquid soluble in water and alcohol, boiling at 183\u00c2\u00b0, and con-\\nverted by acids and alkalies into lactic acid, with disengage-\\nment of ammonia (see page 598).\\nIf sulphur dioxide be added to a dilute magenta solution\\nuntil the latter is decolorized, the addition of a trace of alde-\\nhyde will immediately restore the pink color. Nearly all the\\naldehydes respond to this test.\\nWhen aldehyde is heated to 100\u00c2\u00b0 with alcohol, acetal is\\nformed; this is also found in small quantities among the\\nproducts of the oxidation of alcohol.\\nCH 3 .CHO C 2 H 5 .OH H 2 CH 3 CH\\nAldehyde. Alcohol. Acetal.\\nPolymerides of Aldehyde. Aldehyde has a great ten-\\ndency to become converted into polymeric modifications.\\nAmong these are paraldehyde, which is liquid, and metalde-\\nhyde, which is solid (Liebig).\\nParaldehyde, C 6 H 12 3 is formed by the action of a trace of\\nsulphuric acid or of zinc chloride on aldehyde. It is a color-\\nless liquid, having a density of 0.998 at 15\u00c2\u00b0, and boiling at\\n124\u00c2\u00b0. At a low temperature it solidifies to a leaf-like, crys-\\ntalline mass, fusible at 10.5\u00c2\u00b0. It dissolves in eight times its\\nvolume of water. When distilled with a small quantity of\\nsulphuric acid, it is again converted into aldehyde.\\nACETYL CHLORIDE.\\nCH 3\\nC 2 H30.C1= 7\\nCOC1\\nThis body was obtained by G-erhardt in 1852, by treating\\nsodium acetate with pentachloride, or oxychloride of phos-\\nphorus.\\nNaC 2 H 3 2 PCI 5 C 2 H 3 0C1 NaCl POC1 3\\nSodium acetate. Acetyl chloride. Phosphorus ox} T chloride.\\nIt is also formed by the action of chlorine on aldehyde.\\nIt is a colorless, mobile liquid, having a pungent odor. It\\nboils at 55\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIf it be poured into water, it sinks to the bottom, but rapidly\\ndecomposes into hydrochloric and acetic acids.\\nC 2 H 3 0.C1 H 2 HC1 C 2 H 3 O.OH", "height": "4791", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0563.jp2"}, "562": {"fulltext": "556 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIt undergoes a similar decomposition with alcohol, forming\\nethyl acetate and hydrochloric acid.\\nC 2 H 3 0.C1 C 2 H 5 .OH HC1 C 2 H 5 .C 2 H 3 2\\nWith ammonia, it forms acetamide and ammonium chloride.\\nC 2 H 3 0.C1 2NH 3 NH 4 C1 C 2 H 3 O.NH 2\\nIt reacts with acetates, forming acetic anhydride.\\nCHLORAL, OR TRICHLORALDEHYDE.\\nnpi3\\nC2C1 3 H0 i\\nCHO\\nThis important body was discovered by Liebig and Dumas.\\nIt is formed by the prolonged action of chlorine on alcohol.\\nIt is a colorless, mobile liquid, having a peculiar, penetrating\\nodor. It boils at 97.7\u00c2\u00b0.\\nG-erhardt regarded it as aldehyde in which the three atoms\\nof hydrogen of the radical are replaced by three atoms of\\nchlorine.\\nC 2 H 3 O.H C 2 C1 3 0.H\\nAldehyde. Chloral.\\n(Acetyl hydride.) (Trichloracetyl hydride.)\\nIts reactions resemble those of aldehyde. It forms crystal-\\nlizable compounds with the disulphites. Its ammoniacal solu-\\ntion reduces silver nitrate. These facts indicate that chloral\\ncontains the group CHO, characteristic of the aldehydes.\\nIt regenerates aldehyde by the action of nascent hydrogen\\n(Personne).\\nThe alkaline hydrates decompose it into chloroform and a\\nformate (Dumas).\\nC 2 HC1 3 KOH KCHO 2 CHC1 3\\nChloral. Potassium formate.\\nNitric acid converts it into trichloracetic acid, in the same\\nmanner that aldehyde is converted into acetic acid.\\nC 2 HC1 3 C 2 HC1 3 2\\nChloral forms a crystallizable compound with water, C 2 HC1 3\\nCC1 3\\n-f- H 2 I called chloral hydrate. The latter\\nmelts at 57\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at 98\u00c2\u00b0 (Personne), being at the same\\ntime decomposed into anhydrous chloral and water. It is very\\nsoluble in water.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0564.jp2"}, "563": {"fulltext": "ACETONE. 557\\nIn contact with concentrated sulphuric acid, chloral is\\nrapidly converted into a white, solid substance which is insol-\\nuble in water it has the same composition as ordinary chloral,\\nand is called insoluble chloral.\\nChloral also combines with alcohol, forming alcoholate of\\nchloral (Personne).\\nChloral hydrate has for some time been successfully employed\\nin medicine as a soporific and anodyne (Liebreich).\\nDIACETYL.\\n(CH 3 .CO) 2\\nTwo acetyl radicals which cannot exist alone unite together\\nforming the interesting compound diacetyl. This has been\\nobtained in various ways by reactions too intricate to describe\\nhere. It is a yellow liquid having a characteristic odor. It\\nboils at 87\u00c2\u00b0, and mixes readily with water and alcohol. Like\\nother ketones, it will combine with hydroxylamine, and since\\nit contains two carbonyl groups it is capable of forming a\\nmonoxime and a dioxime. The latter is highly characteristic,\\nbeing a white crystalline body, insoluble in water. Its melt-\\ning-point is 23^\u00c2\u00b0. Diacetyl also combines with phenylhydra-\\nzine and hydrocyanic acid.\\nACETONE.\\nC 3 H 6\\nAcetone is the methylide of acetyl, C 2 H 3 O.CH 3 and since\\nacetyl itself is carbonyl (carbon monoxide) methylide. CH 3 -CO,\\nacetone can be regarded as carbonyl dimethylide, CH 3 -CO-CH 3\\nC0 fc! C0 fcH3\\nCarbonyl chloride. Carbonyl dimethylide (acetone).\\nIndeed, the synthesis of acetone has been made both by treat-\\ning acetyl chloride with zinc methyl (Pebal and Freund), and\\nby treating sodium methyl with carbonyl chloride.\\nZn(CH 3 2 2(C 2 H 3 0.C1) 2(C 2 H 3 O.CH 3 ZnCl 2\\nZinc methyl. Acetyl chloride. Acetone.\\n2(CH 3 .Na) CO 2NaCl CO j \u00c2\u00a3|I\\nSodium methyl. Carbonyl chloride. Acetone.\\nPreparation. Acetone is prepared by distilling dry calcium\\nacetate in a clay retort. The vapors given off are condensed\\n47*", "height": "4786", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0565.jp2"}, "564": {"fulltext": "558 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nin a well-cooled receiver, and the liquid obtained is distilled on\\na water-bath with an excess of calcium chloride.\\nCa(C 2 H 3 2 2 C 3 H 6 CaCO 3\\nProperties. Acetone is a colorless liquid, having a slightly\\nempyreumatic, ethereal odor. It boils at 56\u00c2\u00b0. It dissolves in\\nall proportions in water, alcohol, ether, and wood-spirit.\\nLike aldehyde, it forms crystallizable combinations with the\\nalkaline acid-sulphites.\\nAcetone and its homologues are not susceptible of direct\\noxidation. If it be heated with a mixture or sulphuric acid\\nand potassium dichromate, it breaks up into acetic acid and\\nformic acid, a portion of the latter being oxidized to carbon\\ndioxide.\\nCH 3 .CO.CH 3 O 3 CH 3 -CO.OH HCO.OH\\nNascent hydrogen, produced by sodium amalgam and\\nwater, converts it into secondary propyl alcohol (page 521).\\nBesides isopropyl alcohol, the action of nascent hydrogen\\non acetone gives rise to a product of condensation of H 2 with\\ntwo molecules of acetone, which is named puiaconc.\\n2C 3 H 6 H 2 C 6 H u 2\\nPinacone.\\nIt is a tertiary glycol (see page 578). It constitutes a\\ncolorless, crystallizable mass, fusible at 42\u00c2\u00b0, and boiling at\\n172\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWhen acetone is added in small portions to phosphorus\\npentachloride, a very energetic reaction takes place and two\\nchlorides are formed. One of them, C 3 H 6 C1 2 (methylchlor-\\nacetol), boils at 70\u00c2\u00b0. The other, C 3 H 5 C1 (monochloropropy-\\nlene), boils at 23\u00c2\u00b0 (Friedel).\\nC 3 H 6 PCP C 3 H 6 CT POC1 3\\nC 3 H 6 CP C 3 H 5 C1 HC1\\nLike aldehyde, acetone will unite with hydrocyanic acid,\\nforming a cyanide (or cyanhyclrin), which is decomposed by\\nboth acids and alkalies, with disengagement of ammonia and\\nformation of an acid; the group CN is then converted in\\ncarboxyl CO.OH.\\nggI CO HCN ggb C g\u00c2\u00a3\\nAcetone. Acetone cyanhydrin,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0566.jp2"}, "565": {"fulltext": "ACIDS OF THE SERIES C n H 2n 2 559\\nAcetone unites with hydroxylamine, forming a highly\\ncharacteristic, colorless crystalline compound, acetoxime,\\nwhich melts at 59\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCH3 C0 H2N0H ch CN0H H2\\nWith phenylhydrazine it condenses to acetone phenylhy-\\ndrazone, (CH 3 2 =N-NH.C 6 H 5 a reaction which is likewise\\ncharacteristic of bodies containing the carbonyl group.\\nACETAMIDE.\\nC 2 H 3 O.NH 2\\nThis amide may be obtained by heating ethyl acetate to 100\u00c2\u00b0\\nin sealed tubes with aqueous ammonia. Alcohol and acetamide\\nare formed according to the equation\\nC 2 H 5 .C 2 H 3 2 NH 3 C 2 H 3 O.NH 2 C 2 H 5 .OH\\nWhen the resulting liquid is evaporated in a vacuum, the\\nacetamide remains. It may be purified by distillation, collecting\\nthat which passes above 200\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAcetamide is also formed by the action of ammonia on acetyl\\nchloride one of the readiest methods of preparing it consists\\nin simply distilling ammonium acetate.\\nIt is a solid, crystallizable body, soluble in water in all pro-\\nportions. Its odor resembles that of mice. Boiling potassium\\nhydrate reacts with it, forming potassium acetate and ammonia.\\nPhosphoric anhydride removes from it the elements of water,\\nconverting it into acetonitrile or methyl cyanide.\\nC 2 H 3 O.NH 2 C 2 H 3 N H 2\\nACIDS OF THE SERIES C n H 2n 2\\nFormic and acetic acids, of which the principal derivatives\\nhave just been described, are the first terms of a very extensive\\nhomologous series. It is the series of volatile fatty acids, so\\nnamed because it includes a great number of compounds which\\nwere at first obtained from the natural fatty bodies, and which\\nare the fatty acids proper. Among the bodies congeneric with\\nacetic acid, those of which the molecules are less complicated\\nare liquid at ordinary temperatures the others are solid. The\\nfollowing table gives the nomenclature, composition, and prin-\\ncipal physical properties of these acids", "height": "4784", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0567.jp2"}, "566": {"fulltext": "560\\nELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nNAMES OP ACIDS.\\nCRUDE\\nRATIONAL\\nMELTING-\\nBOILING-\\nFORMULA.\\nFORMULA.\\nPOINTS.\\nPOINTS.\\nFormic acid\\nCH 2 2\\nH-CO.OH\\n1\u00c2\u00b0\\n99\u00c2\u00b0\\nAcetic acid\\nC 2 H 4 2\\nCH3-CO.OH\\n17\u00c2\u00b0\\n118\u00c2\u00b0\\nPropionic acid\\nC 3 H60 2\\nC 2 H5-CO.OH\\n\u00e2\u0080\u009421\u00c2\u00b0\\n140.7\u00c2\u00b0\\nButyric acid\\nOH 8 2\\nC 3 H 7 -CO.OH\\n0\u00c2\u00b0\\n163\u00c2\u00b0\\nValeric acid (isovaleric) C 5 H 10 O 2\\nOH 9 -CO.OH\\n175\u00c2\u00b0\\nCaproic acid (isocaproic) C 6 H 12 2\\nC5HU-CO.OH\\n5\u00c2\u00b0\\n199.7\u00c2\u00b0\\n(Enanthylic acid\\nC 7 Hi*0 2\\nC6H 13 -CO.OH\\n\u00e2\u0080\u009410.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n212\u00c2\u00b0\\nCaprylic acid\\nC 8 H 16 2\\nC 7 Hi5-CO.OH\\n14\u00c2\u00b0\\n236\u00c2\u00b0\\nPelargonic acid\\nC 9 H 18 2\\nC 8 Hi 7 -CO.OH\\n12.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n260\u00c2\u00b0\\nCapric acid\\nC 10 H 20 O 2\\nC 9 H 19 -CO.OH\\n27.2\u00c2\u00b0\\nLaurie acid\\nC 12 H 24 2\\nCHH 23 -CO.OH\\n43.6\u00c2\u00b0\\nMyristic acid\\nC 14 H 28 2\\nC 13 H 27 -CO.OH\\n53.8\u00c2\u00b0\\nPalmitic acid\\nC 16 H 32 2\\nC^HSi-CO.OH\\n62\u00c2\u00b0\\nMargaric acid\\nC 17 H 34 2\\nC 16 H 33 -CO.OH\\n60\u00c2\u00b0\\nStearic acid\\nC 18 H 3 60 2\\nCNH 3 5-CO.OH\\n69.2\u00c2\u00b0\\nArachnic acid\\nC 20 H 40 O 2\\nC 19 H 39 -CO.OH\\n75\u00c2\u00b0\\nBenic acid\\nC 22 H^0 2\\nC 21 H 43 -CO.OH\\n96\u00c2\u00b0\\nCerotic acid\\nC 27 H5K) 2\\nC26 H 53_co.OH\\n78\u00c2\u00b0\\nMelissic acid\\nC 30 H 60 O 2\\nC29H59_CQ.OH\\n88\u00c2\u00b0\\nWe have already noticed the existence of numerous isomeric\\nalcohols, and in their study the principles of isomerism have\\nbeen explained. Such isomerides exist also in the series of\\nacids, and are caused by the different atomic structure of the\\nradicals, C n H 2n+1 which figure in the preceding formulae. We\\nwill consider two examples. 1. When normal butyl alcohol,\\nCH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 .OH, is oxidized, normal butyric acid, or\\nthe butyric acid of fermentation, is obtained, CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2\\nCO.OH. The acid obtained by oxidation of the butyl alcohol\\nof fermentation is different from this, and the difference is\\ncaused by the difference in structure of the radicals (C 3 H 7\\nIsobutyric acid, derived from the alcohol of fermentation,\\nwhose constitution is pTT3^CH-CH 2 .OH, contains px\u00e2\u0084\u00a2^\\nCH-CO.OH.\\nThe acid is derived from the alcohol by the substitution of\\nO for H 2 in the group (CH 2 .OH)\\n2. As we have already seen, the constitution of amyl alcohol\\nof fermentation is expressed by the formula\\nCff\\nCff\\nCH-CH 2 -CH 2 .OH.\\nThe valeric acid produced by its oxidation is then\\n^3 CH-CH 2 -CO.OH", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0568.jp2"}, "567": {"fulltext": "PROPIONIC ACID. 561\\nNormal valeric acid results from the oxidation of normal\\namyl alcohol, and contains\\nCH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CO.OH\\nCH 3\\nMethylethylacetic acid, p 2 5 CH-CO.OH, or optically\\nactive valeric acid, is derived from active amyl alcohol.\\nThe trimethylacetic acid, which was discovered by Butlerow,\\ncontains (CH 3 3 C-CO.OH it is derived from the alcohol\\n(CH 3 3 C-CH 2 .OH, which is not known.\\nIf we compare the three isomeric acids, C 5 H 10 O 2 with acetic\\nacid itself, we will find that their isomeric relations can be ex-\\npressed in a very simple manner, by saying that normal valeric\\nacid is propylacetic acid, the acid derived from the alcohol of\\nfermentation is isopropyiacetic acid, and that the last two are\\nmethylethylacetic and trimethylacetic acids.\\nCH3 CH2(C 3 H7) CH2(CH \u00c2\u00a3g3)\\nCO.OH CO.OH CO.OH\\nAcetic acid. Propylacetic acid. Isopropyiacetic acid.\\nCH C2H5 C(CH3)3\\nCO.OH CO.OH\\nMethylethylacetic acid. Trimethylacetic acid.\\nThe foregoing facts are sufficient to elucidate the isomerism\\nof acids of the series C n H 2n 2\\nPROPIONIC ACID.\\nC 3H60 2 CH 3 -CH 2 -CO.OH\\nThis acid is formed by the action of potassium hydrate on\\nethyl cyanide. It is also a product of fermentation thus, it\\nhas been obtained by allowing a solution of sugar, mixed with\\nchalk and cheese, to ferment during a year. It is also formed\\nin small quantity in the distillation of wood.\\nWanklyn made its synthesis by passing carbon dioxide over\\nsodium ethyl.\\nCO.O C 2 H 5 Na C 2 H 5 -CO.ONa\\nSodium propionate.\\nIt is most conveniently prepared by oxidizing normal\\npropyl alcohol by means of chromic acid (Pierre and\\nPuchot).\\nCH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 .OH O 2 CH 3 CH 2 COOH H 2\\n11", "height": "4792", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0569.jp2"}, "568": {"fulltext": "562 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nProperties. It is a colorless, mobile liquid, having an odor\\nlike that of acetic acid. It solidifies at 21\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at\\n140.7\u00c2\u00b0. Density at 21\u00c2\u00b0, 0.996. It is miscible with water in\\nall proportions. Calcium chloride separates it from its aqueous\\nsolution.\\nThere are a great number of substitution products directly\\nrelated to propionic acid. Among these are the chlorine, bro-\\nmine, and iodine derivatives, and the amides. Two of these\\nderivatives are known of each particular species, presenting\\ncurious isomeric relations. The following examples will serve\\nas illustrations\\nCH 3 CH 3 CH 2 C1 CH 3 CH 2 (NH 2\\nCH 2 CHC1 CH 2 CH(NH 2 CH 2\\nC0 2 H C0 2 H C0 2 H C0 2 H C0 2 H\\nPropionic a-Chloropro- /3-Chloropro- a-Amidopvopi- j3-Amidopropi-\\nacid. pionic acid. pionic acid. onic acid. onic acid.\\nOnly the iodo-derivatives will be described here, and farther\\non we will mention the amides.\\na-iodopropionic acid, C 3 H 5 I0 2 is prepared by the action of\\nconcentrated hydriodic acid or phosphorus iodide on lactic\\nacid.\\nC 3 H 6 3 HI C 3 H 5 I0 2 IPO\\nLactic acid.\\nIt is a thick, oily body, almost insoluble in water.\\nft-iodopr op ionic acid is formed by the action of concentrated\\nhydriodic acid or phosphorus iodide and water on glyceric\\nacid.\\nC 3 H 6Q4 _|_ 3HI _ C 3 H 5 I0 2 2H 2 +P\\nGlyceric acid.\\nIt is also formed by the direct combination of hydriodic acid\\nand acrylic acid, C 3 H 4 2\\nC 3 H 4 2 HI C 3 H 5 I0 2\\nIt is a solid, occurring in crystalline laminae, fusible at 82\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt is very soluble in boiling water. When heated to 180\u00c2\u00b0\\nwith hydriodic acid, it is converted into propionic acid.\\nC 3 H 5 I0 2 HI I 2 C 3 H 6 2\\nBUTYRIC ACIDS.\\nC\u00c2\u00b1H 8 2\\nNormal Butyric Acid, CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CO.OH, was dis-\\ncovered by Chevreul in butter, where it exists in combination", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0570.jp2"}, "569": {"fulltext": "BUTYRIC ACIDS. 563\\nwith glycerol in butyrin. Pelouze and Gelis have shown that it\\nis formed in abundance when a solution of sugar, glucose, or\\neven starch is abandoned for several weeks with the addition\\nof chalk and old cheese. In about ten days a mass of calcium\\nlactate is formed, but this soon disappears, gases being at the\\nsame time disengaged. The mass again becomes liquid, and\\nthe solution contains calcium butyrate. This is converted into\\nsodium butyrate, which is finally decomposed by sulphuric\\nacid the butyric acid separates in the form of an oily liquid,\\nwhich is decanted and distilled.\\nProperties. Butyric acid is a colorless liquid, having a pun-\\ngent and disagreeable odor which recalls that of rancid butter.\\nIt is quite soluble in water. Density at 14\u00c2\u00b0, 0.958. Boiling-\\npoint, 163\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt perfectly neutralizes the bases, forming butyrates. These\\nsalts, which are mostly soluble in w T ater, have a fatty aspect.\\nCalcium butyrate, Ca(C 4 H 7 2 2 is more soluble in cold water\\nthan in hot water, so that its cold saturated solution becomes\\na solid mass when heated to 70\u00c2\u00b0.\\nButyrone. When calcium butyrate is subjected to dry dis-\\ntillation, it yields, as principal product, butyrone, one of the\\nhomologues of acetone (Chancel).\\nCa(C 4 H 7 2 2 C 7 H u O CaCO 3\\nCalcium butyrate. Butyrone.\\nButyrone is a colorless liquid, lighter than water, and having\\na peculiar, ethereal odor. It boils at 144\u00c2\u00b0.\\nButaldehyde, C 4 H 8 0, is the principal product of the dis-\\ntillation of a mixture of butyrate and formate of calcium.\\nCa(C 4 H 7 2 2 Ca(CH0 2 2 2CaC0 3 2C 4 H 8\\nThis important reaction, discovered by Piria, permits of the\\nconversion of butyric acid into its aldehyde it can also be ap-\\nplied to the transformation of other acids into aldehydes.\\nButaldehyde, which was discovered by Chancel, is a liquid,\\nboiling at 74\u00c2\u00b0. Like aldehyde, it forms a crystallizable com-\\npound with ammonia, unites with the alkaline acid-sulphites,\\nand reacts with hydroxylamine and phenylhydrazine, as do\\nthe other aldehydes and the ketones.\\nCH 3\\nIsobutyric Acid, prj 3 CH-CO.OH, isomeric with bu-\\ntyric acid, was discovered by Markownikow.\\nIt is formed by the oxidation of butyl alcohol of fermenta-", "height": "4792", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0571.jp2"}, "570": {"fulltext": "564 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ntion, and exists naturally in the fruit of the Ceratonia siliqua\\n(carob locust, St. John s bread). It is also obtained by decom-\\nposing isopropyl cyanide with potassium hydrate.\\n(C 8 H 7 CN 2H 2 NH 3 ((PIPy-CO^H\\nIt is a liquid having a disagreeable odor, like that of the acid\\nof fermentation. Density at 20\u00c2\u00b0, 0.9503. It boils at 154\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIts calcium salt differs from that of the normal acid in\\nbeing more soluble in hot than in cold water.\\nVALERIC ACIDS.\\nCH 3\\nIsovaleric Acid,pjp CH-CH 2 -CO.OH, was discovered\\nby Chevreul, who obtained it from dolphin oil. It may be\\nprepared by distillation of valerian root with water hence its\\nname. It occurs also in angelica root and in Viburnum opulus.\\nThe same acid is formed when aniyl alcohol is oxidized by a\\nmixture of potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid. It is\\nalso formed when potassium hydrate is boiled with isobutyl\\ncyanide, a reaction similar to that which has been indicated\\nfor the formation of isobutyric acid.\\n^3 CH-CH2_CN 21120 NH* CH-CH2-CO.OH\\nIsobutyl cyanide. Isovaleric acid.\\nValeric acid is a colorless liquid, having a pungent, disagree-\\nable odor. Density at 0\u00c2\u00b0, 0.947. It boils at 175\u00c2\u00b0. It dissolves\\nin 30 parts of water, from which it is precipitated by the addi-\\ntion of neutral salts. Its ammonium salt is used in medicine.\\nNormal Valeric Acid, which has already been mentioned\\n(page 561), is a colorless liquid, smelling like butyric acid. It\\nboils at 184-185\u00c2\u00b0, and its density at 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 0.9577.\\nCH 3\\nMethylethylacetic Acid, po 5 CH-CO OH, or optically\\nactive valeric acid, has been obtained by the oxidation of active\\namyl alcohol. It boils at 173\u00c2\u00b0.\\nTrimethylacetic Acid is formed when potassium hydrate is\\nboiled with the cyanide derived from trimethylcarbinol.\\n(CH 3 3 C-CN 2H 2 (CH 3 3 C-CO.OH NH 3\\nIt is a crystalline mass, fusible at 35\u00c2\u00b0, and boiling at 163.8\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt dissolves in 40 parts of water at 20\u00c2\u00b0.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0572.jp2"}, "571": {"fulltext": "HIGHER FATTY ACIDS. 505\\nCAPROIC ACIDS.\\nC 6 H 12 2\\nThere are at present known seven isomeric acids having the\\ncomposition C 6 H 12 2 One of them was discovered in butter\\nby Chevreul. Normal caproic acid is formed by the oxidation\\nof normal hexyl alcohol, and in the decomposition of normal\\namyl cyanide by boiling potassium hydrate. It is an oily liquid,\\nhaving but a faint odor its density at 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 0.945, and it boils\\nat 205\u00c2\u00b0. Leucine, C 6 H 13 N0 2 an important nitrogenized body\\nwhich exists in the animal economy, is an amide, C 6 H n (XH 2 j0 2\\nof normal caproic acid.\\nThe caproic acid mentioned on page 560 is an isomeride of\\nthe preceding acid. It is obtained by decomposing, by potas-\\nsium hydrate, amyl cyanide derived from the alcohol of fer-\\nmentation.\\nHIGHER FATTY ACIDS.\\nOur limited space will not permit of a description of all of\\nthe acids of this series we can only briefly consider the last\\nmembers.\\nPalmitic Acid, C 16 H 32 2 This exists in palm-oil in com-\\nbination with glycerol. It is prepared on a large scale by\\ndistilling palm-oil by means of superheated steam, which de-\\ncomposes the oil into fatty acid and glycerol. The fatty acids\\nsolidify on cooling. The mass is expressed to remove the\\nliquid oleic acid with which it is impregnated, and so obtained\\nin dry, white cakes, which are used for the manufacture of\\ncandles. The pure acid melts at 62\u00c2\u00b0.\\nMargaric Acid, C 17 H 34 2 This acid was supposed by\\nChevreul to exist in most solid fats, but Heintz has shown\\nthat the so-called margaric acid derived from fats consists of\\na mixture of palmitic and stearic acids. Normal margaric\\nacid was prepared synthetically by Krafft by decomposing\\ncetyl cyanide by potassium hydroxide.\\nC 16 H 3, .CN 2H 2 C 16 H 31 .COOH NH 3\\nIt is said to exist in adipocere, a waxy substance formed\\nby the prolonged action of air and moisture on certain animal\\nsubstances.\\nMargaric acid crystallizes in white scales fusible at 60\u00c2\u00b0,\\nand soluble in alcohol and ether.\\n48", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0573.jp2"}, "572": {"fulltext": "566 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nStearic Acid, C 18 H 36 2 was obtained from tallow by Chev-\\nreul. It is a solid, melting at 69.2\u00c2\u00b0. After cooling, the fused\\nacid becomes a laminated, white mass. It is insoluble in\\nwater, but dissolves in alcohol and ether. The alcoholic solu-\\ntion deposits it in small pearly scales, which are not greasy to\\nthe touch. Stearic acid is used for the manufacture of stearin\\ncandles.\\nThe alkaline stearates are soluble in water. If a large excess\\nof water be added to the solution of a neutral stearate, a crystal-\\nline precipitate is formed which, according to Chevreul, is an\\nacid stearate. On this reaction he has founded a method for\\nthe preparation of stearic acid.\\nThe stearates of calcium, barium, and lead are insoluble in\\nwater, and can be obtained by double decomposition.\\nCerotic and Melissic Acids. These acids have been ob-\\ntained from wax by Brodie (page 528).\\nOLEIC ACID AND ITS HOMOLOGIES.\\nOleic acid, which has just been mentioned and which Chev-\\nreul obtained from olein, is the principal constituent of a great\\nnumber of oils and fats it does not belong to the series of\\nvolatile fatty acids. Its formula, C 18 H 34 2 shows that it differs\\nfrom stearic acid by containing two atoms of hydrogen less\\nthan the latter acid. It belongs to the series C n H 2n 2 2\\nAcrylic Acid, CH 2 =CH-CO.OH.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This is the first term\\nof the series C n ll 2n 2 2 It receives its name from the fact\\nthat it results from the oxidation of acrolein, or acraldehyde,\\nC 3 H 4 0, which is formed in the destructive distillation of\\nneutral fatty substances and glycerol and its compounds it\\nis a product of the dehydration of glycerol.\\nC 3 H 8 B _ C 3 H 4 Q 2H 2\\nGlycerol. Acrolein.\\nAcrolein reduces silver oxide, like the other aldehydes,\\nbeing converted into acrylic acid. This acid is liquid, and\\nboils at 140\u00c2\u00b0. Like other unsaturated acids, it combines\\ndirectly with nascent hydrogen, bromine, and the halogen\\nacids. Fusion with potassium hydrate decomposes it into\\nformic and acetic acids. A similar decomposition occurs\\nwith the other unsaturated acids. By fusion with alkaline\\nhydroxides all are decomposed, yielding salts of two acids,\\nbut the split does not always take place at the double bond.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0574.jp2"}, "573": {"fulltext": "OLEIC ACID. 567\\nCrotonic Aldehyde and Acid. These two bodies are\\nhomologues of acrylic aldehyde and acid.\\nCWO acraldehyde. C 3 H 4 2 acrylic acid.\\nC 4 H 6 crotonaldehyde C*H 6 2 crotonic acid.\\nCrotonaldehyde is one of the numerous transformation\\nproducts of ordinary aldehyde. When the latter body is sub-\\njected to the action of certain salts, it loses the elements of\\nwater and is converted into crotonaldehyde.\\n2C 2 H 4 C 4 H 6 H 2\\nThis aldehyde is a liquid having a very irritating odor and\\nan acrid taste. It boils at 103\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWhen submitted to the action of oxidizing agents, such as\\nsilver oxide in presence of water, it is converted into crotonic\\nacid.\\nC 4 H 6 C*H 6 2\\nThis acid crystallizes in large plates, fusible at 72\u00c2\u00b0. It boils\\nat 182\u00c2\u00b0. Nascent hydrogen, produced by the action of sul-\\nphuric acid and zinc, converts it into normal butyric acid,\\nCH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CO.OH. It combines directly with bromine,\\nproducing heat, and is changed into dibromobutyric acid,\\nCH 3 -CHBr-CHBr-CO.OH. Fusion with potassium hydrate\\ndecomposes it into two molecules of acetic acid.\\nThere is an isocrotonic acid, CH 2 =CH-CH 2 -CO.OH, a\\nliquid boiling at 172\u00c2\u00b0. When heated to 170-180\u00c2\u00b0 in sealed\\ntubes, it is converted into crotonic acid.\\nOleic Acid, C 18 H 34 2 This acid, of which the preparation\\nhas been indicated (page 565), is an oily liquid, which solidifies\\nto a crystalline mass at 4\u00c2\u00b0. Its concentrated alcoholic solution\\ndeposits it, when cooled, in small needles fusible at 14\u00c2\u00b0.\\nUnder a pressure of 10 m.m. it distils without decomposi-\\ntion at 223\u00c2\u00b0. When pure it is odorless, and does not redden\\nlitmus paper. On exposure to the air it absorbs oxygen, and\\nbecomes rancid and acid. Fusion with potassium hydrate\\nconverts it into acetic and palmitic acids.\\nWhen boiled with nitric acid, it is oxidized, losing carbon\\ndioxide, and there are formed volatile fatty acids from acetic\\nto capric acid, and homologues of oxalic acid, including suberic\\n(C 8 H u 4 and succinic (C 4 H 6 4 acids nitrogen peroxide con-\\nverts oleic acid into an isomeride, elaidic acid, a solid body,\\ncrystallizing in brilliant plates, fusible at 44-45\u00c2\u00b0 (Boudet).", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0575.jp2"}, "574": {"fulltext": "568 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nPOLYATOMIC COMPOUNDS.\\nAfter the description of the comparatively simple compounds\\nwhich are naturally grouped with the monatomic alcohols, we\\nproceed to the more complex compounds constituting the poly-\\natomic alcohols and their derivatives. The latter alcohols are\\nneutral hydrates, capable of reacting with the acids to form neu-\\ntral combinations analogous to the compound ethers. Those\\nbetter known are related to the saturated hydrocarbons, from\\nwhich they are derived by the substitution of several hydroxyl\\ngroups for as many atoms of hydrogen.\\nC 2 H 6\\nEthane.\\nC 3 H8\\nPropane.\\nOH\u00e2\u0084\u00a2\\nButane.\\nC6H\\nHexane.\\nC 2 H*(OH) 2\\nlylene dihydrate\\n(glycol).\\nC 3 H5(OH)3\\nGlyceryl tri-\\nhydrate (glycerol).\\nC*H\u00c2\u00ab(OH)*\\nErythritol.\\nC 6 H8(OH)6\\nMannitol.\\nBy oxidation of these polyatomic alcohols, polyatomic acids\\nare produced which bear the same relation to the former that\\nacetic acid bears to ordinary alcohol.\\nIt will be noticed that the radicals of these alcohols are un-\\nsaturated hydrocarbons, that is, they contain less hydrogen than\\nthe saturated hydrocarbons, C n H 2n+2 Of these radicals, only\\nthose can exist in a free state which contain an even number\\nof atoms of hydrogen. We will briefly consider the more\\nimportant of them.\\nETHYLENE.\\nC 2 H\u00c2\u00b1 CH 2 =CH 2\\nThis gas, formerly known as olefiant gas or heavy carbu-\\nretted hydrogen, is formed in a great number of reactions. It\\nis produced, together with other hydrocarbons, when substances\\nrich in carbon and hydrogen, such as fats and resins, are de-\\ncomposed by dry distillation, that is, by the destructive action\\nof heat.\\nPreparation. A mixture of 25 grammes of alcohol with\\n150 grammes of sulphuric acid is heated in a 2-litre flask\\nprovided with a delivery-tube and a funnel-tube. When the\\nevolution of gas begins, a mixture of 1 part alcohol and 2\\nparts sulphuric acid is allowed to drop in slowly through the\\nfunnel-tube, and the gas is washed first through sulphuric\\nacid and afterwards through potassium hydroxide solution.\\nIt may be collected over water.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0576.jp2"}, "575": {"fulltext": "ETHYLENE. 569\\nTowards the close of the operation the liquid blackens, and\\nmuch sulphurous and carbonic acid gases are disengaged.\\nThese are absorbed by the potassa in the wash-bottle.\\nThe following equation expresses the reaction by which\\nethylene is formed\\nC 2 H 6 C 2 H 4 H 2\\nComposition and Properties. Ethylene is a colorless gas,\\nhaving a feeble, ethereal odor. Its density is 0.9784 compared\\nto air, or 14 compared to hydrogen. It is liquefied by a press-\\nure of 60 atmospheres at 10\u00c2\u00b0, and the evaporation of the\\nliquid under reduced pressures affords a valuable means of\\nattaining very low temperatures. Its composition may be\\ndeduced from the following experiment\\n2 volumes of ethylene (2 cubic centimetres, for example)\\nand 6 volumes of oxygen are introduced into an eudiometer\\nover mercury. After the passage of the spark, the 8 volumes\\nwill be found to be reduced to 4 volumes, all of which will be\\nentirely absorbed if a solution of potassium hydrate be passed\\ninto the tube. The 4 volumes are therefore carbon dioxide.\\n4 volumes of carbon dioxide represent 2C0 2\\n2 volumes of ethylene therefore contain C 2\\n4 volumes of carbon dioxide contain but 4 of the 6 volumes of oxygen\\nemployed the other two have therefore been used in the formation of\\nwater and have burned 4 volumes of hydrogen.\\n2 volumes of ethylene then contain 4 volumes of hydrogen.\\nEudiometric analysis therefore indicates the composition\\nof ethylene to be C 2 H* 2 volumes.\\nThis gas is inflammable and burns in the air with a brill-\\niant flame. When mixed with three volumes of oxygen and\\nignited, it produces a violent explosion.\\nIt is slowly absorbed by concentrated sulphuric acid, ethyl-\\nsulphuric acid being formed. When ethylene is heated with\\nhydriodic acid, the two bodies combine directly to form ethyl\\niodide.\\nIf one volume of ethylene and two volumes of chlorine be\\nrapidly mixed in a tall jar, and a lighted match be applied, the\\nmixture takes fire and burns with a red flame extending to the\\nbottom of the jar, which becomes covered with a black deposit\\nof carbon.\\nC 2 H 4 2C1 2 4HC1 C 2\\nIf equal volumes of ethylene and chlorine be mixed and ex-\\nposed to diffused light on the pneumatic trough, the water will\\n48*", "height": "4797", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0577.jp2"}, "576": {"fulltext": "570 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nsoon rise in the jar, and the two gases will disappear. At the\\nsame time, oily drops will appear on the sides of the jar and\\nupon the surface of the liquid. The body so formed is a liquid\\ninsoluble in water, and results from the direct combination of\\nethylene and chlorine. It was formerly called Dutch liquid,\\nor Dutch oil (hence the old name olefiant gas) it is now called\\nethylene chloride. Its composition is expressed by the formula\\nC 2 H 4 CP. It boils at 82.5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIf a small quantity of bromine be poured into a large flask\\nfilled with ethylene, and manipulated so that the bromine may\\nform a thin layer on the sides of the flask, an elevation of tem-\\nperature will be observed, and the liquid will rapidly become\\ncolorless. The bromine has combined with the ethylene to\\nform a colorless liquid, ethylene bromide, boiling at 131\u00c2\u00b0.\\nEthylene iodide, C 2 H 4 I 2 may be obtained by introducing\\niodine into large jars filled with ethylene, and exposing to dif-\\nfused light during several days. The iodine gradually dis-\\nappears and a white solid is formed which may be purified by\\ncrystallization in alcohol it is ethylene iodide.\\nChloro-Derivatives of Ethylene and Ethylene Chloride.\\nIf ethylene chloride be heated with an alcoholic solution of\\npotassium hydrate, a brisk reaction soon takes place. A gas\\nis disengaged and may be collected over water on contact\\nwith a lighted taper, it burns with a flame tinged with green.\\nThis gas is chlor ethylene. It is formed according to the fol-\\nlowing equation\\nC 2 H 4 CP KOH H 2 KC1 C 2 H 3 C1\\nLike ethylene itself, chlorethylene will combine directly with\\ntwo atoms of chlorine, forming chlorethylene chloride, C 2 H 3 C1.\\nCI 2 which may also be obtained by the action of chlorine on\\nethylene chloride.\\nChlorethylene chloride is decomposed by alcoholic potassa,\\nlike ethylene chloride. Water, potassium chloride, and dichlor-\\nethylene are formed.\\nC 2 H 3 CP KOH H 2 KC1 C 2 H 2 CP\\nChlorethylene chloride. Dichlorethylene.\\nIn its turn, dichlorethylene can fix two atoms of chlorine,\\nforming dichlorethylene chloride.\\nThese reactions have permitted the preparation of two\\nclasses of chloro-compounds, one derived from ethylene chlo-\\nride, the other from ethylene itself.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0578.jp2"}, "577": {"fulltext": "DENSITIES.\\nBOILING-POINTS.\\n1.256 at 12\u00c2\u00b0\\n82.5\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.422 at 17\u00c2\u00b0\\n115\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.576 at 19\u00c2\u00b0\\n137\u00c2\u00b0\\n158\u00c2\u00b0\\n182\u00c2\u00b0\\n\u00e2\u0080\u009418 to \u00e2\u0080\u009415\u00c2\u00b0\\n1.250 at 14\u00c2\u00b0\\n35 to 40\u00c2\u00b0\\n87 to 88\u00c2\u00b0\\n2.619 at 20\u00c2\u00b0\\n116.7\u00c2\u00b0\\nHOMOLOGOUS SERIES, C n H 22 571\\nC 2 H*C1 3 ethylene chloride.\\nC 2 H 3 C1 3 chlorethylene chloride.\\nC 2 H 2 C1\u00c2\u00b1 dichlorethylene chloride.\\nC 2 HC1 5 trichlorethylene chloride.\\nC 2 C1 6 carbon sesquichloride.\\nC 2 H\u00c2\u00b1 ethylene.\\nC 2 H 3 C1 chlorethylene.\\nC 2 H 2 C1 2 dichlorethylene.\\nC 2 HC1 3 trichlorethylene.\\nC 2 C1 4 tetrachlorethylene.\\nRegnault, who carefully studied these bodies, has shown\\nthat the terms of the first series are isomeric with the chloro-\\nderivatives of ethyl chloride, with the exception of the last\\ntwo, which are the same in both series.\\nThat we may more thoroughly understand this isomerism,\\nwe will consider ethylene chloride, C 2 H 4 C1 2 and its isomeride\\ndichlorethane, called also ethylidene chloride. In the first.\\ntwo atoms of chlorine are united, each to a different atom of\\ncarbon in the second, both are united to the same carbon\\natom.\\nCH 2 Cl CHCl 2\\nCH 2 C1 CH 3\\nEthylene chloride. Ethylidene chloride.\\nTetrachlorethylene was discovered by Faraday in 1821. It\\nis formed by the action of alcoholic potassium hydrate on tri-\\nchlorethylene chloride.\\nC 2 HC1 5 C 2 C1 4 HC1\\nIt is also formed by the action of a red heat on carbon\\nsesquichloride.\\nC 2 C1 6 C 2 C1 4 CI 2\\nIt is a very mobile liquid, which does not solidify at 18\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt absorbs chlorine under the influence of direct sunlight, being\\ntransformed into carbon sesquichloride, C 2 C1 6\\nHOMOLOGOUS SERIES, C n H 2n\\nEthylene is the first member of a long series of homologues,\\nof which we will summarily describe a few of the others. Since\\nethylene is (CH 2 2 the constitution of the higher members\\nof the series, properly speaking, should be represented by the\\nformula (CH 2 n", "height": "4795", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0579.jp2"}, "578": {"fulltext": "572 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nDerivatives of hydrocarbons corresponding to this formula\\nhave been obtained. The hydrocarbons themselves differ\\nfrom ethylene in constitution in that their molecules contain\\nno doubly-linked atoms, and consequently do not combine\\nso readily with the halogens. Thus, ordinary propylene has\\nthe constitution CH 3 -CH=CH 2 while trimethylene is repre-\\nsented thus\\nCH2\\nCH2-CH 2\\nAbove the fourth member of this series, butylene, the\\nnumber of isomerides increases rapidly. Thus, the butylene\\nderived by dehydration from butyl alcohol of fermentation is\\n^3 C=CH2\\nIt is formed according to the following reaction\\n\u00c2\u00a3**3 CH-CH2.0H H*0 ^3 C CI12\\nIndependently of this butylene, there are two others, the\\nformation and principal properties of which will be indicated\\nfarther on.\\nTheir constitutions are expressed by the formulae\\nCIP-CH=CH-CH3\\nCH3-CH2-CH=CH2\\nThe isomeric relations of these three butylenes may be repre-\\nsented in a very simple manner if we consider them to be\\nderived from ethylene, H 2 C=CH 2 the hydrogen of which is\\npartly replaced by methyl or ethyl. The following compounds\\nare thus obtained\\nDimethylethylene a (CH3) 2 C=CH 2 boils at \u00e2\u0080\u00946\u00c2\u00b0.\\nDimethylethylene /3 (normal) (CH 3 )HC=CH(CH 3 boils at +3\u00c2\u00b0.\\nEthylethylene (C 2 H5)HC=CH 2 boils at \u00e2\u0080\u00945\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe fifth member of the series, amylene or pentene, C 5 H 10\\npresents still more numerous isomerides, but they can all be\\nexplained by the principles already exposed they may be re-\\ngarded as derivatives of ethylene by the substitution of a pro-\\npylic or isopropylic group for one atom of hydrogen, or by the\\nsubstitution of an ethyl group and a methyl group for two\\natoms of hydrogen, or lastly, by the substitution of three methyl\\ngroups for three atoms of hydrogen.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0580.jp2"}, "579": {"fulltext": "PROPYLENES BUTYLENES. 573\\n4\\nPROPYLENES.\\nC 3 H6\\nOrdinary Propylene, CH 3 -CH=CH 2 To prepare this gas\\nin a pure state Berthelot and de Luca heat allyl iodide with\\nmercury and concentrated hydrochloric acid.\\n2C 3 H 5 I 4Hg 2HC1 Hg 2 Cl 2 Hg 2 i 2 2C 3 H 6\\nIt may also be made by allowing propyl alcohol to fall drop\\nby drop on highly heated zinc chloride (Le Bel).\\nPropylene is a colorless gas, having a feeble, alliaceous odor.\\nIt is rapidly absorbed by sulphuric acid, with formation of\\nisopropylsulphuric acid (Berthelot).\\nC 3 H 6 H2SO* (C8H7 SO*\\nIt unites directly with hydriodic acid, forming an iodide\\nwhich is isomeric with propyl iodide. C 3 H 6 -J- HI (C 3 H 7 /I\\nPropylene unites directly with chlorine and bromine, forming\\npropylene chloride, C 3 H 6 CT 2 and propylene bromide, C 3 H 6 Br 2\\nThe latter is a colorless liquid, boilim: at 145\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCH 2\\nTrim ethylene, This remarkable body was first\\nCH 2 -CH 2\\ndescribed by Freund. who prepared it by heatim: with sodium\\nthe bromide, CH 2 Br-CH 2 -CH 2 Br. It is a gas which is\\nabsorbed by bromine more slowly than ordinary propylene, the\\nnormal bromide, boiling at 164-165\u00c2\u00b0, being regenerated. It\\ncombines with hydriodic acid forming the iodide of normal\\npropyl, CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 I. Normal propylene bromide is\\nobtained by heating allyl bromide, C 3 H 5 Br, with hydrobromic\\nacid.\\nCH 2 =CH-CH 2 Br HBr CH 2 Br-CH 2 -CH 2 Br\\nAllyl bromide. Normal propylene bromide.\\nIt is a colorless liquid, boiling at 165\u00c2\u00b0.\\nBUTYLENES, C 4 H 8\\n1. Dimethylethylene a, (CH 3 2 C=CH 2 This body is\\nformed when isobutyl alcohol is dehydrated by zinc chloride,\\nor by the action of alcoholic potassium hydrate on butyl iodide,\\nC 4 H 9 I. It boils at 6\u00c2\u00b0. It unites directly with hydriodic acid,\\nforming tertiary butyl iodide, (CH 3 2 CI-CH 3 and combines", "height": "4787", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0581.jp2"}, "580": {"fulltext": "574 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nwith bromine, forming the bromide (CH 3 2 CBr-CH 2 Br, which\\nboils at 149\u00c2\u00b0.\\n2. Dimethylethylene fi (normal or symmetric), (CH 3 )HC=\\nCH(CH 3 Is formed by the action of alcoholic potassa on\\nsecondary butyl iodide, CH 3 -CH 2 -CHI-CH 3 Boils at +3\u00c2\u00b0\\nand solidifies to a crystalline mass at 0\u00c2\u00b0. Unites with HI,\\nregenerating secondary butyl iodide, and with bromine, forming\\nthe bromide (CH 3 )HBrC-CHBr(CH 3 which boils at 159\u00c2\u00b0.\\nLe Bel and Greene have obtained normal dimethylethylene\\nby dropping ordinary isobutyl alcohol on highly heated zinc\\nchloride the disengaged gases are passed through bromine,\\nand the bromides of dimethylethylene and ethylethylene\\nboth gases are produced in the decomposition separated by\\nfractional distillation.\\nDe Luynes obtained secondary butyl iodide by reducing\\nerythrite with a large excess of hydriodic acid (page 634).\\n3. Ethylethylene (ethyl-vinyl), (C 2 H 5 )HC=CH 2 Is ob-\\ntained by the action of sodium on a mixture of ethyl iodide\\nand bromethylene.\\nC 2 H5I BrIIC=CH 2 Na 2 Nal NaBr (C 2 H 5 )HC=CH 2\\nBoiling-point, 5\u00c2\u00b0. It unites with HI, forming secondary\\nbutyl iodide, and with bromine, forming the bromide CH 3\\nCH 2 -CHBr-CH 2 Br, boiling at 166\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAMYLENES, OR PENTENES, C 5 H 10\\nSeveral isomeric hydrocarbons are known of the composition\\nC 5 H 10 They exist in unequal proportions in the product of\\nthe reaction of zinc chloride on amyl alcohol, a product gener-\\nally designated as amylene. It is prepared by heating amyl\\nalcohol with zinc chloride, and passing the vapors given off into\\na well-cooled receiver. The product is rectified, that portion\\nbeing retained which passes below 40\u00c2\u00b0. It is a mixture of\\nisomeric amylenes, whose boiling-points vary from 22 to 40\u00c2\u00b0,\\nand which result from the dehydration of amyl alcohol.\\nTrimethylethylene or ordinary Amylene may be obtained\\nin a pure state by dehydrating tertiary amyl alcohol (the\\nhydrate of amylene of Wurtz), which may be accomplished\\nby simply heating it.\\n(CH3) 2 =C(OH)-CH 2 -CH 3 H 2 (CH 3 2 C=CH(CH3)\\nTertiary amyl alcohol. Trimethylethylene.\\nIt boils at 36\u00c2\u00b0, and unites directly with hydriodic acid, form-\\ning tertiary amyl iodide, (CH 3 2 CI-CH 2 -CH 3 boiling at 129\u00c2\u00b0.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0582.jp2"}, "581": {"fulltext": "HYDROCARBONS OF THE SERIES, C n H 2n 2 575\\nWhen bromine is poured into cooled amylene, the addition\\nof each drop produces a hissing noise, indicating a violent reac-\\ntion, and the product is a liquid amylene bromide, boiling be-\\ntween 170 and 180\u00c2\u00b0. If the operation be performed upon crude\\namylene, a mixture of several bromides will result. Trimethyl-\\nethylene yields a bromide containing (CH 3 2 =CBr-CHBr-CH 3\\nIsopropylethylene is formed by the action of alcoholic\\npotassium hydrate on amyl iodide (Flavitzky).\\nJ^3 CH-CH 2 -CH 2 I HI ^3 CH-CH=CH2\\nAmyl iodide. Isopropylethylene.\\nThis body also exists in small quantity in the mixture of\\nhydrocarbons formed by the action of zinc chloride on amyl\\nalcohol. Boiling-point, 25\u00c2\u00b0. It unites with hydriodic acid,\\nforming a secondary iodide, (CH 3 2 -CH-CHI-CH 3 which boils\\nat 137-139\u00c2\u00b0. It combines with bromine, forming the bromide\\n(CH 3 2 =CH-CHBr-CH 2 Br, which boils between 180 and 190\u00c2\u00b0.\\nPropylethylene or Ethylallyl may be obtained by heating\\nwith sodium a mixture of allyl iodide and ethyl iodide.\\nCH3-CH 2 I CH 2 =CH-CH 2 I Na 2 2NaI CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH=-CH 2\\nEthyl iodide. Allyl iodide. Ethylallyl.\\nIt is also formed by the action of zinc ethyl on ethyl iodide.\\nIt boils at 37\u00c2\u00b0, and combines with hydriodic acid, forming the\\niodide C 3 H 7 -CHI-CH 3 boiling at 144\u00c2\u00b0. It combines ener-\\ngetically with bromine, forming a bromide C 3 H 7 -CHBr-CH 2 Br,\\nboiling at 175\u00c2\u00b0.\\nPolymerides of Amylene. By the action of zinc chloride\\non amyl alcohol, there are formed, independently of amylene,\\nother hydrocarbons, among which are the polymeric modifica-\\ntions known as diamylene, C 10 H 20 triamylene, C 15 H 30 tetra-\\nmylene, C 20 H 40 (Balard, Bauer). These bodies are formed by\\nthe union of one, two, three, or four molecules of amylene.\\nHYDROCARBONS OF THE SERIES C n H 2n 2\\nAmong the more simple hydrocarbons is one which was dis-\\ncovered by E. Davy, and which Berthelot has succeeded in\\npreparing by various processes. It is acetylene, and is the\\nfirst member of a series which includes, among others, the\\nfollowing hydrocarbons\\nAcetylene C 2 H 2 (E. Davy, Berthelot).\\nAllylene C 3 H\u00c2\u00b1 (Sawitsch).\\nCrotonylene OH 6 (E. Caventou).\\nValerylene C 5 H 8 (Reboul).", "height": "4773", "width": "2935", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0583.jp2"}, "582": {"fulltext": "576 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nAcetylene, C 2 H 2 or CH=CH. This hydrocarbon is a prod-\\nuct of the incomplete combustion of many organic substances,\\nand is the only compound of hydrogen and carbon that has\\nbeen obtained by direct union of these elements.\\nAccording to Berthelot, it is formed when the electric arc\\nis passed between carbon electrodes in an atmosphere of\\nhydrogen.\\nIt may be obtained by heating ethylene bromide with an\\nalcoholic solution of potassium hydroxide, thus\\nC 2 HW 2KOH 2KBr C 2 H 2 2H 2\\nThe most convenient mode of preparing acetylene is by\\nthe action of water upon calcium carbide, which is readily\\nproduced in the electrical furnace (Moissan) (page 327).\\nC 2 Ca -f 2H 2 C 2 H 2 -f Ca(OH) 2\\nThe reaction takes place at ordinary temperatures.\\nAcetylene is a colorless gas, having a peculiar odor, sug-\\ngesting that of garlic. At ordinary temperatures it dissolves\\nin about its own volume of water. At 18\u00c2\u00b0 it is liquefied by\\na pressure of 83 atmospheres. The liquid is colorless and\\nmobile in evaporating it absorbs so much heat that a por-\\ntion solidifies to a soft snow-like mass.\\nAcetylene burns with a highly luminous and smoky flame.\\nWith 2.5 times its volume of oxygen, acetylene constitutes\\none of the most explosive gaseous mixtures. It combines\\ndirectly with bromine, with which it yields a dibromide,\\nO H W, and a tetrabromide, C 2 HW.\\nWhen conducted into an ammoniacal solution of cuprous\\nchloride, it produces a brownish red precipitate of cuprous\\nacetylide. This reaction affords a delicate test for acetylene,\\nand an excellent means of removing it from gaseous mixtures.\\nAn analogous silver compound is similarly obtained. Both\\nacetylides are highly explosive in the dry state with hydro-\\nchloric acid they yield acetylene and the metallic chlorides.\\nC 2 H 2 Cu 2 2HC1 Cu 2 Cl 2 C 2 H 2 H 2\\nThe illuminating power of pure acetylene is far superior to\\nthat of coal gas, and it is probable that since it can be cheaply\\nproduced, it will be extensively employed as an illuminant.\\nAllylene, C 3 H 4 the second member of the acetylene series,\\nexists in two isomeric forms, methylacetylene, CH 3 -feCH, a\\ngas which resembles acetylene in its general properties and\\nforms a precipitate when passed into solution of silver nitrate,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0584.jp2"}, "583": {"fulltext": "GLYCOLS. 577\\nand symmetrical allylene, CH 2 C\u00e2\u0080\u0094 CH 2 which forms no pre-\\ncipitate with silver nitrate.\\nThe number of isomers increases rapidly in this series as\\nthe molecules contain a greater number of carbon atoms.\\nDIATOMIC ALCOHOLS, OR GLYCOLS.\\nThe name glycols was given by Wurtz to the dihydrates of\\nthe series of hydrocarbons, C n H 2n If ordinary alcohol be\\nethyl hydrate, ordinary glycol is ethylene dihydrate.\\nC 2 H 5 .OH C 2 H*(OH) 2\\nEthyl hydrate. Ethylene dihydrate.\\nWhile alcohol reacts with a single molecule of a monobasic\\nacid to form a neutral ether, glycol can react with either one\\nor two molecules of a monobasic acid, thus forming two ethers.\\nIn other words, while the monatomic alcohols contain but one\\natom of hydrogen which is replaceable by a single radical of a\\nmonobasic acid, glycol contains in the two groups OH two such\\natoms of hydrogen, capable ol* being replaced by two radicals\\nof a monobasic acid, or one radical of a dibasic acid.\\nC2 H?0 C2H4 o:S CH\u00c2\u00ab C*H\u00c2\u00ab0\u00c2\u00bb\\nEthyl acetate. Ethylene diacetate. Ethylene succinate.\\nThe glycols yield diatomic acids by oxidation.\\nThere are isomeric glycols, or isoglycols, corresponding to the\\nisoalcohols which have already been defined (page 521).\\nA number of glycols of the series C n H 2n+2 2 are now known.\\nDENSER AT 0\u00c2\u00b0. BOILING-POINTS.\\nEthylene glycol, or glycol C 2 H 50 2 1.125 197.5\u00c2\u00b0\\nPropylene glycol, or propylglycol C 3 H 8 2 1.051 1S8-189\u00c2\u00b0\\nButylene glycol, or butylglycol OH 10 2 1.048 1S3-184\u00c2\u00b0\\nAmylene glycol, or amylglycol C 5 H 12 2 0.987 177\u00c2\u00b0\\nIt is to be remarked that all of the members of the above\\nseries are not, strictly speaking, homologous.\\nThe isomerism of the glycols, like that of the alcohols, is\\ndue to the constitutions of their molecules, which can contain,\\nlike the molecules of the alcohols, the following groups\\nThe primary group -CH 2 .OE\\nThe secondary group =CH.OH\\nThe tertiary group =C.OH\\nz mm 49", "height": "4792", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0585.jp2"}, "584": {"fulltext": "578 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThus, ethylene glycol is primary, since it contains two\\ngroups, CH 2 .OH.\\nThe amylglycol derived from trimethylethylene is at the\\nsame time secondary and tertiary.\\nPinacone, which has already been mentioned (page 558), is\\na tertiary glycol; it contains two groups =(C.OH).\\nCH2.0H nSs COH CH3 9 ,0H\\nCH2.0H CH3-CH.OH CH3 C 0H\\nGlycol. Amylglycol. Pinacone.\\n(Secondary and tertiary.) (Tertiary.)\\nAmong the mixed glycols, that is, those containing at the\\nsame time two different alcoholic groups, is ordinary propyl-\\nglycol, which is primary and secondary.\\nCH2.0H CH3\\nCH2 CH.OH\\nCH 2 .OH CH2.0H\\nNormal propyl glycol. Ordinary propylglycol.\\n(Primary). (Primary and secondary).\\nGLYCOL, OR ETHYLENE DIHYDRATE.\\nC2H6Q 2 C 2 H*(OH) a\\nWurtz first obtained glycol by causing either iodide or bro-\\nmide of ethylene to react with silver acetate\\nSilver acetate. Ethylene diacetate.\\nand saponifying the resulting ethylene diacetate by potassium\\nhydrate.\\nC2H30*o! (C2H4) 2K0H 2(C 2 EPO.OK) (C2H\u00c2\u00b1) {\u00c2\u00b0g\\nEthylene diacetate. Potassium acetate. Glycol.\\nIt is best prepared by Hiifner and Zbller s process, which\\nconsists in heating ethylene bromide with an aqueous solution\\nof potassium carbonate, thus\\nC 2 H*Br 2 4. K2C0 3 H20 C 2 H 4 (OH) 2 2KBr CO 2\\n188 grammes of ethylene bromide, 138 grammes of po-\\ntassium carbonate, and 1 litre of water are introduced into a\\nlarge flask connected with a reversed condenser, and the mix-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0586.jp2"}, "585": {"fulltext": "GLYCOL. 579\\nture is boiled until all of the ethylene bromide has disappeared.\\nThe aqueous liquid is then concentrated on a water-bath, and\\nalcohol is added to precipitate the potassium bromide the\\nalcoholic liquid is then distilled. Alcohol and water first pass,\\nand when the temperature rises above 150\u00c2\u00b0, the liquid which\\ncondenses is nearly pure glycol.\\nProperties. Glycol is a somewhat syrupy, colorless, and\\nodorless liquid, having a sweet taste. It mixes with water and\\nalcohol in all proportions, but is scarcely soluble in ether. It\\nboils at 197.5\u00c2\u00b0, and distils without alteration.\\nIts analogy to alcohol, from which it differs bv containing\\none more atom of oxygen, is demonstrated by the following\\nexperiments\\n1. If platinum black be moistened with glycol and then\\nrapidly plunged into a jar of oxygen, a brilliant incandes-\\ncence is manifested immediately, due to the energetic absorp-\\ntion of oxygen.\\nWith dilute glycol, the oxidation is slower, and glycollic acid\\nis formed.\\nCH2.0H CH 2 .OH\\nCH 2 .OH 2 CO.OH H2\\nGlycol. Glycollic acid.\\n2. If glycol be heated with ordinary nitric acid, torrents of\\nred vapor are disengaged, and the liquid deposits crystals of\\noxalic acid on cooling.\\nCH 2 .OH CO.OH\\nbw.OK 2 2 60.OH 2H2\\nGlycol. Oxalic acid.\\n3. When glycol is heated with potassium hydrate to 250\u00c2\u00b0,\\npure hydrogen is disengaged and potassium oxalate is formed.\\nC 2 H 6 2 2KOH C 2 OK 2 4H 2\\nGlycol. Potassium oxalate.\\nThese experiments establish between glycol and glycollic and\\noxalic acids, relations analogous to those which exist between\\nalcohol and acetic acid.\\nEthylene Chlorhydrate, or Glycol Chlorhydrin. When\\nhydrochloric acid gas is passed into glycol, a neutral com-\\npound is formed which constitutes the monochlorhydrin of\\nglycol, or ethylene chlorhydrate.\\nC2H4 HC1 C 2 H4 \u00c2\u00a3j H H20\\nGlycol. Ethylene chlorhydrate.", "height": "4779", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0587.jp2"}, "586": {"fulltext": "580 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThis compound is intermediate between glycol and ethylene\\nchloride, which is the dichlorhydrin of glycol.\\nC2H4 oI\\nc*w\\nC\u00c2\u00bbH* gj\\nGlycol.\\nMonochlorhydrin of\\nDichlorhydrin of glycol\\nglycol.\\n(ethylene chloride).\\nEthylene chlorhydrate is also formed by the direct union of\\nethylene gas and hypochlorous acid (Carius).\\nC 2 H 4 HCIO C 2 H 5 C10\\nIt is a colorless liquid, having a density of 1.24 at 8\u00c2\u00b0. It\\nboils at 130-131\u00c2\u00b0.\\nEthylene bromhydrate, or glycol bromJiydrin, is formed\\nunder circumstances analogous to those which furnish the\\nchlorhydrate. It is a thick, colorless liquid, boiling at 147\u00c2\u00b0.\\nEthylene Nitrates. By the reaction of ethylene brom-\\nhydrate on silver nitrate, at ordinary temperatures or by the\\naid of gentle heat, ethylene mononitrate, C 2 H 4 !;;j is\\nobtained as a colorless or slightly yellow liquid, which is sol-\\nuble in water. Density at 11\u00c2\u00b0, 1.31.\\nNO 2\\nEthylene dinitrate, C 2 H 4 q N q 2 is formed by the action\\nof ethylene bromide on an alcoholic solution of silver nitrate.\\nIt is a mobile, colorless liquid, insoluble in water. Density at\\n8\u00c2\u00b0, 1.4837. It explodes by percussion (Henry).\\nEthylene Acetates. When glycol is heated with acetic\\nacid, it is converted into acetic ethers.\\nC*H4 g*[ C2H30.0H C2H4 2H3 H*0\\nAcetic acid. Ethylene monacetate.\\nC2H4 \u00c2\u00a3g 2(C2H30.0H) C2H4 0C2 2 H30 2H2\\nAcetic acid. Ethylene diacetate.\\nEthylene monacetate, or monacetic glycol, is a liquid mis-\\ncible with water and alcohol, and boiling at 182\u00c2\u00b0.\\nEthylene diacetate, or diacetic glycol, can be prepared by the\\nreaction of ethylene iodide on silver acetate. It is a colorless\\nliquid, soluble in 7 parts of water it boils at 186\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt is thus seen that two neutral ethereal compounds can be\\nformed by the action of one and the same monobasic acid on\\nglycol, while the monatomic alcohols would furnish but a single\\ncompound ether under the same circumstances.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0588.jp2"}, "587": {"fulltext": "ETHYLENE OXIDE.\\nETHYLENE OXIDE.\\n581\\ncm*o=o j JR2\\nIf an excess of potassium hydrate be added to ethylene\\nchlorhydrate contained in a test-tube, and a gentle heat be\\napplied, a brisk effervescence will take place, due to a dis-\\nengagement of vapor which may be ignited at the mouth of\\nthe tube.\\nAt a low temperature, this vapor condenses to a colorless\\nliquid, which is ethylene oxide.\\nC 2 H 5 C10 C 2 PPO HC1\\nEthylene chlorhydrate. Ethylene oxide.\\nEthylene oxide has the composition of glycol, less the ele-\\nments of one molecule of water.\\nC 2 tPO C 2 H 6 2 H 2\\nHowever, it cannot be obtained by direct dehydration of\\nglycol, for when that body is distilled with zinc chloride,\\namong other products, aldehyde, which is isomeric with ethyl-\\nene oxide, is obtained.\\nGreene has obtained ethylene oxide by double decomposi-\\ntion, by heating ethylene bromide with anhydrous sodium\\noxide.\\nC 2 HW Na 2 C 2 H 4 2NaBr\\nProperties. Ethylene oxide boils at 13.5\u00c2\u00b0. It dissolves\\nin all proportions in water, alcohol, and ether. Under the\\ninfluence of sodium amalgam and water, it fixes lrydrogen\\ndirectly, being transformed into alcohol.\\nC 2 H 4 H 2 C 2 H 6\\nIt combines directly with water at 100\u00c2\u00b0, regenerating glycol.\\nC 2 H 4 H 2 C 2 H 6 2\\nIt possesses basic properties.\\nIf equal volumes of hydrochloric gas and vapor of ethylene\\noxide be mixed over the mercury-trough (the mercury should\\nbe slightly warmed) the two gases will disappear they combine\\nto form a liquid which is ethylene chlorhydrate.\\nC 2 H*0 HC1 C 2 H 5 C10\\nIf liquid ethylene oxide be added to a cooled solution of\\nmagnesium chloride, an abundant precipitate of magnesium\\nhydrate will be formed in the course of a day, and the liquid\\n49*", "height": "4794", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0589.jp2"}, "588": {"fulltext": "582 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nwill contain ethylene chlorhydrate. Oxide of ethylene pre-\\ncipitates magnesia as would a powerful base (A. Wurtz).\\nBases Derived from Ethylene Oxide. Oxide of ethylene\\ncombines with ammonia, yielding a series of bases, the hydrox-\\nethylenamines, which are formed by the direct union of one,\\ntwo, or three molecules of ethylene oxide with one molecule of\\nammonia.\\nC 2 H\u00c2\u00b1.OH) C 2 H 4 .OH) C 2 H*.Oin\\nH N C 2 H\u00c2\u00b1.OH N C 2 H\u00c2\u00b1.OH N\\nHj Hj C 2 H4.0Hj\\nHydroxethylenamine. Dihydroxethylenamine. Trihydroxethylenamine.\\nThese bases are also formed by the action of ammonia on\\nethylene chlorhydrate.\\nP1 C 2 H*.OH\\nC 2 H* H NH3 H\\nH\\n1\\nWhen ethylene chlorhydrate is treated with trimethylamine.\\nthe bodies combine, forming a chloride.\\nN(CH3)3 C 2 H* H ^hs^N.CI\\nWhen this chloride is treated with water and silver oxide,\\nit is converted into a hydrate.\\nC\u00c2\u00bbH*.OH) NQH\\n(CH 3 3 J JN,U\u00c2\u00b11\\nThis hydrate is neurine, an energetic natural base which\\nexists in the bile (choline) and which is also a product of the\\ndecomposition of a complex substance, lecithuie, which exists\\nin the brain, in the nerves, and in the yolk of eggs.\\nSulphonal. Analogous to the glycols are the diatomic\\nhydrosulphides, of which the type is methylene mercaptan,\\nCH 2 (SH) 2 The oxidation of these hydrosulphides yields\\ndisulphones, which may also be obtained by condensation from\\nthe alkyl hydrosulphides. Thus, when a mixture of ethyl-\\nmercaptan with acetone is cautiously oxidized by means of\\npotassium permanganate, condensation takes place and di-\\nethylsulphon-dimethylmethane is formed.\\n2(C 2 H5.SH) 4- (CH 3 2 C0 0* (CH 3 2 C(S0 2 .C 2 H5) 2 H 2\\nEthyl hydrosulphide. Sulphonal.\\nThe latter is used under the name sulphonal as one of the\\nmost favored hypnotics. It is a colorless solid, crystallizing\\nin prisms melting at 125\u00c2\u00b0, and it boils at 300\u00c2\u00b0. It is only\\nslightly soluble in cold water.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0590.jp2"}, "589": {"fulltext": "ACETAL. 583\\nACETAL.\\nWe may conceive of the existence of a glycol isomeric with\\nthat which has been described 7 and bearing the same relations\\nto the latter that aldehyde has to ethylene oxide.\\nCH*\\ni 0\\nCH 3\\nCHO\\nEthylene oxide.\\nAldehyde.\\nCH 2 .OH\\nCH 3\\nCC1 3\\nCH 2 .OH\\nCH OH\\n0H OH\\nEthylene glycol.\\nEthylidene glycol.\\nChloral hydra\\nJust as glycol is formed by the hydration of ethylene oxide,\\nethylidene glycol should be formed by the hydration of alde-\\nhyde. Indeed, on contact with water aldehyde becomes heated,\\nand doubtless is converted into the glycol in question, which\\nis, however, too unstable to be isolated. In general, all com-\\npounds which contain two hydroxyl groups in combination\\nwith the same carbon atom are quite unstable, and readily\\ndecompose, giving up a molecule of water. It is so with\\nchloral hydrate, which must be considered as a trichlor-deriva-\\ntive of ethylidene glycol. The latter is at once resolved into\\naldehyde and water, but its methyl and ethyl derivatives are\\nstable, and have long been known under the names dimethyl-\\nacetal and acetal.\\nCH 3 CH 3\\n.OCH 3 .OC 2 H 5\\no\u00c2\u00b11 0CH 3 n OC 2 H 5\\nDim ethy lace tal. Acetal.\\nDimethylacetal is produced when a mixture of methyl and\\nethyl alcohols is oxidized by sulphuric acid and manganese\\ndioxide. It boils at 64\u00c2\u00b0, and much resembles acetal.\\nAcetal. This compound was discovered by Liebig. It\\nexists in the more volatile portions of the product of the dis-\\ntillation of crude alcohol. It is formed synthetically when\\nalcohol is heated to 160\u00c2\u00b0 with aldehyde, and also by the action\\nof sodium ethylate on monochlorether.\\nC 2 H 4 g C2H5 C 2 H 5 .ONa NaCl C 2 H*\\nMonochlorether. Acetal.\\nIt is found among the products of the oxidation of alcohol.\\nProperties. Acetal is a liquid, having a peculiar, agreeable\\nodor, insoluble in water. Its density at 20\u00c2\u00b0 is 0.821. It\\nboils at 104\u00c2\u00b0.", "height": "4781", "width": "2931", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0591.jp2"}, "590": {"fulltext": "584 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nETHYLENE-DIAMINES.\\nThese bases result from the substitution of one, two, or\\nthree ethylene groups, (C 2 4 each for two atoms of hy-\\ndrogen in two molecules of ammooia, and are formed by the\\naction of alcoholic ammonia on ethylene bromide at ordinary\\ntemperatures.\\nC 2 H 4 Br 2 2NH3 C 2 H*(NH 2 2 .2HBr\\nEthylene-diamine\\nhydrobromide.\\nCH 2 -NH 2 f(C 2 H4)\\nEthylene-diamine, H2 _ NH2 =N2 H2 is a liquid base,\\nboiling at 116.5\u00c2\u00b0, and melts at 8.5\u00c2\u00b0. By the prolonged action\\nof an excess of ethylene bromide, it is converted successively\\ninto diethylene-diamine and trietliylene-diamine.\\n((C*H\u00c2\u00ab)\\nf(C 2 H4)\\n((cw*y\\nN2J H 2\\nN 2 (C 2 H*)\\nW\\\\ (C2H*)\\nH2\\n(H2\\n((C 2 H4)\\nEthylene-diamine.\\nDiethylene-diamine.\\nTriethylene-diamine.\\nDiethylene-diamine boils at 170\u00c2\u00b0, and triethylene-diamine at\\n210\u00c2\u00b0. They are liquids. The ethlylene-diamines are diacid,\\nthat is, they combine with two molecules of a monatomic acid,\\nsuch as hydrochloric or hydrobromic acid (Hofmann).\\nTetramethylene diamine (putrescine), NH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2\\nCH 2 -CH 2 -NH 2 and Pentamethylene diamine (cadaverine),\\nNH 2 -(CH 2 5 -NH 2 are ptomaines formed during the putre-\\nfaction of animal matters. Ladenburg has synthesized them.\\nISETHION1C ACID.\\nC2H6SO* C*H* \u00c2\u00b05 0H\\nOxide of ethylene unites directly with sodium acid-sulphite\\n(bisulphite), forming sodium isethionate.\\nC2H\u00c2\u00b1.0 N S03 C\u00c2\u00bbH* g5 Na\\nSodium isethionate.\\nThe same salt is formed when ethylene chlorhydrate is heated\\nwith neutral sodium sulphite.\\nC 2 H4 \u00c2\u00a3f NaW c2H4 SQ3Na NaC1", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0592.jp2"}, "591": {"fulltext": "TAURINE. 585\\nIsethionic acid is prepared by the action of sulphuric anhy-\\ndride upon alcohol or ether. The product is diluted with\\nwater, boiled for some time, and then neutralized with barium\\ncarbonate. The liquid is filtered and the filtrate decomposed\\nexactly with sulphuric acid isethionic acid remains in solution.\\nIsethionic acid is a sour liquid which solidifies to a crys-\\ntalline mass on long standing over sulphuric acid. Its salts\\nare very stable. It is isomeric with ethylsulphuric acid.\\nPhosphorus pentachloride transforms it into a chloride.\\nC*H* QK 2PC15 C*H* 2 C1 HC1 KC1 2POC13\\nPotassium isethionate. Chlorethylsulphonic\\nchloride.\\nThe latter is a liquid, boiling at 120\u00c2\u00b0 it is decomposed by\\nwater at 100\u00c2\u00b0, into chlorethylsulphonic and hydrochloric acids.\\nC H4 SO*.Cl H2 C2H4 SO*.OH HC1\\nChlorethylsulphonic acid.\\nTAURINE.\\nC 2 H*NS0 3\\nThis important acid, whose existence in the bile was dis-\\ncovered by Gmelin in 1824, is related to isethionic acid; it is\\namido-isethionic acid, that is, it is derived from the latter acid\\nby the substitution of a group NH 2 for a group OH. It may\\nbe obtained by synthesis by the action of ammonia on chlor-\\nethylsulphonic acid or on silver chlorethylsulphonate. The\\nfollowing formulae indicate the relations between isethionic\\nand chlorethylsulphonic acids and taurine\\nC2H4 So .OH C2H4 SO*.OH OT SaS H\\nIsethionic acid. Chlorethylsulphonic acid. Taurine.\\nTaurine crystallizes in large, brilliant, oblique rhombic prisms,\\nvery soluble in boiling water and but slightly soluble in cold\\nwater. When the crystals are heated they melt, and decompose\\nat an elevated temperature.\\nStrecker has obtained an isomeride of taurine by heating\\nammonium isethionate.\\nC2H4 S^(NH^) C2H4 S$.NH* H2\\nAmmonium isethionate. Isethionamide.", "height": "4784", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0593.jp2"}, "592": {"fulltext": "586 ELEMENTS OE MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nPROPYLENE GLYCOLS.\\nC 3 H 6 (OH) 2\\nNormal propylene glycol (page 577) has been obtained from\\nnormal propylene bromide (page 573). This bromide is mixed\\nwith acetic acid and heated with silver acetate propylene di-\\nacetate is formed, C 3 H 6 (C 2 H 3 2 2 and separated by distillation,\\nafter which it is decomposed by a quantity of dry potassium\\nhydrate just sufficient to remove its acetic acid.\\nNormal propylene glycol is a colorless, syrupy liquid, boil-\\ning at 216\u00c2\u00b0, and having a density of 1.0652 at 0\u00c2\u00b0. It is\\nmiscible with water and alcohol in all proportions. When\\noxidized, it yields hydracrylic acid (Geroinont, Reboul).\\nOrdinary propylglycol is prepared from ordinary propylene\\nbromide by the same process indicated above. It is a thick,\\ncolorless liquid, having a density of 1.051 at 0\u00c2\u00b0. It boils at\\n188-189\u00c2\u00b0. When diluted with water and mixed with plati-\\nnum black, it absorbs oxygen, and is converted into lactic acid\\n(A. Wurtz).\\nGLYCEROL (GLYCERIN).\\nC 3 H 8 3 C 3 H 5 (OH) 3\\nGlycerol was discovered by Scheele in 1779, and studied\\nby Chevreul, Pelouze, and especially by Berthelot, who de-\\nmonstrated its character of a triatomic alcohol.\\nPelouze and Gelis realized the first artificial formation of\\na fatty body by passing hydrochloric acid gas into a mixture\\nof butyric acid and glycerol butyrin was thus produced.\\nPreparation. Glycerol is an accessory product in the man-\\nufacture of lead plaster. When the preparation of that sub-\\nstance is terminated, the water is decanted from the lead soap\\nwhich separates, and hydrogen sulphide is passed through\\nthe liquid in order to precipitate as sulphide any traces of lead\\nthat may be dissolved. It is then filtered and evaporated on a\\nwater-bath. The glycerol remains as a colorless, syrupy liquid.\\nIt is obtained in large quantities in the arts as an accessory\\nproduct in the manufacture of stearin candles.\\nProperties. Glycerol is a colorless liquid, having a syrupy\\nconsistence and a sweet taste. Its density at 15\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.28. It\\ndissolves in all proportions in water and alcohol, but is almost\\ninsoluble in ether. When quickly heated, it distils between\\n275 and 280\u00c2\u00b0 and it may be readily distilled in a vacuum.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0594.jp2"}, "593": {"fulltext": "ETHERS OF GLYCEROL. 587\\nPure glycerol is crystallizable, and solidifies below 0\u00c2\u00b0, but\\nsolid glycerol melts only at 17\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWhen subjected to the action of dilute nitric acid, glycerol\\nis converted into a triatomic acid, which is called glyceric\\nacid (Debus, Socoloff).\\nC 3 H 8 3 Q2 H 2 Q _|_ C 3 H 6\\nGlycerol. Glyceric acid.\\nWhen heated with phosphorus iodide, P 2 I 4 glycerol is con-\\nverted into allyl iodide (Berthelot and de Luca) (page 529;.\\nETHERS OF GLYCEROL.\\nGlycerol, C 3 H 5 (OH) 3 which contains three groups OH, can\\nform three classes of ethers by the substitution of one, two, or\\nthree monobasic acid radicals for as many atoms of hydrogen\\nin these hydroxyl groups. If acetic acid be heated with\\nglycerol, according to the proportions of the mixture, three\\ndifferent acetic ethers of glycerol may be obtained, ethers\\nwhich Berthelot has designated as acetins.\\nro.c 2 H 3 o in ro.c 2 H 3 o ro.c 2 H 3 o\\nC 3 H* OH C 3 H5 O.C 2 H 3 C 3 H5 O.C 2 H 3\\n(OH (OH (o.C 2 H 3\\nMonacetin. Diacetiu. Triacetin.\\nIn the same manner, by the action of the hydracids upon\\nglycerol, neutral combinations are formed, analogous to the\\nchlorides of the radicals C n H 2n 1 as well as to the dichloride\\nof ethylene and to ethylene chlorhydrate. These compounds\\nare formed by the substitution of one, two, or three atoms of\\nchlorine or bromine for as many hydroxyl groups in glycerol.\\nrci t\u00e2\u0080\u009e rci\\nc 3 h5^ oh c 3 h^ ci\\n(oh (oh\\nMonochlorhydrin. Dichlorhydrin.\\nChlorine Ethers of Glycerol, or Chlorhydrins. There\\nare two monochlorhydrins, two dichlorhydrins, and one tri-\\nchlorhydrin.\\nMonochlorhydrins. The two monochlorhydrins have been\\nstudied by Hanriot, and differ by the position of the chlorine\\natom.\\nCH2.C1\\nCH 2 OH\\nCH.OH\\nCH.C1\\nCH 2 .OH\\na monochlorhydrin.\\nCH 2 .OH\\n/3 monochlorhydrin", "height": "4792", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0595.jp2"}, "594": {"fulltext": "588\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\na monochlorhydrin, obtained by Berthelot by the action\\nof hydrochloric acid on glycerol, is a thick, colorless liquid,\\nsoluble in water, alcohol, and ether, and boils at 213\u00c2\u00b0 (Han-\\nriot). Density, 1.338. nionochlorhydrin has been obtained\\nby the direct union of hypochlorous acid and allyl alcohol.\\nCH2 CH2.0H\\nCH HCIO CH.C1\\nCH2.0H CH2.0H\\nIts density at 13\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.328, and it boils at 230-235\u00c2\u00b0.\\nDichlorhydrins. The isomerism of the dichlorhydrins is\\nanalogous to that of the monochlorhydrins.\\nCH2.C1\\nCH.OH\\nCH2.C1\\ndichlorhydrin.\\nCH2.0H\\nCH.C1\\nCH2.C1\\ndichlorhydrin.\\nBoth are formed, the first in larger quantity, when glycerol\\nis heated with a large excess of hydrochloric acid.\\nPure a dichlorhydrin is prepared by treating epichlorhydrin\\n(see farther on) with hydrochloric acid.\\nCH2.C1\\nCH2.C1\\nCH HCI\\n6h2 0\\nEpichlorhydrin.\\nCH.OH\\n0H 2 .C1\\na dichlorhydrin.\\nIt is a liquid of an ethereal odor, slightly soluble in water.\\nIts density at 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.3835, and it boils at 172-173\u00c2\u00b0- When\\nheated with a large excess of hydriodic acid, it is converted\\ninto isopropyl iodide.\\nP dichlorhydrin is formed by the action of chlorine on allyl\\nalcohol, or that of hypochlorous acid on allyl chloride.\\nCH*\\nCH2.0H\\nCH HCIO\\nCH.C1\\nCH2.C1\\nAllyl chloride.\\nCH2.C1\\ndichlorhydrin.\\nIts density at 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.371, and it boils at 182-183\u00c2\u00b0. Con-\\ncentrated potassium hydrate converts it, like its isomeride, into\\nepichlorhydrin.\\nTrichlorJiydrin. When dichlorhydrin is heated with phos-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0596.jp2"}, "595": {"fulltext": "ETHERS OF GLYCEROL. 589\\nphorus pentachloride, the last hydroxyl group is replaced by\\nchlorine trichlorhydrin is thus obtained (Berthelot).\\nr ci r ci\\nc 3 hsJ ci -4- pci cm$\\\\ Cl POCl 3 HCl\\n(oh (ci\\nDichlorhydrin. Trichlorhydrin.\\nIt is a liquid, boiling at about 155\u00c2\u00b0.\\nEpichlorhydrin. When dichlorhydrin is treated with a con-\\ncentrated solution of potassium hydrate, the elements of hydro-\\nchloric acid are removed, and a body is obtained which Berthe-\\nlot has named epichlorhydrin.\\nCH2C1\\nC3H5C12(OH) HCl C 3 H5C10 CH\\nDichlorhydrin. Epichlorhydrin.\\nEpichlorhydrin is a mobile liquid, heavier than water, and\\nhaving an agreeable, ethereal odor. Its taste is at first sweet,\\nafterwards sharp and burning. It boils at 118-119\u00c2\u00b0. It is\\nsoluble in all proportions in alcohol and ether, but not in\\nwater.\\nIt combines directly with hydrochloric acid, regenerating\\ndichlorhydrin. When heated for a long time with water, it\\ncombines with one molecule of that liquid, forming rnono-\\nchlorhydrin.\\nC 3 H 5 C10 H 2 C 3 H 5 C1(0H) 2\\nTribromhydrin, or Propenyl Tribromide, C 3 H 5 Br 3\\nCH 2 Br-CHBr-CH 2 Br.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This is obtained by adding 1.5 parts\\nof bromine to one part of cooled allyl iodide. Iodine sepa-\\nrates, and the liquid is washed with potassium hydrate and\\ndistilled.\\nC 3 H 5 I 3Br C 3 H 5 Br 3 I\\nTribromhydrin crystallizes in brilliant colorless prisms,\\nfusible at 16\u00c2\u00b0. It boils at 219-220\u00c2\u00b0.\\nGlycide. When a monochlorhydrin is treated with baryta\\nand anhydrous ether, it loses the elements of hydrochloric acid,\\nand is converted into glycide (Hanriot).\\nCH2.C1 CH2 0\\n^H.OH CH HCl\\nCH2.0H CH2.0H\\nMonochlorhydrin. Glycide.\\n50", "height": "4781", "width": "2930", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0597.jp2"}, "596": {"fulltext": "590 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nGlycide is a mobile liquid, boiling at 157\u00c2\u00b0. Its density at\\n0\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.165. Water dissolves it, regenerating glycerol.\\nC 3 H 5 O.OH H 2 C 3 H 5 (OH) 3\\nTrinitroglycerol, or Propenyl Trinitrate. When glyce-\\nrol is poured drop by drop into a mixture of concentrated nitric\\nand sulphuric acids, cooled in a vessel of cold water, oily drops\\nof trinitroglycerol, C 3 H 5 (0-N0 2 3 are precipitated. It is a\\ncolorless oil, insoluble in water, and explodes with great vio-\\nlence by percussion, by heat, or, when impure, even sponta-\\nneously.\\nOn account of this property, nitroglycerin is employed as an\\nexplosive but it is generally incorporated with inert matter,\\nsuch as finely-divided silica. Such mixtures are called dyna-\\nmites. The manufacture of nitroglycerin is usually conducted in\\nwooden structures which are partly underground, and removed\\nfrom exposure to influences which might cause the explosion\\nof the product. The explosive force of the compound is more\\nthan six times as great as that of an equal quantity of gun-\\npowder, and nitroglycerin produces effects equal to those of\\npowder with an economy of about thirty per cent. Its explosion\\nis too violent to permit its use in fire-arms, but it is well adapted\\nto blasting operations. Curiously enough, while a drop of nitro-\\nglycerin placed on an anvil and struck with a hammer explodes\\nwith a loud report, the same drop would burn quietly if brought\\ninto a flame.\\nOther Glycerol Ethers. Berthelot has obtained a number\\nof glycerol ethers by directly heating glycerol with acids.\\nWhen the reaction is terminated (it is often very slow), he sat-\\nurates the excess of acid with calcium hydrate, and extracts\\nthe neutral fatty body, that is, the ether of glycerol, with\\nether. In this manner he has formed a certain number of\\nnatural fatty bodies by combining their acids with glycerol.\\nNATURAL FATTY BODIES.\\nThe fats encountered in nature are glycerides, that is, ethers\\nof glycerol. The memorable researches of Chevreul have\\nshown that when these fats are methodically treated with\\ndifferent solvents, various immediate principles are separated,\\nof which the most common are stearin, palmitin, and olein.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0598.jp2"}, "597": {"fulltext": "NATURAL FATTY BODIES. 591\\nThey are the tristearic, tripalmitic, and trioleic ethers of\\nglycerol.\\nr o.c 18 h 3 5o r o.c 16 h 3J o r o.c l8 H 33 o\\nC 3 H 5 O.C 18 H 3 50 C 3 H5J O.C 16 H 31 Q*W O.C 18 H 33\\nO.C 18 H 35 O.C 16 H 31 O.C 18 H 33\\nStearin. Palmitin. Olein.\\nWhen these glycerol ethers are subjected to the action of\\nalkalies, lime, or oxide of lead, in presence of boiling water,\\nthey are decomposed, absorbing at the same time the elements\\nof water glycerol and the acid are set free, and the latter\\ncombines with the base forming a soap (see page 593). Thus,\\nwhen stearin is boiled with milk of lime, calcium stearate and\\nglycerol are formed. When olein is heated with water and\\nlitharge, it yields lead oleate and glycerol.\\nMost of the fats and oils occurring in nature consist of such\\nglycerides mixed in various proportions, and may be resolved\\ninto the respective acids and glycerol.\\nStearin and palmitin are solids, olein is liquid. In the\\nfats, the solid principles predominate the oils contain a\\nlarger proportion of olein.\\nStearin is extracted from tallow. That substance is dissolved\\nin boiling ether and made to crystallize. The crystals are\\npressed, and the operation is repeated with them many times\\nuntil a substance is obtained which crystallizes in brilliant little\\nscales, fusible at 66.5\u00c2\u00b0. They are but slightly soluble in alco-\\nhol and in cold ether, but freely soluble in boiling ether.\\nPalmitin has been extracted, by the aid of boiling alcohol,\\nfrom palm-oil which has previously been submitted to heavy\\npressure between sheets of porous paper. It melts at 60\u00c2\u00b0\\n(Heintz).\\nOlein is the predominating principle of olive-oil and almond-\\noil, from which it is difficult to obtain it in a pure state. Ber-\\nthelot has prepared triolein artificially by heating glycerol to\\na temperature between 200 and 2-\u00c2\u00b10\u00c2\u00b0 with an excess of oleic\\nacid. The mass thus obtained is treated with lime and ether\\nthe latter dissolves the triolein and leaves calcium oleate.\\nThe ethereal solution is decolorized with animal charcoal and\\nmixed with eight times its volume of alcohol, which precip-\\nitates the triolein. When dried in a vacuum, triolein is an oil\\nwhich solidifies at 10\u00c2\u00b0. Its density is between 0.90 and 0.92.\\nIt is insoluble in water, and very slightly soluble in alcohol.\\nIn contact with mercuric nitrate or with peroxide of nitrogen\\n(red vapors), olein is converted into a crystalline, solid, fatty", "height": "4797", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0599.jp2"}, "598": {"fulltext": "592 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nbody, fusible at 32\u00c2\u00b0, to which Boudet has given the name\\nelaidin.\\nFat Oils and Drying Oils. The oils of olives, sweet\\nalmonds, rape-seed, beech-nuts, etc., acquire an acrid taste and\\na disagreeable odor when they are long exposed to the air, but\\nthey do not solidify. They are called fat, or non-siccative\\noils.\\nOlive-oil is the type of this class. It is extracted by press-\\nure from crushed olives, and has a greenish-yellow color its\\ntaste is sweet and agreeable it is odorless. At a temperature\\na few degrees above 0\u00c2\u00b0, it becomes a solid mass. When agitated\\nwith mercurous nitrate, it becomes solid, the olein which it\\ncontains being transformed into elaidin. It becomes rancid by\\nexposure to the air.\\nWhen other oils, such as linseed, walnut, hemp-seed, poppy\\nand castor oils are exposed to the air, they thicken and finally\\nare converted into somewhat elastic, yellow, transparent masses,\\nspecies of soft varnishes. They are, therefore, called drying\\noils, and are employed in the preparation of paints and varnishes.\\nThe changes which oils undergo on contact with the air are\\ncaused by an absorption of oxygen, and are accompanied by a\\ndisengagement of more or less carbon dioxide. Every one is\\nfamiliar with the uses of the natural fatty bodies in the arts\\nand in domestic economy. Among the industrial applications,\\nwe can only mention the employment of tallow and palm-oil in\\nthe manufacture of candles, and of these as well as other\\noils and fats in soap-making.\\nStearin Candles. To convert tallow into stearin candles, it\\nis saponified by lime, that is, it is first converted into a lime\\nsoap, which is then decomposed by sulphuric acid. The latter\\nacid causes the fatty acids to separate, and they solidify on\\ncooling. They are strongly compressed, first between warm,\\nand finally between hot plates, so that the oleic acid is ex-\\npressed, while the fatty acids proper remain. This process,\\nwhich was invented by de Milly and Motard in 1829, consists,\\nas may be seen, in entirely saponifying the tallow by lime. In\\n1854, de Milly modified it by considerably reducing the amount\\nof lime, and consequently the proportion of sulphuric acid\\nrequired. But it is then necessary to operate at higher tem-\\nperatures by the aid of superheated steam. The operation is\\nconducted in closed vessels, and with 2.5 parts of lime, 100\\nparts of tallow may be saponified at a temperature of 170 or\\n180\u00c2\u00b0,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0600.jp2"}, "599": {"fulltext": "soap. 593\\nPalm-oil may be converted into candles by a still more\\nsimple process, which consists in subjecting it to the action\\nof superheated steam at 300\u00c2\u00b0. It is thus directly decom-\\nposed into fatty acids and glycerol, for the vapor of water,\\nat the high temperature employed, acts precisely as would an\\nalkali.\\nSoaps. In the south of Europe, and principally at Mar-\\nseilles, oils of inferior quality are used for the manufacture of\\nsoap, and the oils of sesame and earth-nut have been employed\\nfor this purpose for some years. These oils are saponified by\\nboiling them in large boilers with a weak solution of caustic\\nsoda. The oil thus becomes pasty, the excess of oil making an\\nemulsion with the solution of soap which is first formed.\\nMore concentrated soda lye containing common salt is then\\nadded, and the saponification is finished by boiling the soap,\\nwhich is insoluble in the concentrated lye, comes to the surface\\nof the liquid, and the lye is then drawn off. When the soap\\nis well made, the paste hardens on cooling it has a bluish-gray\\ncolor, due to a ferruginous soap mixed with sulphide of iron.\\nThe iron and sulphur are derived from the materials employed,\\ncrude caustic soda containing a small quantity of iron. If this\\npaste be heated with about one-twelfth its weight of water, or\\na very weak solution of caustic soda, it melts, and if the mass\\nbe allowed to stand undisturbed, it will separate into two por-\\ntions, the lower and strongly-colored layer containing the more\\ndense ferruginous soap the upper layer constitutes white soap.\\nWhen the latter is completely clarified by the deposit of the\\nferruginous soap, it is drawn off into large moulds, where it solid-\\nifies. White soap is thus obtained. If, on the contrary, mar-\\nbled soap be desired, the paste is frequently agitated during the\\ncooling. The colored part, that is, the ferruginous soap, thus be-\\ncomes diffused throughout the whole mass, forming bluish veins.\\nFor some years, large quantities of soap have been prepared\\nby combining with caustic soda the oleic acid obtained as an\\naccessory product in the manufacture of stearin candles.\\nSoft soaps have potassa for their base. They are manufac-\\ntured from various oils, such as hemp, poppy, and linseed oils,\\nwhich are saponified by caustic potassa lye.\\nSaponification. It will have been noticed that all of these\\nindustrial operations have for their object the decomposition\\nof neutral fats into fatty acids, either free or combined with\\na base. This decomposition has received the name saponifi-\\nnn 5Q*", "height": "4794", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0601.jp2"}, "600": {"fulltext": "594\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ncation. It may be effected by the action of water and beat\\nalone, by the action of a base, or by the action of a powerful\\nacid, snch as sulphuric acid (sulphuric saponification). In the\\nlatter case, the acid acts upon the glycerol, forming a sulpho-\\nglyceric acid. Whatever process be employed to effect this\\ndecomposition, the presence of water is always necessary, for\\nthe elements of that liquid combine directly with the fatty\\nbody which is decomposed, as Chevreul has very well shown.\\nIn this respect, the decomposition of palmitin by superheated\\nsteam may serve as a type for all reactions of this class.\\nfO.C 16 H3iO (OH\\nC 3 H5 J O.C 16 H3iO 3H20 CPHMOH 3C16H310.0H\\nO.CMH310 I OH\\nPalmitin. Glycerol. Palmitic acid.\\nPOLYATOMIC AND POLYBASIC ACIDS.\\nThese acids are related to the polyatomic alcohols, just as\\nthe acids containing two atoms of oxygen, and which we have\\nalready studied, are related to the monatomic alcohols.\\nThe polyatomic acids are classed in several series, among\\nwhich we must consider in a special manner those which in-\\nclude glycollic and oxalic acids. As we have already seen,\\nthese two acids are products of the direct oxidation of glycol.\\nTheir homologues are related to the higher glycols.\\nGlycols. Acids, CnH2n03. Acids, OH2n_*04.\\nCH 2 .OH CH2.0H CO.OH\\nCH 2 .OH\\nGlycol.\\nCH2.0H\\nCH 2\\nCH 2 .OH\\nNormal propylglycol.\\nCH 3\\nCH.OH\\nCH2.0H\\nIsopropylglycol.\\nCH2.0H\\nCH 2\\nCH2\\nCH2.0H\\nformal butylglycol\\nCO.OH\\nGlycollic acid.\\nCH2.0H\\nCH 2\\nCO.OH\\nHydracrylic acid.\\nCH 3\\nCH.OH\\nCO.OH\\nLactic acid ot fermentation.\\nCO.OH\\nOxalic acid.\\nCO.OH\\nCH2\\nCO.OH\\nMalonic acid.\\nCO.OH\\nCH2\\nCH*\\nCO.OH\\n{Succinic acid.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0602.jp2"}, "601": {"fulltext": "GLYCOLLIC ACID, GLYOXYLIC ACID, AND GLYOXAL. 595\\nThe first of the above series is that of glycol and the higher\\nglycols. Among the latter, the true homologues of glycol\\nwould be those which differ from the latter by nCH 2 and of\\nwhich the formulae would consequently be analogous to that\\nof normal propylglycol. Ordinary propylglycol, which yields\\nlactic acid by oxidation, is an isomeride of normal propylglycol.\\nThe second series is that of glycollic acid and its homologues.\\nThey are derived from the corresponding glycols by the sub-\\nstitution of for H 2 in one group, CH 2 .OH They conse-\\nquently contain but one carboxyl group, CO. OH they are\\nmonobasic, for the hydrogen atom of the last group can be\\nreplaced by a metal. It will also be noticed that they are at\\nthe same time acids and alcohols, acids by virtue of the carb-\\noxyl, CO. OH, primary alcohols by virtue of the group CH 2 .OH,\\nor secondary alcohols by virtue of the group CH.OH.\\nThe third series is that of oxalic acid and its homologues.\\nThey are derived from the glycols by substitution of O 2 for\\n2H 2 in two groups, CH 2 .OH. They consequently contain two\\ncarboxyl groups, CO. OH, and they are dibasic because the\\nH of each of these groups may be replaced by an equivalent\\nquantity of metal.\\nBetween glycollic and oxalic acids there exists a remarkable\\nacid, because it is at the same time a monobasic acid and an\\naldehyde it is glyoxylic acid. It contains C 2 H 2 3 one more\\natom of oxygen than oxalic aldehyde, which is called glyoxal,\\nC 2 H 2 2 and two atoms of hydrogen less than glycollic acid.\\nThese relations of composition will be clearly seen from the fol-\\nlowing formulae\\nCH2.0H CHO CHO CO.OH\\nCO.OH CO.OH CHO CO.OH\\nGlycollic acid. Glyoxylic acid. Glyoxal. Oxalic acid.\\nGLYCOLLIC ACID, GLYOXYLIC ACID, AND\\nGLYOXAL.\\nGlycollic Acid, CH 2 (OH)-COOH.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This acid is formed\\nby the oxidation of glycol, but is best prepared by heating\\npotassium monochloracetate with dilute potassium hydroxide.\\nKC 2 H 2 C10 2 KOH KC1 KC 2 H 3 3\\nPotassium monochloracetate. Potassium glycollate.", "height": "4798", "width": "2925", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0603.jp2"}, "602": {"fulltext": "596 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe acid forms deliquescent crystals, very soluble in water,\\nalcohol, and ether. It has a strong acid reaction. When\\nheated, it loses the elements of water, and is converted into\\nglycollide, or glycollic anhydride, C 2 H 2 2 or C 4 H 4 4\\nGlyoxylic Acid, CHO-COOH. When fuming nitric acid,\\nwater, and 80 per cent, alcohol are carefully superposed in\\nlayers in a tall jar, and left for some days at ordinary tern-*\\nperatures, mixture takes place by diffusion, and the products\\n,of this slow oxidation of the alcohol are glycollic acid, gly-\\noxylic acid, and glyoxal. When the carefully evaporated\\nliquid is neutralized with chalk, calcium salts of the two acids\\nare formed and may be precipitated by the addition of alco-\\nhol, in which they are insoluble. From an aqueous solution\\nof the two salts the glyoxylate deposits first on spontaneous\\nevaporation. The free acids may be obtained by decomposing\\nthe calcium salts with oxalic acid. Glyoxylic acid is also\\nformed by the careful oxidation of glycol.\\nGlyoxylic acid is a syrupy and very acid liquid. It has\\nthe properties of an acid and those of an aldehyde, as is\\nindicated by its formula. Its solution reduces ammoniacal\\nsilver nitrate. When heated with sulphuric acid it disen-\\ngages carbon monoxide.\\nC 2 H 2 3 _ 2CO H 2\\nNascent hydrogen converts it into glycollic acid.\\nC 2 H 2 3 h 2 C 2 H 4 3\\nGlyoxal, CHO-CHO, may be obtained from the alcoholic\\nliquid above mentioned, from which calcium glycollate and\\nglyoxylate have been precipitated.\\nIt is a deliquescent, amorphous solid, slightly colored, and\\nvery soluble in water and alcohol. Its aqueous solution\\nenergetically reduces ammonio-nitrate of silver. Like other\\naldehydes, glyoxal combines with sodium acid-sulphite, with\\nphenylhydrazine, and with hydroxylamine. With the latter\\nit forms the compound HO.N\u00e2\u0080\u0094 CH-CH\u00e2\u0080\u0094 N.OH, glyoxime,\\nwhich is the type of a dioxime. Glyoxal is the aldehyde\\ncorresponding to oxalic acid.\\nCHO CO.OH\\nCHO CO.OH\\nGlyoxal. Oxalic acid.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0604.jp2"}, "603": {"fulltext": "LACTIC AND PARALACTIC ACIDS. 597\\nLACTIC AND PARALACTIC ACIDS.\\n[a-OXYPROPIONIC ACID.]\\nC3H\u00c2\u00ab0\u00c2\u00bb CH3-CH(OH)-CO.OH\\nFormation and Constitution. Lactic acid was discovered\\nby Scheele in sour milk. Berzelius discovered the existence in\\nvarious liquids of the animal economy of an acid which was at\\nfirst believed to be identical with that which results from the\\nacid fermentation of milk. Later, an acid identical with the\\nlatter was found in various vegetable juices, and was recog-\\nnized to be the product of a peculiar fermentation of glucose,\\ncalled the lactic fermentation (see page 647). It was also\\ndiscovered that the lactic acid of fermentation is not identical\\nwith that which exists in the animal liquids, especially that\\nliquid which impregnates the muscular fibres. The latter\\nacid is called paralactic or dextrolactic acid. It rotates the\\nplane of polarized light to the right, and its salts differ in cer-\\ntain properties from those of ordinary lactic acid. TVislicenus,\\nwho has most carefully investigated this isomerism, believes\\nit to be caused by a different arrangement of the atoms in\\nspace, and the results of many researches tend to confirm this\\nview. Such cases of isomerism which cannot be represented\\nby the ordinary structural formula are classed as stereoisomer-\\nism, and will be more fully explained farther on (see Tartaric\\nAcid). An acid of the same chemical properties, but turning\\nthe plane of polarization to the left, has recently been discov-\\nered by Schardinger. It is distinguished as levolactic acid.\\nIndependently of these stereoisomeric lactic acids, there is\\nanother isomer which was at first named ethylene-lactic acid,\\nand which results from the oxidation of normal propylglycol\\nits constitution is expressed by the formula\\nCH2.0H\\nCH2\\nCO.OH\\nIt is hydracrylic acid; it is also formed when /?-iodopropi-\\nonic acid is treated with water and silver oxide. Its character-\\nistic property is its easy decomposition into water and acrylic\\nacid, hence the name hydracrylic (Wislicenus).\\nIts isomeride, lactic acid of fermentation, is formed by the\\noxidation of ordinary propylglycol (A. Wurtz). This fact", "height": "4783", "width": "2923", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0605.jp2"}, "604": {"fulltext": "598 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ndetermines its constitution, which can also be deduced from\\na very interesting mode of formation discovered by Strecker.\\nWhen a mixture of aldehyde, hydrocyanic acid, and hydro-\\nchloric acid is allowed to stand for some time, ammonium chlo-\\nride and lactic acid are formed.\\nCH3\\nPTT3 I\\nV 11 CNH HC1 2H20 NH*C1 CH.OH\\nCH0 bo.OH\\nAldehyde. Hydrocyanic Lactic acid,\\nacid.\\nThe isomerism of lactic and hydracrylic acids may be readily\\nunderstood by the aid of the following formulas\\nCH2.0H CH3\\nCH2 CH.OH\\nCO.OH CO.OH\\nHydracrylic acid. Lactic acid.\\nBoth acids are monobasic each contains the group CO.OH,\\nwhich is characteristic of organic acids. The third oxygen\\natom exists in alcoholic hydroxyl, either in the primary group\\nCH 2 .OH, or in the secondary group CH.OH.\\nThe preceding formulae show that lactic acid has a mixed\\nfunction it is at the same time an alcohol and an acid. This\\nis made evident in all of its compounds, and it will be sufficient\\nto mention that one molecule of lactic acid in its function as\\nan acid, can react with and etherify another molecule in its\\nfunction of an alcohol, the hydroxyl of the group CO.OH\\nforming a molecule of water with the hydrogen of the alco-\\nholic hydroxyl in the second molecule of the acid. The\\ndilactic acid, lactic anhydride, and lactide which are formed by\\nthe more or less complete dehydration of two molecules of\\nlactic acid, are veritable dilactic ethers. This point has been\\ndeveloped by Grimaux.\\nPreparation of Lactic Acid. A mixture of 3 kilo-\\ngrammes of glucose dissolved in 13 litres of water, 4 kilo-\\ngrammes of sour milk, 100 grammes of old cheese, and 1.5\\nkilogrammes of pulverized chalk, is exposed to a temperature\\nof 30 or 35\u00c2\u00b0. At the end of a week, the whole solidifies to\\na mass of calcium lactate. The salt is purified by crystal-\\nlization, and is exactly decomposed by dilute sulphuric acid.\\nThe calcium sulphate is separated by filtration, and the acid\\nliquid is boiled and saturated with hydro carbonate of zinc;", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0606.jp2"}, "605": {"fulltext": "LACTIC AND PARALACTIC ACIDS.\\n599\\nIt is then filcered and allowed to cool. The zinc lactate crys-\\ntallizes, and its solution being decomposed by hydrogen sul-\\nphide, zinc sulphide and lactic acid are obtained. The latter is\\nseparated by nitration and its solution concentrated on a water-\\nbath.\\nFor the preparation of lactic acid on a smaller scale, advan-\\ntage is taken of the fact that some sugars (glucose, fructose)\\nupon heating with alkalies yield considerable quantities of\\nthe acid.\\nProperties. Lactic acid is a colorless, syrupy liquid, having\\na decided acid taste. When heated, it begins to lose water at\\n130\u00c2\u00b0, and is converted, little by little, into a yellow, amorphous\\nmass, insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and ether. This\\nbody is dilactic acid, C 6 H 10 O 5\\n2C 3 H 6 3 C 6 H 10 O 5 H 2\\nAt 230\u00c2\u00b0, it disengages a small quantity of carbon monoxide\\nand carbon dioxide, and a product distils which often solidifies\\non cooling. It is lactide, or dilactic anhydride, and is derived\\ndirectly from dilactic acid.\\nC 6 H io 5 _ c 6 H 8 0* H 2\\nDilactic acid. Lactide.\\nLactide has been represented by the more simple formula\\nC 3 H 4 2 but its vapor density as well as the depression it\\nproduces in the freezing points of its solvents show that\\nthe double formula represents the true constitution of this\\nbody.\\nLactide occurs in colorless crystals, soluble in water and\\nalcohol. It possesses the property of combining directly with\\nthe elements of water, lactic acid being re-formed it also\\ncombines with ammonia, forming lactamide.\\nParalactic Acid. This is the lactic acid which may be\\nextracted from meat. It is also called sarcolactic acid. It may\\nbe prepared from commercial extract of meat this is dissolved\\nin 4 parts of water, and the solution precipitated by 8 parts\\nof 90 per cent, alcohol. The alcoholic solution is decanted,\\nand the residue, which is insoluble in alcohol, is exhausted with\\n2 parts of lukewarm water, the solution again being precip-\\nitated by alcohol. The alcoholic solutions are united and dis-\\ntilled on a water-bath. The residue is rendered strongly acid\\nby sulphuric acid, and agitated with ether which dissolves the", "height": "4776", "width": "2919", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0607.jp2"}, "606": {"fulltext": "600 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nparalactic acid set free. The ethereal solution is evaporated,\\nand the acid is converted into the salt of zinc, which is subse-\\nquently decomposed by hydrogen sulphide, as has been indicated\\nfor the preparation of ordinary lactic acid. Paralactic acid is\\nsyrupy like its isomeride. It turns the plane of polarized light\\nto the right (Wislicenus). When heated, it becomes dehy-\\ndrated, yielding lactide.\\nLevolactic Acid. An acid which rotates the plane of\\npolarization to the left, but otherwise identical with para-\\nlactic acid, has been obtained by a peculiar fermentation of\\nsugar (Schardinger).\\nOrdinary lactic acid can be resolved into the two active\\nmodifications.\\nLactates and Paralactates. Lactic acid is a monobasic\\nacid the neutral lactates contain R C 3 H 5 3 or M (C 3 H 5 3 2\\nThe most characteristic is zinc lactate, Zn(C 3 H 5 3 2 3H 2 0,\\nwhich is but slightly soluble in cold water, and separates from\\nits boiling solution in brilliant needles or laminae.\\nZinc paralactate crystallizes with two molecules of water,\\nand is much more soluble than the ordinary lactate.\\nCalcium lactate, Ca(C 3 H 5 3 2 -f- 5H 2 0, crystallizes in\\nrounded masses, formed of little needles grouped around a\\ncommon centre. Like all the lactates, it is very soluble in\\nwater and alcohol.\\nFerrous lactate, Fe(C 3 H 5 3 2 prepared by double decompo-\\nsition of calcium lactate and ferrous sulphate, forms greenish,\\ncrystalline crusts, soluble in water. It is employed in medicine.\\nLactamide, C 3 H 7 N0 2 When an alcoholic solution of lac-\\ntide is treated with ammonia and the liquid is evaporated,\\ncrystals are obtained which are soluble in water and alcohol.\\nThey constitute lactamide.\\nC 6 H 8 4 2NH 3 2C 3 H 7 N0 2\\nPotassium hydrate decomposes lactamide into lactic acid and\\nammonia.\\nLactamide represents ammonium lactate less the elements\\nof water.\\nCH*\\nCH3\\nCH.OH\\nH20\\nCH.OH\\nCO.O(NH*)\\nmonium lactate.\\nCO.NH2\\nLactamide", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0608.jp2"}, "607": {"fulltext": "HYDRACRYLIC ACID. 601\\nHYDRACRYLIC ACID.\\n(ethylenelactic, or /3-hydroxypropionic acid.)\\nC 3H60 3 CH 2 (OH)-CH 2 -CO.OH\\nThis acid is formed by the oxidation of normal propylglycol.\\nIt is also formed by the action of water and silver oxide on\\n3-iodopropionic acid.\\nCH 2 I-CH 2 -C0 2 H AgOH* CH 2 .OH-CH 2 -CO.OH Agl\\n/3-Iodopropionic acid. Hydracrylic acid.\\nThe silver salt formed in the latter reaction is converted into\\nthe zinc salt, and the latter is decomposed by hydrogen sul-\\nphide.\\nHydracrylic acid is syrupy. When heated, it breaks up\\ninto acrylic acid and water.\\nC 3 H 6 3 _ c 3 H 4 2 H 2\\nWhen heated with hydriodic acid, it is again converted into\\n/5-iodopropionic acid. Its sodium salt, NaC 3 H 5 3 deposits from\\nalcohol in crystals fusible at 142-143\u00c2\u00b0. Between 180 and 200\u00c2\u00b0,\\nit loses water, and is partly converted into sodium acrylate.\\nZinc hydracrylate, Zn(C 3 H 5 3 2 -f- 4H 2 0, is characteristic.\\nIt forms large, very brilliant crystals, soluble in about one\\npart of water.\\nGLYCERIC (DIHYDROXYPROPIONIC) ACID.\\nC 3 H 6( CH 2 (OH)-CH^OH)\u00e2\u0080\u0094 CO.OH\\nThis acid is obtained by oxidizing glycerol with nitric acid,\\nor by treating it with bromine and water. It is also formed\\nby the spontaneous decomposition of nitroglycerin.\\nIt is prepared by introducing into a tall jar one part of nitric\\nacid of specific gravity 1.5, and 1 part of glycerol diluted with\\nits own volume of water. Care is taken that the two liquids may\\nnot mix, and the whole is left to itself for five or six days. The\\ntwo bodies gradually mingle and react upon each other. The\\nliquid is evaporated on a water-bath, and the residue is boiled\\nwith well-washed hydrate of lead suspended in water, after\\nwhich the solution of lead-salt is filtered hot. Crystals of lead\\nInstead of Ag 2 H 2 0.\\n2a 51 v", "height": "4794", "width": "2927", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0609.jp2"}, "608": {"fulltext": "602 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nglycerate separate on cooling; they are purified, and their\\naqueous solution when decomposed by hydrogen sulphide, fur-\\nnishes glyceric acid.\\nProperties. Glyceric acid is a thick, light-yellow syrup,\\nsoluble in water and alcohol. Its reaction is acid it is mono-\\nbasic. Hydriodic acid, by the aid of heat, converts it into\\n/5-iodopropionic acid. Its relations with glycerol may be seen\\nin the following formulae:\\nCH2.0H CO.OH\\nCH.OH CH.OH\\nCH2.0H CH2.0H\\nGlycerol. Glyceric acid.\\nClosely related to glycollic and lactic acids are two important\\nnitrogenized bodies, glycocoll and alanine. They form part of\\na series which includes among other bodies leucine, a nitro-\\ngenized compound which plays a part in the animal economy.\\nWhen a current of nitrous anhydride is passed into solutions\\nof glycocoll, alanine, and leucine, nitrogen is disengaged, and\\nthese bodies are converted into glycollic, lactic, and leucic acids.\\nWe then have the following series\\nC 2 H 4 3 C 2 H 5 N0 2\\nGlycollic acid. Glycocoll.\\nC 3 H 6 3 C 3 H N0 2\\nLactic acid. Alanine.\\nC 6 H i2 3 C 6 H 13 N0 2\\nLeucic acid. Leucine.\\nGLYCOCOLL, OR GLYCINE.\\nC2H5N0 2 CH2(NH 2 )-CO OH\\nThis body is related to glycollic acid. It was discovered by\\nBraconnot, who obtained it by boiling gelatin with dilute sul-\\nphuric acid for a long time, saturating the solution with barium\\ncarbonate and evaporating the filtered liquid. Hence the name\\nsugar of gelatin or glycocoll.\\nCahours obtained it by the action of ammonia on mono-\\nchloracetic acid.\\nCO.OH _ TT9\\nCO.OH\\ni -1- 2NH 3\\nNH 4 C1\\nj\\nCH 2 C1\\nCH2.NH2\\nlloracetic acid.\\nGlycocoll.\\nIt is therefore amidacetic acid,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0610.jp2"}, "609": {"fulltext": "GLYCOCOLL. 603\\nIt may also be formed by passing cyanogen gas into boiling\\nhydriodic acid, which is reduced with separation of iodine, the\\nhydrogen effecting the change.\\nS SS\\nIt is a solid body, crystallizing in oblique rhombic prisms,\\nfusible at 235\u00c2\u00b0. Its taste is sweet. It is soluble in 4 parts of\\nwater, slightly soluble in alcohol, insoluble in ether. Its solu-\\ntion has a feeble acid reaction. Indeed, glycocoll can react with\\nthe bases, forming compounds when it is digested for several\\nhours at a temperature between 80 and 104\u00c2\u00b0 with silver oxide,\\nthe latter is dissolved, and the compound C 2 H 4 AgN0 2 is formed.\\nThe cupric compound, (C 2 H 4 N0 2 2 Cu H 2 0, crystallizes in\\nbeautiful, dark-blue needles. On the other hand, glycocoll will\\ncombine with the acids there is a nitrate of glycocoll crystal-\\nlizable in large prisms containing C 2 H 5 N0 2 .HN0 3\\nWith ferric chloride, glycocoll gives an intense red color de-\\ncolorized by acids and reappearing on the addition of ammonia.\\nWhen nitrous anhydride is passed into a solution of glycocoll,\\nthe latter is converted into glycollic acid, nitrogen being at the\\nsame time disengaged.\\n2C 2 H 5 N0 2 N 2 3 2C 2 H 4 3 H 2 2N 2\\nGlycocoll. Glycollic acid.\\nMethylglycocoll or Sarcosine, C 3 H 7 N0 2 This compound\\nis obtained by the reaction of methylamine and monochloracetic\\nacid, by an interchange analogous to that which yields glycocoll.\\nCO.OH CO.OH\\n2NH 2 (CH 3 NH2(CH3)HC1\\nCH2C1 K J -r CH 2.XH(CH3)\\nMonochloracetic Methylamine. Methylamine Sarcosine.\\nacid. hydrochloride.\\nIt is also formed in the decomposition of creatine and caffeine\\nby baryta water (Liebig). It crystallizes in rhomboidal prisms,\\nvery soluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol. It melts at\\n100\u00c2\u00b0, and can be sublimed without decomposition. Like gly-\\ncocoll, it forms compounds with acids. When distilled with\\nbarium hydrate, it yields methylamine. It may be distin-\\nguished from glycocoll by the action of nitrous acid, which\\nconverts it and all compounds which contain the group NH\\ninto nitroso-derivatives.\\nCO.OH ATTXTA CO.OH\\nOH.NO +H 2\\nCH2.NH(CH3) T CH2.N(NO)(CH3) a u\\nSarcosine. Nitrous acid. Nitrososaicosiue.", "height": "4799", "width": "2916", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0611.jp2"}, "610": {"fulltext": "604 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nALANINE.\\nCOTNO 2 CH3-CH(NH2)-CO.OH\\nStrecker made the synthesis of alanine by passing hydro-\\nchloric acid gas into a mixture of aldehyde-ammonia and hydro-\\ncyanic acid.\\nC 2 H*0 CNH H 2 C 3 H 7 N0 2\\nThe brown liquid resulting from this reaction is evaporated.\\nAlanine crystallizes in hard needles, grouped in stars or tufts.\\nIt is soluble in water, only slightly soluble in alcohol, insoluble\\nin ether. The aqueous solution is neutral, and is converted\\nby nitrous anhydride into lactic acid, with evolution of nitrogen.\\n2C 3 H 7 N0 2 N 2 3 2C 3 H 6 3 H 2 2N 2\\nAlanine. Lactic acid.\\nAlanine may be sublimed by cautiously heating it. By dry\\ndistillation, it breaks up into carbon dioxide and ethylamine.\\nC 3 H 7 N0 2 CO 2 C 2 H 5 .NH 2\\nIt is isomeric with lactamide and with an acid amide which\\nis obtained by the action of ammonia on /5-iodopropionic acid\\nThe following formulae account for these isomerides\\nCH 3\\nCH2.NH2\\nCH 3\\nCH.OH\\nCH2\\nCH.NH2\\nCO.NH2\\nLactamide.\\nCO.OH\\n/3-amidopropionic acid.\\nCO.OH\\nAlanine.\\n/?-amidopropionic acid, which is formed in the reaction just\\nindicated, crystallizes in transparent and colorless oblique\\nrhombic prisms. It is very soluble in water and but slightly\\nsoluble in alcohol. When cautiously heated to 170\u00c2\u00b0, it partly\\nsublimes in needles.\\nLEUCINE.\\nC 6 H 13 N0 2\\nThis body was discovered by Proust, in 1818, in old cheese.\\nIt seems to be identical with a substance obtained from cadav-\\neric fat, and named by Fourcroy aposepedine. It is a product\\nof the putrefaction of animal matters. It is also formed when\\nhorn, gelatinous tissues, or albuminous matters are boiled with\\ndilute sulphuric acid, or fused with potassium hydrate. In", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0612.jp2"}, "611": {"fulltext": "OXALIC ACID. 605\\nthese reactions, tyrosine, and sometimes glycocoll, is formed\\nat the same time.\\nLeucine exists already formed in the economy. It is met\\nwith in the tissues of the liver, spleen, lungs, pancreas,\\nsalivary glands, etc., and may be formed artificially, by a pro-\\ncess analogous to that described for the synthesis of alanine.\\nProperties. Leucine crystallizes in white plates. It dis-\\nsolves in 27 parts of cold water and much more abundantly\\nin boiling water. It melts at 170\u00c2\u00b0, and decomposes at a\\nhigher temperature into carbon dioxide and amylamine.\\nC 6 H i3 N0 2 _ C0 2 c 5 H n .NH 2\\nDIAZO-ACIDS.\\nA series of interesting and important acids has recently\\nbeen discovered by Curtius as products of the action of po-\\ntassium nitrite on hydrochloric acid solutions of the aniido-\\nacid ethers. While it has not been possible to isolate the\\nfree acids on account of their tendency to decompose with\\nliberation of nitrogen, their ethers are formed quite readily.\\nThus, the action of potassium nitrite on ethyl amido-acetate\\nin presence of hydrochloric acid yields ethyl diazoacetate.\\nKNO 2\\nHC1 NH 2 CH 2 -CO.OC 2 H5 KC1 CH-CO.OC 2 H5 2H 2\\nN\\nThis ether is a lemon-yellow oil, which may be distilled in\\nvacuum, but is decomposed with explosive violence when\\nheated under ordinary pressures or on contact with sulphuric\\nacid. Nascent hydrogen converts the diazoethers into hy-\\ndrazine derivatives. Diamide and hydrazoic acid (page 160)\\nwere first obtained with the aid of these ethers.\\nOXALIC ACID.\\nC 2 H 2 0\u00c2\u00b1 CO(OH)-CO(OH)\\nNatural State and Modes of Formation. This important\\nacid exists in many vegetables. Wiegleb and Scheele extracted\\nit from salt of sorrel, which is an acid oxalate of potassium.\\nThe process of Scheele has become classic. It consists in\\nprecipitating a solution of salt of sorrel with acetate of lead,\\nand decomposing the precipitated lead oxalate by hydrogen\\nsulphide. The great Swedish chemist demonstrated the iden-\\n51*", "height": "4793", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0613.jp2"}, "612": {"fulltext": "606 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ntity of the acid thus formed and that which Bergman had\\npreviously obtained by treating sugar with nitric acid.\\nOxalic acid is met with in the animal economy. Urine often\\ndeposits little crystals of calcium oxalate, which salt is some-\\ntimes deposited in the bladder and there forms rough concre-\\ntions known as mulberry calculi.\\nOxalic acid is formed by the action of nitric acid or fused\\npotassium hydrate on a great number of organic matters.\\nCyanogen yields oxalic acid by its decomposition in contact\\nwith water (page 464).\\nWe have already studied the relations which exist between\\noxalic acid and glycol (page 579).\\nDrechsel has recently made a beautiful synthesis of oxalic\\nacid. By passing carbon dioxide upon sodium disseminated in\\nvery dry quartz sand and heated to 350\u00c2\u00b0, he obtained sodium\\noxalate.\\n2C0 2 Na 2 Na 2 C 2 4\\nSodium oxalate.\\nOxalic acid also results from the action of a moderate heat\\non sodium formate.\\nCO.ONa\\n2NaCH0 2 i rtW H 2\\nCO.ONa\\nPreparation. Oxalic acid is prepared in the arts by two\\nprocesses. One consists in the oxidation of molasses of an\\ninferior quality by nitric acid. The operation gives rise to an\\nabundant disengagement of nitrous vapors and carbon dioxide.\\nIt is conducted in leaden boilers that are not attacked in pres-\\nence of a great excess of oxidizable organic matter.\\nAnother process consists in the reaction of potassium hy-\\ndrate on saw-dust at a high temperature. The mass is ex-\\nhausted with water which dissolves out potassium oxalate, and\\nthe solution is treated with milk of lime. Calcium oxalate is\\nprecipitated and potassium hydrate regenerated. The precip-\\nitated calcium oxalate is decomposed by sulphuric acid, calcium\\nsulphate, which is almost insoluble, being formed, and oxalic\\nacid remaining in solution in the water. When the latter is\\nsufficiently concentrated, the acid is deposited in crystals. The\\npotassium hydrate which remains in the first solution is evapo-\\nrated, and serves for new operations.\\nProperties. Oxalic acid crystallizes from its aqueous solu-\\ntion in large, transparent prisms, containing 2 molecules of\\nwater. When exposed to the air, these crystals effloresce, and", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0614.jp2"}, "613": {"fulltext": "OXALIC ACID. 607\\nthey completely lose their water at 100\u00c2\u00b0 or in a vacuum over\\nsulphuric acid. One part of oxalic acid dissolves in 15.5\\nparts of water at 10\u00c2\u00b0. It is also very soluble in alcohol.\\nIt melts in its water of crystallization at 98\u00c2\u00b0, begins to dis-\\nengage gases at 132\u00c2\u00b0, and between 155 and 160\u00c2\u00b0 breaks up\\ninto water, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxrde, and formic acid.\\nC 2 H 2 4 CO 2 CH 2 2\\nC 2 H 2 4 C0 2 _|_ C Q __ H 2\\nAt the same time, a portion of the dry acid escapes decompo-\\nsition and sublimes.\\nWhen oxalic acid is heated with sulphuric acid, it is de-\\ncomposed into carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and water,\\naccording to the equation given above.\\nCertain chlorides are reduced by ebullition with a solution\\nof oxalic acid hydrochloric acid is formed, and carbon dioxide\\ndisengaged. Under such circumstances, auric chloride deposits\\nmetallic gold mercuric chloride is reduced to mercurous chlo-\\nride.\\nOxalic acid is a violent poison. In doses of 8, 12, to 20\\ngrammes, it produces poisonous effects which may prove fatal.\\nIt acts upon the heart, retarding its movements, and upon the\\nnerve centres, of which it rapidly depresses the functions. Its\\nantidote is chalk or precipitated calcium carbonate.\\nIf a solution of oxalic acid, or better, ammonium oxalate,\\nbe added to a solution of calcium chloride, a white precipitate\\nof calcium oxalate is formed. This precipitate is formed even\\nin very dilute solutions, and is insoluble in acetic acid.\\nIf a small quantity of silver oxalate be heated in a small\\ntest-tube, the salt decomposes with explosive violence into\\ncarbon dioxide and metallic silver a portion of the latter is\\nprojected from the tube, while the remainder is left as a\\ngray powder.\\nThese reactions characterize oxalic acid.\\nOxalates. Oxalic acid is dibasic. Its two atoms of hydro-\\ngen may be replaced by two atoms of a univalent metal, or by\\none atom of a bivalent. Acid oxalates and neutral oxalates\\nare known.\\nPotassium Acid Oxalate, KHC 2 4 H 2 0.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This salt con.\\nstitutes the greater part of the salt of sorrel of commerce. It\\nis extracted^ from the juice of various kinds of Rumex and\\nOxalis, the juice of which is clarified with clay and then evap-\\norated to crystallization. It is but slightly soluble in water,", "height": "4790", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0615.jp2"}, "614": {"fulltext": "608 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIf a concentrated solution of oxalic acid be agitated with a\\nsolution of potassium neutral oxalate, a precipitate of potassium\\nacid oxalate will be formed.\\nIf a concentrated solution of oxalic acid be agitated with\\na solution of potassium acid oxalate, a white precipitate of\\npotassium quadroxalate, a combination of the acid salt and\\noxalic acid, will be deposited. It contains C 2 H 2 4 KHC 2 4\\n2H 2 0.\\nNeutral Potassium Oxalate, K 2 C 2 4 H 2 0, is obtained\\nby neutralizing a solution of the acid salt with potassium car-\\nbonate and evaporating. It crystallizes in oblique rhombic\\nprisms, very soluble in water.\\nAmmonium Oxalate, (NH 4 2 C 2 4 H 2 0, which is fre-\\nquently used as a reagent, is prepared by neutralizing oxalic\\nacid with ammonia. The concentrated solution deposits color-\\nless crystals belonging to the type of the right rhombic prism.\\nThere is also an acid oxalate of ammonium, (NH 4 )HC 2 4\\nMethyl Oxalate, (CH 3 2 C 2 4 forms colorless crystals melt-\\ning at 54\u00c2\u00b0. It is prepared by heating anhydrous oxalic acid\\nwith methyl alcohol.\\nEthyl Oxalate, or Oxalic Ether, (C 2 H 5 2 C 2 4 This ether\\nmay be prepared by distilling a mixture of potassium acid\\noxalate, alcohol, and concentrated sulphuric acid. It is a\\ncolorless oily liquid, heavier than water, and having an aro-\\nmatic odor. It boils at 186\u00c2\u00b0.\\nOXAMIDE.\\nC 2 2 (NH 2 2\\nIf solution of ammonia be added to ethyl oxalate, the latter\\nimmediately solidifies to a white mass formed of a crystalline\\npowder. This is oxamide.\\nC2H5*0 C2 2 2NH3 C2 2 NH2 2 c2H5 -OH)\\nEthyl oxalate. Oxamide.\\nOxamide is also formed by the dry distillation of ammonium\\noxalate.\\nNHiO C2 2 C2 2 nh 2 2H2\\nThe latter reaction, studied in 1830 by Dumas, led to the\\ndiscovery of the amides.\\nOxamide is a white, crystalline powder, very slightly soluble", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0616.jp2"}, "615": {"fulltext": "MALONIC ACID. 609\\nin cold water, insoluble in alcohol, somewhat soluble in boiling\\nwater, from which it is deposited on cooling. Like all of the\\namides, it is decomposed by boiling potassium hydrate, am-\\nmonia being disengaged and potassium oxalate formed.\\nOxamic Acid. This body is formed when ammonium acid\\noxalate is heated to between 220 and 238\u00c2\u00b0 (Balard).\\nNH HO C2 2 C2 2 oh 2 H2\\nAmmonium acid oxalate. Oxamic acid.\\nIt is a yellowish, granular powder which boiling water con-\\nverts into ammonium acid oxalate by the direct addition of\\none molecule of water.\\nThe following formulae express clearly the relations existing\\nbetween oxalic acid, oxamic acid, and oxamide\\nC 2 2 oh W CW 5S\\nOxalic acid. Oxamic acid. Oxamide.\\nMALONIC ACID.\\nC 3 H*0* CH2 cq oh\\nMalonic acid is the next higher homologue of oxalic acid,\\nand was first obtained by the oxidation of malic acid by po-\\ntassium dichromate and sulphuric acid. It also results from\\nthe hydration of cyanacetic acid when that compound is\\nheated with alkalies or with hydrochloric acid.\\nCH2 caoH 2H2 CH2 caSs NH3\\nCyanacetic acid. Malonic acid.\\nIt crystallizes in colorless thin plates, readily soluble in water\\nand alcohol, and fusible at 132\u00c2\u00b0. At a high temperature it\\ndecomposes into carbon dioxide and acetic acid.\\nIt is dibasic, like oxalic acid forming two series of salts in\\nwhich either one or both atoms of basic hydrogen are replaced\\nby an equivalent quantity of metal.\\nEthyl Malonate, (C 2 H 5 2 C 3 H 2 4 can be prepared by the\\naction of hydrochloric acid gas on a mixture of alcohol and\\ncalcium malonate. It is a colorless liquid, boiling at 198\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWhen heated with water to 150\u00c2\u00b0, it is decomposed into ethyl\\nacetate, carbon dioxide, and ethylene. The hydrogen atoms\\nin the acid radical of ethyl malonate can be successively\\nreplaced by sodium, and the reactions of the sodium malonic\\noo", "height": "4788", "width": "2934", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0617.jp2"}, "616": {"fulltext": "610 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nethers so formed render them valuable agents in many syn-\\ntheses (see Succinic Acid).\\nOxymalonic or Tartronic Acid, C 3 H 4 5 is one of the\\nproducts of the decomposition of tartaric acid by nitric acid,\\npage 617. Its formula is\\nCO.OH\\nCH.OH\\nCO.OH\\nIt forms large colorless prisms, fusible at 175\u00c2\u00b0.\\nSUCCINIC ACID.\\nOH60* C0.0H-CH2-CH2-C0.0H\\nThis acid, which was first obtained by the distillation of\\namber, is one of the products of oxidation by nitric acid of the\\ncomplex fatty acids, such as palmitic and stearic acids. It is\\nalso formed in the alcoholic fermentation of sugar (see page\\n648), in the fermentation of calcium malate, and by the re-\\nduction of malic and tartaric acids by hydriodic acid.\\nMaxwell Simpson obtained it synthetically by decomposing\\nethylene dicyanide with potassium hydrate.\\nOHWW 4H2Q CH-CO.OH\\nCH 2 -CN CH 2 -CO.OH\\nEthylene dicyanide. Succinic acid.\\nIn this reaction the nitrogen of each cyanogen group unites\\nwith H 3 and is replaced by 2 H 2(H 2 0) IF. Succinic\\nacid thus contains two groups C0 2 H, combined with ethylene.\\nWhen the monosodium compound of malonic ether reacts\\nwith chloracetic ether the ethyl ether of ethenyltricarboxylic\\nacid is formed.\\nCHNa=(C00C 2 H5)2 CH 2 C1-C00C 2 H5\\nSodium malonic ether. Chloracetic ether.\\nNaCl C00(C 2 H5)-CH 2 -CH=(C00C 2 H5) 2\\nEthenyltricarboxylic ether.\\nBy the action of heat the free acid obtained by saponifi-\\ncation of the latter ether is decomposed into carbon dioxide\\nand succinic acid. All acids containing two carboxyl groups\\ncombined with the same carbon atom are decomposed with\\nloss of carbon dioxide in an analogous manner.\\nPreparation. Succinic acid is manufactured by the dry\\ndistillation of amber and purifying the solid product of this\\ndistillation.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0618.jp2"}, "617": {"fulltext": "SUCCINIC ACID. 611\\nProperties. Succinic acid forms large, colorless crystals, un-\\naltered by the air, and fusible at 180\u00c2\u00b0. At 235\u00c2\u00b0 it boils and\\nbreaks up into succinic anhydride and water.\\nOH e O* C 4 H 4 3 H 2\\nSuccinic acid. Succinic anhydride.\\nIt is fairly soluble in water, less so in alcohol, and almost in-\\nsoluble in ether.\\nSuccinic anhydride, C 4 H 4 3 which is formed as above men-\\ntioned by the dry distillation of succinic acid, forms a white,\\ncrystalline mass. It is converted by phosphorus pentachloride\\ninto succinyl chloride, C 4 H 4 2 C1 2\\nCH 2 -C() CH 2 -COCl\\ni 0 PCI* POCP\\nCH 2 -C(T CH2-COC1\\nSuccinic anhydride. Succinyl chloride.\\nKekule has obtained monobromo-succinic and dibromo-suc-\\ncinic acids by heating moistened succinic acid with bromine in\\nsealed tubes.\\nMonobromo-succinic acid is converted into malic acid when\\ntreated with water and silver oxide.\\nC2H3Br AgOH Cm8(OH) g\u00c2\u00a3g AgBr\\nMonobromo-succinic acid. Malic acid.\\nUnder the same circumstances, dibromo-succinic acid is con-\\nverted into tartaric acid.\\nC 2 H 2Br2 2 2 g 2AgOH C2H2(OH)2 2 2 2AgBr\\nDibromo-succinic acid. Tartaric acid.\\nThese reactions, which were discovered by Kekule, establish\\nvery close relations between succinic, malic, and tartaric acids.\\nCH2-CO.OH\\ni succinic acid.\\nCH2-CO.OH\\nCH(OH)-CO.OH\\nJL-\u00e2\u0084\u00a2 malic acid.\\nCH2-CO.OH\\nCH(OH)-CO.OH\\n6h oh)-co.oh tartaric acid\\nMalic acid is oxysuccinic acid, and tartaric acid is dioxysuc-\\ncinic acid. By reducing agents, the latter acids can be con-\\nverted into succinic acid. When either of them is heated with\\na large excess of hydriodic acid, water is formed, iodine is de-", "height": "4797", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0619.jp2"}, "618": {"fulltext": "612 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nposited, and the liquid will be found to contain succinic acid\\n(Schmitt and Dessaignes).\\nCO OH\\nIsosuccinic Acid, CH 3 -CH ^q q H isomeric with suc-\\ncinic acid, is obtained by boiling with potassium hydrate the\\ncyanide of ethylidene, CH 3 -CH(CN) 2 corresponding to the\\nchloride CH 3 -CHCP. It crystallizes in needles, fusible at 130\u00c2\u00b0,\\nand more soluble in water than succinic acid.\\nMALIC ACID.\\nC*H605 CO.OH-CH 2 -CH(OH)-CO.OH\\nThis acid, which exists in a number of vegetables, was ex-\\ntracted by Scheele from apple-juice. It is generally prepared\\nfrom the berries of the mountain-ash, gathered before their\\ncomplete maturity they are strongly pressed, and the juice is\\nboiled, filtered, and neutralized with milk of lime at the ordi-\\nnary temperature. Calcium malate is deposited, and this is\\nconverted into the acid malate by dissolving it in boiling water\\nacidulated with nitric acid. The calcium acid malate may be\\nreadily purified by crystallization, after which it is converted\\ninto malate of lead by double decomposition with lead acetate.\\nThe lead salt is suspended in pure water and decomposed by\\nhydrogen sulphide the filtered solution is then evaporated.\\nProperties. Malic acid crystallizes in little needles grouped\\nin rounded grains. These deliquesce when exposed to the air.\\nThis acid presents three isomerides. Their solutions have\\na sour taste one of them, the natural acid, rotates the plane\\nof polarized light to the left, another to the right, and the\\nthird is optically inactive. They are identical in structure,\\nand must be regarded as stereoisomeric (see page 614).\\nMalic acid solutions do not produce a cloud in lime-water,\\nneither in the cold, nor on boiling.\\nWhen malic acid is heated, it begins to lose water at 130\u00c2\u00b0,\\nand between 150 and 200\u00c2\u00b0 is converted into two acids which\\nare isomeric with each other, and are known as maleic and\\nfumaric acids.\\nC 4 H 6 5 C 4 H 4 4 H 2\\nMalic acid. Maleic and fumaric acids.\\nFumaric acid forms colorless prisms, not very soluble in cold\\nwater, and not fusible but volatilizing with partial decomposi-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0620.jp2"}, "619": {"fulltext": "ASPARAGIN AND ASPARTIC ACID. 613\\ntion above 250\u00c2\u00b0. Nascent hydrogen converts it into succinic\\nacid.\\nMaleic acid resembles fumaric acid, but is much more soluble\\nin water. It melts at 130\u00c2\u00b0, and at 160\u00c2\u00b0 decomposes into maleic\\nanhydride and water. The differences in the constitution of\\nthese two acids are not clearly understood. Both are prob-\\nably represented by the formula CO.OH-CH-CH-CO.OH\\nthey may be stereoisomeric.\\nBy the action of potassium hydrate at about 150\u00c2\u00b0, malic\\nacid is decomposed into oxalic and acetic acids.\\nC 4 H 6 5 H 2 C 2 H 2 0* C 2 H 4 2 H 2\\nMalic acid. Oxalic acid. Acetic acid.\\nASPARAGIN AND ASPARTIC ACID.\\nSuccinic and malic acids present simple and remarkable rela-\\ntions with two nitro\u00c2\u00b0;enized bodies which have Ion?; been known\\nthey are asparagin and aspartic acids.\\nThe latter body is amidosuccinic acid, and bears the same\\nrelations to succinic acid that glycocoll (amido-acetic acid)\\nbears to acetic acid. On the other hand, its relations to malic\\nacid are analogous to those of glycocoll to glycollic acid.\\nCH3 CH ^.OH CH 2 .XH2\\nCO.OH CO.OH CO.OH\\nAcetic acid. Glycollic acid. Glycocoll.\\nCIP-CO.OH CH2(OH)-CO.OH CH(NH2)-CO.OH\\nCH2-CO.OH CH 2 -CO.OH CH^-CO.OH\\nSuccinic acid. Malic acid. Aspartic or amidosuccinic acid.\\nAsparagin is the monamide of aspartic or amidosuccinic acid\\nit is isomeric with the diamide of malic acid.\\nCH(NH2)-CO.NH2 CH.OH-CO.XH2\\nCH2-CO.OH CIP-CO.NH 2\\nAsparagin. Malamide.\\nAsparagin, C 4 H 8 N 2 3 This body exists naturally in aspa-\\nragus, black salsify, the roots of marsh-mallow, licorice wood,\\nand in the buds of cereals, peas, vetches, and beans before they\\nflower. To extract it from these vegetables, they are expressed\\nwhile fresh, and the juice is clarified and concentrated. The\\nasparagin is deposited in colorless crystals. It is only slightly\\nsoluble in cold water and alcohol, but is more soluble in hot\\nwater. It forms combinations with both bases and acids.\\n52", "height": "4793", "width": "2926", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0621.jp2"}, "620": {"fulltext": "614 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nWhen boiled with these agents, it loses ammonia and is con-\\nverted into aspartic acid.\\nC 4 H 8 N 2 3 H 2 Q _ NH 3 _ C4H 7 NO*\\nAsparagin. Aspartic acid.\\nAspartic Acid, C 4 H 7 N0 4 forms rhombic crystals, slightly\\nsoluble in cold, and more soluble in hot water. Like gly-\\ncocoll, aspartic acid can form compounds with both acids\\nand bases.\\nTARTARIC ACID, OR DIOXYSUCCINIC ACID.\\nC 4 H 6 6 CO.OH-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CO.OH\\nThis acid exists in four distinct modifications, namely,\\ndextrotartaric acid, levotartaric acid, mesotartaric acid, and\\nracemic acid. They all have the same molecular structure\\nthey are symmetrical dioxyderivatives of succinic acid, and\\nmust be regarded as stereoisomer\u00e2\u0084\u00a2.\\nThis kind of isomerism, which has been mentioned before,\\nis believed to be due to differences in the spatial arrangement\\nof the atoms within the molecules. It cannot be expressed\\nby the ordinary structural formulas. Van t Hoff has shown\\nthat optical activity (power to rotate the plane of polariza-\\ntion) is confined to substances containing one or more carbon\\natoms of which the four atomicities are satisfied by four dis-\\ntinctly different atoms or radicals. Such carbon atoms he\\ndesignates as asymmetric. He conceives the carbon atom\\nplaced in the centre of a tetrahedron, and the four atoms or\\nradicals combined with it at the angles of the tetrahedron.\\nTwo different arrangements of the different groups with\\nreference to the carbon atom are possible, and the resulting\\nconfigurations are to each other as an object is to its mirror-\\nimage they are enantiomorphous. They would have oppo-\\nsite rotary power, but their chemical properties would be\\nidentical.\\nWe have seen that lactic and malic acids are both known\\nin two modifications which differ in their action on polarized\\nlight, and in certain other properties.\\nThe molecule of tartaric acid contains two similar asym-\\nmetric carbon atoms, directly united, and each of these is\\ncombined with a hydrogen atom, an hydroxy 1 group, and a\\ncarbonyl group. Three configurations are possible, one", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0622.jp2"}, "621": {"fulltext": "TARTARIC ACID, OR DIOXYSUCCINIC ACID.\\n615\\nturning the plane of polarization to the right (dextro-form),\\none that rotates the plane to the left (levo-form), and an in-\\nactive modification (mesotartaric acid).\\nCOOH\\nOH\\nCOOH OH\\nOH\\na. Dextrotartaric acid.\\nCOOH\\nCOOH\\nb. Levotartaric acid.\\nOH\\nc. Mesotartaric acid.\\na and b are optically active each contains two similar asymmetric\\ncarbon atoms c is inactive because the two asymmetric atoms neu-\\ntralize each other (internal compensation).\\nThere is possible still another inactive modification formed\\nby the union of equal molecular proportions of the two active\\nvarieties (external compensation). This is raoemic acid it is\\ncapable of being split up into dextro- and levo-tartaric acids.\\nDioxysuccinic acid has been obtained synthetically in sev-\\neral ways. By heating succinic acid with bromine and water,\\ndibromosuccinic acid is obtained when this is boiled with\\nwater and silver oxide, it is converted into the dioxyderiva-\\ntive, thus\\nCHBr-COOH\\nCHBr-COOH\\n2AgOH\\n2AgBr\\nCH(OH)-COOH\\nCH(OH)-COOH\\nThe synthesis of racemic acid was effected by Strecker\\nhe converted glyoxal into the corresponding dicyanohydrin,\\nwhich he then decomposed by hydrochloric acid.\\nCHO\\nCHO\\n2HCN\\nCH(OH)-CN\\nCH(OH)-CN\\nCH(OH)-CN CH(OH)-COOH\\nI 4H 2 i v 3\\nCH(OH)-CN CH(OH)-COOH\\n2NH3", "height": "4789", "width": "2915", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0623.jp2"}, "622": {"fulltext": "616 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nDEXTROTARTARIC ACID (ORDINARY TAR-\\nTARIC ACID).\\nThis is one of the most widely distributed of the vegetable\\nacids. It was discovered by Scheele in the tartar, or argol,\\nwhich is deposited in casks in which wine is kept. It is\\nprepared from purified tartar, called cream of tartar, which\\nis acid tartrate of potassium.\\nPreparation. The salt is dissolved in boiling water, and\\nchalk is added until all effervescence, due to the disengage-\\nment of carbon dioxide, ceases. Insoluble calcium tartrate is\\ndeposited, and potassium neutral tartrate remains in solution-\\nThe calcium tartrate is collected on a filter, and the filtrate is\\nprecipitated by calcium chloride. A new portion of insoluble\\ncalcium tartrate is thus obtained, and is washed and united with\\nthe first portion. This salt is then suspended in water and\\nexactly decomposed by dilute sulphuric acid calcium sulphate\\nis precipitated, and separated by filtration, and the filtered\\nliquid, when sufficiently concentrated and allowed to evaporate\\nin a warm place, deposits crystals of tartaric acid.\\nProperties. Tartaric acid crystallizes in large, oblique rhom-\\nbic prisms, which often present hemihedral facettes. They are\\nunaltered by the air, and dissolve in about half their weight\\nof cold water and still more abundantly in boiling water.\\nThey dissolve also in alcohol, but not in ether.\\nThe aqueous solution of tartaric acid turns the plane of\\npolarization to the right. It forms white precipitates in lime-\\nwater and baryta-water, but an excess of the acid redissolves\\nthese precipitates.\\nIf an excess of tartaric acid be added to a solution of cupric\\nsulphate, the liquid may be saturated with potassium hydrate,\\nbut no precipitation of cupric hydrate will take place. The\\nliquid will remain transparent and will assume a beautiful\\ndark-blue color; it is called cupro-potassic solution. In the\\nsame manner, ferric chloride, to which tartaric acid has been\\nadded, is not precipitated by an excess of potassium hydrate.\\nWhen tartaric acid is fused with potassium hydrate, it is\\ndecomposed into acetic and oxalic acids.\\nC 4 H 6 6 C 2 H 4 2 C 2 H 2 4\\nAction of Heat on Tartaric Acid. 1. Tartaric acid fuses\\nbetween 167 and 170\u00c2\u00b0, and when the action of the heat is\\nnot prolonged, it is converted into isomeric mesotartaric acid.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0624.jp2"}, "623": {"fulltext": "TARTRATES. 617\\nProlonged heating to 165\u00c2\u00b0 in sealed tubes, of tartaric acid\\nwith a small quantity of water, transforms it into mesotar-\\ntaric and racemic acids.\\n2. If the acid be maintained for some time in fusion, it\\nloses water and is converted into ditartaric acid.\\n2C 4 H 6 6 C 8 H 10 O u H 2\\nDitartaric acid.\\n3. When 15 or 20 grammes of tartaric acid are suddenly\\nheated over a naked flame for four or five minutes, the mass\\nswells up and a deliquescent, yellow, spongy mass is obtained,\\nwhich constitutes what is called tartaric anhydride.\\nC 4 H 6 6 _ OH 4 5 H 2\\nTartaric anhydride.\\nWhen heated for some time to 150\u00c2\u00b0 in a hot-air oven, tar-\\ntaric anhydride becomes insoluble.\\n4. When tartaric acid is distilled by heating it gradually in\\na retort to 300\u00c2\u00b0, it yields besides other products two pyro-\\ngenous acids, pyruvic and pyrotartaric acids.\\nC 4 H 6Q6 \u00e2\u0096\u00a0_ C 3 H 4 3 C0 2 _J_ JJ2Q\\nPyruvic acid.\\n2C 4 H 6 6 C 5 H 8 0* 3C0 2 2H\\nPyrotartaric acid.\\nAction of Nitric Acid upon Tartaric Acid. Very con-\\ncentrated nitric acid converts tartaric acid into nitrotartaric\\nacid, C 4 H 4 (N0 2 2 6 (Dessaignes). This body may be obtained\\nin crystals, but it is not stable. Its aqueous solution decom-\\nposes between 40 and 50\u00c2\u00b0, with a brisk effervescence of carbon\\ndioxide, and formation of oxalic acid. When the decompo-\\nsition takes place below 36\u00c2\u00b0, a peculiar, crystallizable acid is\\nformed, which Dessaignes has named tartronic acid. Its com-\\nposition corresponds to the formula C 3 H 4 5 (see page 610).\\nTARTRATES.\\nTartaric acid is dibasic it contains two hydrogen atoms\\nwhich are replaceable by an equivalent quantity of metal.\\nNeutral tartrates and acid tartrates are known.\\nC*H*0\u00c2\u00ab I c*H*0\u00c2\u00ab OHW, or R C 4 H 4 0\u00c2\u00ab\\nTartaric acid. Acid tartrates. Neutral tartrates.\\n52*", "height": "4787", "width": "2914", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0625.jp2"}, "624": {"fulltext": "618 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nNeutral tartrates are known in which one atom of metal\\nis replaced by a monatomic oxidized group, such as (SbO)\\n(FeOy, (BO)\\nh} C4H4 6 (SbOr} C4H4 6 (FeO?} C4H4 6 (BOrl^ 06\\nPotassium Tartar- emetic. Ferro-potassium tartrate. Boropotassium\\nacid tartrate. tartrate.\\nPotassium Acid Tartrate, or Cream of Tartar, KHC 4 H 4 6\\nis prepared from the crude tartar of wine-casks by subjecting\\nthat product to several crystallizations in boiling water. It\\ncrystallizes in right rhombic prisms, very slightly soluble in\\nwater. If a concentrated solution of tartaric acid be added\\nto a saturated solution of potassium chloride, a precipitate of\\npotassium acid-tartrate will be formed on agitating the\\nliquid. This reaction serves as a characteristic test for tar-\\ntaric acid.\\nPotassium Neutral Tartrate, K 2 C 4 H*0 6 This salt is pre-\\npared by neutralizing a boiling solution of cream of tartar\\nwith potassium carbonate. The evaporated solution deposits\\non cooling oblique rhombic prisms, very soluble in water.\\nPotassium and Sodium Tartrate, N c*h*o\u00c2\u00ab 4H\u00c2\u00bbo.- This\\nsalt, which is much used in medicine, was discovered in 1672\\nby Seignette, a pharmacist of Rochelle hence it is often called\\nRochelle salt, or Seignette s salt. It is prepared by neutralizing\\na boiling solution of cream of tartar with sodium carbonate, and\\nevaporating the solution. On cooling, the double tartrate is\\ndeposited in large, beautiful crystals, eight-sided right rhombic\\nprisms.\\nANTIMONIO-POTASSIUM TARTRATE, OR TARTAR-\\nEMETIC.\\nSb0 HK)\u00c2\u00ab\\nThis salt is prepared by boiling cream of tartar with water\\nand oxide of antimony, which dissolves abundantly in the\\nliquid. After filtration and cooling, the salt is deposited in\\ncrystals which are purified by a second crystallization.\\nTartar-emetic crystallizes in rhombic octahedra, and the crys-\\ntals, which contain one molecule of water of crystallization for\\ntwo molecules of salt, effloresce in dry air.\\nIts taste is astringent and nauseating. It dissolves in 14.5", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0626.jp2"}, "625": {"fulltext": "BACEMIC ACID. 619\\nparts of cold water and in about two parts of boiling water.\\nIt is insoluble in alcohol.\\nWhen heated to 200\u00c2\u00b0 it loses the elements of water and is\\nconverted into a double tartrate of antimony and potassium, in\\nwhich the trivalent antimony replaces 3 atoms of hydrogen in\\nthe tartaric acid.\\nC 4 H 4 (SbO) K0 6 C 4 H 2 Sb HK0 6 H 2\\nWhen heated to redness in a small, covered crucible, tartar-\\nemetic leaves an alloy of potassium and antimony, disseminated\\nin a mass of charcoal. When this mass is exposed to moist\\nair, it suddenly takes fire and explodes, projecting brilliant\\nsparks.\\nThe following are the characteristics of a solution of tartar-\\nemetic\\nHydrogen sulphide forms an orange precipitate of antimony\\nsulphide.\\nA few drops of hydrochloric acid cause the appearance of\\na white precipitate of antimony oxy chloride, which disappears\\nin an excess of acid.\\nPotassium hydrate produces a white precipitate of antimony\\noxide, which redissolves in an excess of alkali.\\nA plate of tin immersed in a solution of emetic precipitates\\nmetallic antimony as a black deposit.\\nTartar-emetic is a much employed medicine. In large doses,\\nor smaller ones frequently repeated, it is an energetic poison.\\nIt is also used as a mordant in calico-printing.\\nFerro-Potassium Tartrate. This salt is prepared by dis-\\nsolving ferric hydrate in cream of tartar, and evaporating the\\nsolution. It forms brown, amorphous scales, very soluble in\\nwater. It is used in medicine.\\nBoro-potassium Tartrate is formed when boric acid is dis-\\nsolved in a boiling solution of cream of tartar. It is an amor-\\nphous salt, very soluble in water.\\nRACEMIC ACID (PARATARTARIC ACID).\\nC 8 H 12 12 2H 2\\nThis acid was discovered in 1822 by Kestner, and has been\\nstudied by Berzelius and by Pasteur.\\nIt crystallizes in transparent, triclinic prisms, which efflo-\\nresce in the air, losing their water of crystallization. It dis-", "height": "4799", "width": "2910", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0627.jp2"}, "626": {"fulltext": "620 ELEMENTS OE MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nsolves in 5.7 parts of water at 15\u00c2\u00b0. Its solution does not\\nchange the plane of polarized light, but Pasteur has succeeded\\nin separating it into two other acids, both of which are optically\\nactive. One of them turns the plane of polarization to the\\nright, and is ordinary tartaric acid; the other deflects it to the\\nleft, and is levo-tartaric acid. These two acids, which are iso-\\nmeric with each other, reproduce racemic acid when they\\nare mixed in equivalent proportions. It is somewhat remark-\\nable that the mixture of their solutions is attended by a\\ndevelopment of heat (Pasteur).\\nThe solution of racemic acid precipitates solutions of sul-\\nphate, nitrate, and chloride of calcium, a character which\\ntartaric acid does not possess.\\nMesotartaric Acid, or inactive tartaric acid, has no action\\non polarized light, but cannot be split up into the active varie-\\nties. It is also more soluble than racemic acid, and its salts\\nare well characterized.\\nPYROGENOUS ACIDS DERIVED FROM TAR-\\nTARIC ACID.\\nPyruvic Acid, C 3 H*0 3 CH 3 -CO-CO.OH.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This acid,\\nwhich is produced by the dry distillation of glycerol, tartaric\\nand pyrotartaric acids, is formed synthetically by the action of\\nconcentrated hydrochloric acid on acetyl cyanide.\\nCH* nm\\nCO.CN 2H2 CO CO.OH NH3\\nAcetyl cyanide. Pyruvic acid.\\nThis reaction determines the constitution of pyruvic acid, and\\nshows that it contains the group carbonyl, CO, like acetone,\\nCH 3 -CO-CH 3 All acids containing the group CO are called\\nhetonic acids.\\nPyruvic acid is a liquid, soluble in water, alcohol, and ether\\nits odor is like that of acetic acid. It boils at 165-170\u00c2\u00b0, being\\npartially decomposed into carbon dioxide and pyrotartaric acid.\\n2C 3 H 4 3 CO 2 C 5 H 8 4\\nPyruvic acid. Pyrotartaric acid.\\nWith sodium acid sulphite it forms a crystallizable compound,\\nan evidence of its ketonic nature, as is also its behavior to-\\nwards hydroxylamine and phenylhydrazine. With the latter\\nit gives a very characteristic hydrazone, CH 3 C(N 2 HC 6 H 5\\nCOOH.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0628.jp2"}, "627": {"fulltext": "CITRIC ACID. 621\\nUnder the influence of nascent hydrogen it yields ordinary\\nlactic acid.\\nCH 3 -CO-CO.OH H 2 CH 3 -CH.OH-CO.OH\\nMethyl-succinic, or Pyrotartaric Acid, C 5 H 8 4 .CH 3 -CH\\n(CO.OH)-CH 2 -CO.OH.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This acid, of which the mode of\\nformation has heen already indicated, is one of the four acids\\nof the formula C 5 H 8 0*, of which theory predicts the existence.\\nIt has been obtained synthetically by the action of boiling\\npotassium hydrate on propylene cyanide.\\nCH 3 CH3\\nCH.CN 4H20 CH-CO.OH 2NH 3\\nCH*CN CH*-CO.OH\\nPropylene cyanide. Pyrotartaric acid.\\nIt is prepared by rapidly distilling a dry mixture of tartaric\\nacid and pumice-stone.\\nIt crystallizes in small rhomboidal prisms, soluble in water,\\nalcohol, and ether. It melts at 112\u00c2\u00b0. When heated for a long\\ntime to about 210\u00c2\u00b0, it decomposes into carbon dioxide and\\nbutyric acid.\\nC 5 H s O CO 2 C*H 8 2\\nGlutaric Acid, CH 2 pg 2 ~pQQjj, is formed when tri-\\nmethylene cyanide, CH 2 .CN-CH 2 -CH 2 -CN, derived from\\ntrimethylene chloride, is boiled with potassium hydrate.\\nIt crystallizes in large clinorhombic tables, fusible at 97\u00c2\u00b0,\\nsoluble in 1.2 parts of water at 14\u00c2\u00b0. It distils almost unaltered\\ntowards 300\u00c2\u00b0 (Reboul).\\nCITRIC ACID.\\nC 6 H80*\\nThis acid, discovered by Scheele in 1784, is widely diffused\\nthroughout the vegetable kingdom. It exists in lemons, oranges,\\nlimes, currants, raspberries, cherries, etc.\\nIt may be advantageously prepared from lemon-juice, which\\nis allowed to stand until it begins to ferment, and is then filtered,\\nand saturated with chalk while boiling. The precipitate of\\ncalcium citrate is washed with boiling water, and decomposed\\nby a slight excess of dilute sulphuric acid. The liquid sepa-\\nrated from the calcium sulphate yields crystals of citric acid\\nafter concentration.", "height": "4798", "width": "2916", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0629.jp2"}, "628": {"fulltext": "622 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nGrimaux and Adam have made the synthesis of citric acid\\nfrom dichloracetone, CH 2 C1-C0-CH 2 C1, which is produced by\\nthe dehydration of a dichlorhydrin (page 588) by a mixture of\\npotassium dichromate and sulphuric acid. Like all of its ana-\\nlogues, this acetone combines directly with hydrocyanic acid,\\nyielding the cyanide\\nCH 2 C1\\nHO-C-CN\\nh\\nH 2 C1.\\nwhich by the action of alkalies or acids (hydrochloric acid\\nanswers best) yields the acid\\nCH 2 C1\\nHO-6-CO.OH\\nCH 2 C1\\nAn alcoholic solution of the sodium salt of the latter acid\\n(dichloroxisobutyric) heated with potassium cyanide furnishes\\nthe cyanide\\nCH 2 -CN\\nHO-C-CO.OH\\n6h 2 -cn\\nThis is saturated with hydrochloric acid gas, and a solution\\ncontaining citric acid is obtained, from which calcium citrate is\\nprecipitated when the liquid is neutralized with milk of lime.\\nCH 2 -CN CH 2 -CO.OH\\nHO-C-CO.OH 4H 2 HO-6-CO.OH 2NH 3\\nCH 2 -CN CH 2 -CO.OH\\nProperties. This acid forms large, colorless crystals, derived\\nfrom a right rhombic prism. It dissolves in three-fourths its\\nweight of cold and half its weight of boiling water.\\nFused potassium hydrate converts citric acid into oxalic and\\nacetic acids.\\nC 6 H 8 7 _[_ h 2 C 2 H 2 4 2C 2 H 4 2\\nThe solution of citric acid has an acid reaction and a very\\nsour taste. It does not precipitate lime-water in the cold, but\\nthe solution upon heating deposits a crystalline precipitate.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0630.jp2"}, "629": {"fulltext": "PYROGENOUS ACIDS DERIVED FROM CITRIC ACID. 623\\nCitric acid is tribasic.\\nMagnesium citrate, which is soluble, is employed in medi-\\ncine it is a purgative, having a sweetish taste. Ferric citrate\\nalso is used in medicine.\\nPYROGENOUS ACIDS DERIVED FROM CITRIC\\nACID.\\nAconitic Acid, C 6 H 6 6 When citric acid is heated, it\\nmelts; at 176\u00c2\u00b0 it disengages water and is converted into\\naconitic acid.\\nCIP-CO.OH CH2-CO.OH\\nHO-C-CO.OH C-CO.OH H20\\nCp2_co.OH CH-CO.OH\\nCitric acid. Aconitic acid.\\nAconitic acid was first obtained from aconite (Aconitum Na-\\npellus). It also exists in shave-grass (Equisetum fluviatile) and\\nin sugar-cane. It crystallizes in little scales, soluble in water,\\nalcohol and ether. It fuses at 191\u00c2\u00b0, and when further heated\\nit loses carbon dioxide, and is converted into itaconic acid aud\\ncitraconic anhydride.\\nC 6 H 6 6 CQ 2 C 5 H 6 4\\nItaconic and citraconic acids.\\nC 5 H 6 4 C 5 H 4 3 -f- IPO\\nCitraconic anhydride.\\nAconitic acid, being unsaturated, is converted by the action\\nof sodium amalgam into tricarballylic acid by combining with\\ntwo atoms of hydrogen.\\nCH-CO.OH CH2-CO.OH\\nC-CO.OH H2 CH-CO.OH\\nCH2-CO.OH CH2.CO.OH\\nAconitic acid. Tricarballylic acid.\\nThe latter acid is so named because it was first obtained by\\nthe hydration of allyl tricyanide, C 3 H 5 (CN) 3 corresponding to\\nallyl tribromide, or tribromhydrin (page 589).\\nItaconic, Citraconic, and Mesaconic Acids, C 5 H 6 0*.\u00e2\u0080\u0094\\nThese three acids are isomeric. The first two are formed by\\nthe action of heat on citric and aconitic acids and they both\\nare by dehydration converted into citraconic anhydride. Citra-\\nconic acid is converted into mesaconic acid when it is boiled\\nwith dilute nitric acid, or when heated to 100\u00c2\u00b0 with concen-", "height": "4794", "width": "2905", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0631.jp2"}, "630": {"fulltext": "624 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ntrated hydrochloric acid. The three acids are unsaturated,\\nand can combine with nascent hydrogen, forming pyrotartaric\\nacid.\\nC 5 H 6 4 R 2 _ C 5 H 8 4\\nItaconic acid crystallizes in rhomboidal octahedra, fusible at\\n161\u00c2\u00b0, soluble in seventeen parts of water at 10\u00c2\u00b0. When\\nstrongly heated it yields citraconic anhydride, which distils.\\nCitraconic acid crystallizes in quadratic tables, fusible at 80\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt is much more soluble in water than itaconic acid, and deli-\\nquesces in moist air. Its anhydride, C 5 H*0 3 is an oily liquid,\\nboiling at 213-21-4\u00c2\u00b0. On contact with water it regenerates\\ncitraconic acid.\\nMesaconic acid forms brilliant prisms, fusible at 202\u00c2\u00b0, only\\nslightly soluble in cold water. At 250\u00c2\u00b0 it decomposes into\\nwater and citraconic anhydride.\\nThe isomerism of citraconic and mesaconic acids is analo-\\ngous to that of maleic and fumaric acids, and is probably a\\ncase of stereoisomerism.\\nURIC ACID.\\n^NH\u00e2\u0080\u0094 CO-C-NH\\nCO II CO\\nNH C-NH\\nThis body is related to the complex organic acids which\\nhave just been studied. Among the numerous products de-\\nCOOH\\nrived from its oxidation, we may mention oxalic acid, i\\nCOOH\\nand an acid, CO(COOH 2 H 2 or C(OH) 2 (COOH) 2 which\\nhas been called mesoxalic.\\nUric acid was discovered by Scheele, and its numerous meta-\\nmorphoses were the subject of a classic research by Liebig and\\nWbhler, and have been more recently studied by Baeyer and\\nother chemists.\\nPreparation. Uric acid may be extracted from the excre-\\nments of serpents, from guano, and from certain urinary cal-\\nculi, which are almost entirely composed of it. These sub-\\nstances are reduced to a fine powder, boiled with potassium\\ncarbonate and lime, and the solution filtered. The colored\\nsolution of potassium urate is mixed with a solution of ammo-\\nnium chloride, which produces a white precipitate of ammonium", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0632.jp2"}, "631": {"fulltext": "URIC ACID. 625\\nurate. This salt is well washed, and treated with hydro-\\nchloric acid, which sets free uric acid.\\nUric acid may be obtained from guano by boiling that sub-\\nstance with an aqueous solution of borax (borax 1, water 120).\\nThe boiling solution is filtered, and after cooling is precipitated\\nby hydrochloric acid.\\nJ. Horbaczewski has made the synthesis of uric acid by\\nheating a mixture of urea and glycocoll to 200-230\u00c2\u00b0.\\n3CON 2 H 4 C 2 H 5 N0 2 C 5 H 4 X 4 3 3NH 3 2H 2\\nUrea. Glycocoll. Uric acid,\\nAccording to Behrend and Roosen, it is also obtained, and\\nin much larger quantity, by heating a mixture of isodialuric\\nacid, urea, and sulphuric acid.\\nProperties. Pure uric acid is a light, white powder, which\\nhas a crystalline aspect under the microscope. When slowly\\nseparated from dilute solutions, it sometimes forms larger crys-\\ntals, containing 2 molecules of water of crystallization. It is\\noften deposited from urine in small rhomboidal tables of a\\nbrownish-yellow color.\\nUric acid is insoluble in alcohol and in ether. It requires\\n15,000 parts of cold water, or 1800 parts of boiling water,\\nfor its solution. It dissolves in solutions of the alkalies, form-\\ning neutral urates containing two atoms of the alkaline metal.\\nIt is therefore a dibasic acid. When carbonic acid gas is\\npassed into a solution of a neutral urate, an acid urate, which\\nis almost insoluble, is precipitated.\\nHydrochloric acid forms a thick, white, gelatinous precip-\\nitate of uric acid when added to the solution of a urate.\\nWhen uric acid is heated to 160 or 170\u00c2\u00b0 with an excess of\\nhydriodic acid, it absorbs water, and is decomposed into glyco-\\ncoll, carbonic acid gas, and ammonia (Strecker).\\nC 5 H 4 N 4 3 5H 2 C 2 H 5 N0 2 3C0 2 3NH 3\\nUric acid. Glycocoll.\\nIf a small quantity of uric acid be gently heated with nitric\\nacid in a porcelain capsule, it is dissolved with a disengagement\\nof red vapors, and the solution, evaporated at a gentle heat,\\nleaves a residue which assumes a purple color on the addition\\nof a drop of ammonia.\\nThis test is characteristic of uric acid, and permits the de-\\ntection of the least traces of that substance. The purple body\\nformed is called murexide.\\n2b pp 53", "height": "4797", "width": "2907", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0633.jp2"}, "632": {"fulltext": "626 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nDERIVATIVES OF URIC ACID.\\nAmong the numerous compounds which may be derived from\\nuric acid, some are closely related to oxalic acid, or other acid\\ncontaining two carbon atoms others are derived from mesoxalic\\nacid (see farther on), which contains three carbon atoms. All\\nof these derivatives are more or less closely related to urea they\\nare substituted ureas, and are more specially designated by the\\nname ureides. Those related to mesoxalic acid are the more\\ndirect derivatives.\\nAlloxan, C 4 H 2 N 2 4 This body is one of the products of\\nthe oxidation of uric acid by nitric acid urea is formed at the\\nsame time.\\nC 5 HW0 3 H 2 C 4 H 2 N 2 4 CH 4 N 2\\nUric acid. Alloxan. Urea.\\nIt may be prepared by introducing uric acid, in successive\\nsmall quantities, into nitric acid of a density of 1.41-1.42, as\\nlong as it dissolves producing red vapors. The alloxan finally\\nseparates in a mass of delicate needles in about twenty-four\\nhours they are drained and dissolved in water at 60 or 65\u00c2\u00b0.\\nOn cooling, the alloxan separates in voluminous crystals con-\\ntaining 4 molecules of water of crystallization. They efflo-\\nresce in dry air.\\nWhen crystallized from a hot solution, alloxan forms rhombic\\noctahedra, containing but a single molecule of water.\\nIt is very soluble in water, and the solution is acid. By the\\naction of alkalies, baryta- water for example, alloxan is con-\\nverted into alloxanic acid, which is formed by the direct com-\\nbination of the elements of one molecule of water with alloxan.\\nC*H 2 N 2 0* H 2 C 4 H 4 N 2 5\\nAlloxan. Alloxanic acid.\\nThe alloxanates are decomposed by boiling into mesoxalic\\nacid and urea. Thus if a solution of alloxanic acid, or even\\nalloxan, be added to a boiling solution of lead acetate, a precipi-\\ntate of lead mesoxalate is formed.\\nC 4 H 4 N 2Q 5 h 2 C 3 5 H 2 CH 4 N 2\\nAlloxanic acid. Mesoxalic acid. Urea.\\nMesoxalic acid, C 3 3 (OH) 2 CO.OH-CO-CO.OH, is a\\ndibasic acid. According to Baeyer, its diatomic radical, mes-\\noxalyl, exists in alloxan itself, which is mesoxalylurea, that\\nis, urea in which two atoms of hydrogen are replaced by the\\ndiatomic radical (C 3 3", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0634.jp2"}, "633": {"fulltext": "DERIVATIVES OF URIC ACID. 627\\nco g=; co c3 3 co C2 2 co OH\\nUrea. Mesoxalyl-urea Alloxanic or\\n(alloxan). mesoxaluric acid.\\nDialuric Acid, C 4 H 4 N 2 4 is the product of the prolonged\\naction of hydrogen sulphide on a hot solution of alloxan or\\nalloxantin.\\nC 4 H 2 N 2 4 H 2 S C 4 H 4 X 2 4 S\\nAlloxan. Dialuric acid.\\nIt is also formed by the action of sodium amalgam on the\\nsame solutions.\\nIt crystallizes in long needles, quite soluble in water these\\ncrystals assume a red color in the air, and are gradually trans-\\nformed into alloxantin.\\nWhen a solution of alloxan is added to a solution of dialuric\\nacid, alloxantin is formed.\\nC 4 H 4 N 2 4 C 4 H 2 X 2 4 C 8 H*X 4 7 H 2\\nDialuric acid. Alloxan. Alloxantin.\\nBaeyer regards dialuric acid as tartronyl-urea. that is, urea\\nin which two atoms of hydrogen are replaced by the diatomic\\nradical of tartronic acid.\\nCO.OH\\nCH 0H co XH2 co XH co ^ro ro^ NH co \\\\PTioTT\\nTartronic acid. Urea. Alloxane. Dialuric acid\\n(tartronyl-urea).\\nBarbituric Acid, OH 4 N 2 3 This acid, which is malonyl-\\nurea, is formed by the action of nascent hydrogen on dibroni-\\nalloxane.\\nCO NHlcO CBr2 2H2 2HBr CO NH:cO CH2\\nDibromalloxaue. Barbituric acid.\\nIt crystallizes in large prisms, slightly soluble in cold and more\\nsoluble in boiling water. Ebullition with alkalies converts it\\ninto malonic acid and urea.\\nco nhIco CH2 2H2 CH2 co:oh co nh\\nMalonyl-urea. Malonic acid. Urea.\\nAlloxan, dialuric and barbituric acids, which have been de-\\nscribed, are ureides derived from a single molecule of urea by\\nthe substitution of the radical of a dibasic acid for two atoms\\nof hydrogen, The groups C 2 2 C 3 3 C 2 2 -CH.OH, C 2 2 -CH 2", "height": "4789", "width": "2907", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0635.jp2"}, "634": {"fulltext": "628 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nwhich in oxalic, mesoxalic, tartronic, and malonic acids are united\\nto two hydroxy Is, are diatomic.\\nCO.OH\\nCO.OH\\nCO.OH\\nCO\\nCH(OH)\\nCH2\\nCO.OH\\nMesoxalic acid.\\nCO.OH\\nTartronic acid.\\nCO.OH\\nMalonic acid.\\n^NH-CO.\\n^NH-CO 00\\nMesoxalyl-urea\\n(alloxan e).\\nco nh:co ch oh\\nTartroriyl-urea\\n(dialuric acid).\\nco nh:co chj\\nMalonyl-urea\\n(barbituric acid).\\nThe following compounds are diureides they are derived\\nfrom two molecules of urea in which four atoms of hydrogen\\nare replaced by two dibasic acid radicals, each of which contains\\nthree atoms of carbon and is related to mesoxalyl\\nAlloxantin, C 8 H 4 N 4 7 This body is produced by the re-\\nduction of alloxan. When a current of hydrogen sulphide is\\npassed through a cold solution of alloxan, sulphur separates,\\nand a crystalline precipitate of alloxantin soon forms.\\n2C 4 H 2 N 2 4 H 2 S C 8 H 4 N 4 7 H 2 S\\nAlloxan. Alloxantin.\\nAlloxantin is also formed directly, at the same time as\\nalloxan, by the action of weak nitric acid on uric acid. It\\ncrystallizes in small, colorless prisms containing 3 molecules\\nof water of crystallization. It is but slightly soluble in cold\\nwater. Nitric acid converts it into alloxan, and reducing agents\\ntransform it into dialuric acid.\\nPurpuric Acid and Murexide. Scheele had already ob-\\nserved murexide, which Prout studied and described as pur-\\npurate of ammonia. It is, indeed, the ammonium salt of a\\nnitrogenized acid, C 8 H 5 N 5 6 for which it is convenient to pre-\\nserve the name purpuric acid (Beilstein).\\nMurexide is formed by the action of ammonia on dry allox-\\nantin heated to 100\u00c2\u00b0, or again, when ammonia or ammonium\\ncarbonate is added to a hot solution of alloxantin or alloxan.\\nC 8 H 4 N 4 7 _|_ 2NH 3 C 8 H*(NIP)N 5 6 H 2\\nAlloxantin. Murexide (ammonium purpurate).\\nMurexide crystallizes in quadrangular prisms, or in tables\\nwhich are green by reflected and red by transmitted light.\\nThese crystals, which contain one molecule of water, present\\nthe magnificent metallic reflections shown by the wings of can-\\ntharides. They dissolve in water with a rich purple color.\\nAllantoic C 4 H 6 N 4 Q 3 This body was discovered in 1800,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0636.jp2"}, "635": {"fulltext": "DERIVATIVES OF URIC ACID. 629\\nby Vauquelin and Buniva, in the allantoic liquid of the cow,\\nthat is, the urine of the foetal calf. It occurs also in the urine\\nof young calves. In 1836, Liebig and Wbhler obtained it by\\noxidizing uric acid with lead dioxide. Gorup-Besanez has\\nobserved its formation in the action of ozone upon uric acid.\\nGrimaux has recently made the synthesis of allantoin by\\nheating one part of glyoxylic acid with two parts of urea, for\\neight or ten hours.\\nC 2 H 2 3 2(CH*N 2 0) C 4 H 6 N 4 3 2H 2\\nGlyoxylic acid. Urea. Allantoin.\\nFrom this remarkable synthesis, it appears that allantoin is\\nderived from two molecules of urea it is the diureide of gly-\\noxylic acid.\\nAllantoin may be prepared by boiling uric acid with water,\\nand adding lead dioxide, in small quantities, as long as that\\noxide continues to be converted into a white powder, which is\\nlead carbonate. The filtered liquid, freed from lead by hydro-\\ngen sulphide, yields crystals of allantoin on evaporation.\\nC 5 H 4 N 4 3 h 2 C 4 H 6 X 4 3 CO 2\\nUric acid. Allantoin.\\nAllantoin crystallizes in brilliant, colorless prisms. It dis-\\nsolves in 30 parts of boiling water and in 160 parts of cold\\nwater it is also soluble in alcohol, but is insoluble in ether.\\nIt forms crystallizable compounds with certain metallic oxides.\\nThe following compounds are ureides of oxalic and glycollic\\nacids\\nParabanic Acid, C 3 H 2 N 2 3 This body is formed by the\\naction of an excess of nitric acid on alloxan, which thus gives\\nup the elements of carbon dioxide.\\nC 4 H 2 N 2 4 CO 2 C 3 H 2 N 2 3\\nAlloxan. Parabanic acid.\\nParabanic acid forms thin, transparent prisms, which are\\nvery soluble in water. By boiling with acids, it is transformed\\ninto oxalic acid and urea. Baeyer regards it as oxalylurea.\\nco NH i\u00c2\u00b0\\nNH-CO\\nWhen parabanic acid is heated with ammonia, ammonium\\noxalurate is formed, and separates in fine needles. In this\\ncase the parabanic acid is converted into oxaluric acid by\\ndirectly combining with the elements of water.\\n53*", "height": "4789", "width": "2859", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0637.jp2"}, "636": {"fulltext": "630 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nC 3 H 2 N 2 8 H 2 C 8 H 4 N 2 0*\\nParabanic acid. Oxaluric acid.\\nIt is seen that oxaluric acid is related to parabanic acid, as\\nalloxanic acid is to alloxan.\\nHydantoin, or Glycolyl Urea. The relations between this\\ncompound and parabanic acid are the same as those between\\nglycollic and oxalic acids. It is glycolyl urea, C 3 H*N 2 2 and\\nis formed by the action of hydriodic acid on allantoin.\\nNH-CH 2\\nC 4 H 6 N 4 3 2HI CO i CON 2 0* I 2\\n^NH-CO\\nAllantoin. Hydantoin. Urea.\\nIt crystallizes in needles, fusible at 215\u00c2\u00b0, very soluble in hot\\nwater. Its solution is neutral. When hydantoin is heated with\\nbaryta-water, it is converted into hydantoic acid.\\nC 3 H 4 N 2 2 _j_ H 2Q _ C 3 H 6 N 2 3\\nHydantoin. Hydantoic acid.\\nHydantoic Acid, C 3 H 6 N 2 3 may be obtained synthetically\\nby heating urea with glycocoll ammonia is disengaged.\\nro /NH2 NH2 _ C0 r NH2 NH3\\nCU -NH2 CH2-CO.OH tU ^NH-CH2-CO.OH\\nUrea. Glycocoll. Hydantoic acid.\\nIndeed, hydantoic acid is formed by the replacement of one\\natom of hydrogen in urea by the group CH 2 -CO.OH, which is\\nacetic acid less one atom of hydrogen.\\nIt crystallizes in large, rhomboidal prisms, soluble in water.\\nIt is monobasic. When heated with hydriodic acid it is con-\\nverted into glycocoll.\\nC0 -NH 2 TT2Q _ C Q 2 Nfl3 NH\\nU ^NH-CH2-CO.OH MU UU CH2-CO.OH\\nHydantoin and hydantoic acid present evident relations with\\nparabanic and oxaluric acids.\\nNH-CO rn NH2\\nCO NH _^ t0 ^NH-CO-CO.OH\\nParabanic acid. Oxaluric acid.\\nC0 ivttt \u00c2\u00b0\u00c2\u00b0^NH-CH2-CO.OH\\nNH-CO\\nHydantoin. Hydantoic acid.\\nWe cannot further continue the study of the numerous de-\\nrivatives of uric acid. This study has already thrown much\\nlight upon the constitution of the acid, without definitely de-\\ntermining it. The syntheses indicated by Horbaczewski (page", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0638.jp2"}, "637": {"fulltext": "CREATINE CREATININE. 631\\n625), and by Behrend and Roosen, as well as more recent\\ninvestigations of E. Fischer, afford additional proof for the\\ncorrectness of the formula of uric acid given above.\\nDERIVATIVES OF GUANIDINE.\\nThere are interesting structural relations between urea and\\nguanidine the latter is urea in which the oxygen is replaced\\nby the imidogen group NH.\\ntU ^-NH 2 l M ^Xfl 2\\nUrea. Guanidine.\\nThis analogy is borne out in the guanidine derivatives corre-\\nsponding to the ureides just described.\\nHydantoin, or glycolyl-urea, corresponds to a glycolyl-guani-\\ndine which has been named glycocyamidine.\\n0C NH H2 HN=C NH CH2\\n^NH-CO ^NH-CO\\nHydantoin. Glycocyamidine.\\nHydantoic or uracetic acid corresponds to a guanidine acetic\\nacid called glycocyamine.\\nuv ^NH-CH2-CO.OH UJN L \\\\NH-CH 2 -CO.OH\\nHydantoic or uracetic acid. Glycocyamine or guanidine-\\nacetic acid.\\nGlycocyamine is formed by the mixture of aqueous solutions\\nof glycocoll and cyanamide.\\n^NH CH2-NH2 m -NIP\\nt vC HNsC^xiT riT2_PO OTT\\n^NH CO.OH ^JN\u00c2\u00b1l-b\u00c2\u00b1i -LU.un\\nCyanamide. Glycocoll. Glycocyamine.\\nOur space only permits the mention of these bodies, but we\\nmust describe their important homologues, creatine and creati-\\nnine, which have long been known.\\nCREATINE AND CREATININE.\\nCreatine results from the direct combination of cyanamide\\nand methylglycocoll (sarcosine), a reaction discovered by Vol-\\nhard, and entirely analogous to that which yields glycocyamine\\n(see above).\\nn/ ^NH CH2-NH(CH3) _ .NH2\\nC ^NH CO.OH HN=C N(CH3)-CH2-CO.OH\\nCyanamide. Methylglycocoll. Creatine.\\nCreatinine, or methylglycocyamidine, results from the dehy-\\ndration of creatine.", "height": "4782", "width": "2853", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0639.jp2"}, "638": {"fulltext": "632 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nNH2\\nN(CH 3 )-CH 2 -CO.OH\\nHN c Nr H n H 3u\u00e2\u0084\u00a2 2 _no ott H^O HN=C-NH-CO\\nN(CH3)-CH2\\nCreatine. Creatinine.\\nCreatine, C 4 H 9 N 3 2 H 2 0.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This body was discovered by\\nChevreul in meat broth. It exists ready formed in the muscles,\\nand passes into the extract of meat. It may be prepared by\\ntreating the solution of this extract with basic acetate of lead,\\nfiltering, freeing the filtrate from excess of lead by hydrogen\\nsulphide, and evaporating the solution at a gentle heat until it\\ncrystallizes. The crystals are separated from the mother-liquor,\\nand alcohol added to the latter precipitates a fresh quantity of\\ncreatine (Neubauer).\\nCreatine crystallizes in brilliant, colorless, oblique rhombic\\nprisms, containing one molecule of water, which they lose at\\n100\u00c2\u00b0, becoming opaque.\\nBy the action of acids or by long boiling with water, crea-\\ntine is converted into creatinine.\\nC 4 H 9 N 3 2 _ c 4 H 7 N s O H 2\\nCreatine. Creatinine.\\nWhen creatine is boiled with baryta-water, it is converted\\ninto sarcosine, ammonia being disengaged and barium carbon-\\nate precipitated at the same time. It is generally considered\\nthat the ammonia and carbon dioxide are produced in this case\\nat the expense of urea, which is formed directly by the decom-\\nposition of creatine.\\nC 4 H 9 N 3 2 H 2 _ c 3 H 7 N0 2 CH 4 N 2\\nCreatine. Sarcosine. Urea.\\nSarcosine is methylglycocoll (page 603), isomeric with lac-\\ntamide and alanine.\\nCreatinine, C 4 H 7 N 3 0. This body exists in muscular tissue\\nindependently of creatine. It may be precipitated from the\\nmother-liquor from which the latter body has deposited, by\\nadding an alcoholic solution of zinc chloride, which forms a\\ncrystalline combination with the creatinine.\\nCreatinine crystallizes in oblique rhombic prisms. It is much\\nmore soluble in alcohol than creatine. It has basic properties,\\nand forms a crystallizable compound with hydrochloric acid.\\nCreatine and creatinine have been found not only in the\\nmuscles, but in small quantities in the brain, blood, and urine.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0640.jp2"}, "639": {"fulltext": "ERYTHRITOL. 633\\nALCOHOLS OF HIGHER ATOMICITY.\\nThe only tetratomic alcohol of importance is erythritol,\\nand rhamnitol represents the pentatomic alcohols.\\nThe best characterized hexatomic alcohol is mannitol, a\\nsweet, crystallizable substance, which is extracted from\\nmanna. Glucose is related to mannitol, from which it differs\\nonly by two atoms of hydrogen. The constitution of man-\\nnitol may be expressed by the following formula\\nC 6 H u 6 _ c 6 H 8vi (OH) 6\\nIt appears from the experiments of Linnemann that various\\nsaccharine matters, possessing the composition C 6 H 12 6 fix H 2\\ndirectly under the influence of sodium amalgam and water,\\nand are converted into mannitol. The latter body is charac-\\nterized as a hexatomic alcohol by the property which it pos-\\nsesses of forming neutral compounds with 6 molecules of a\\nmonobasic acid, such as acetic acid. In other words, this\\nbody contains 6 hydroxyl groups, or six atoms of hydrogen\\ncapable of being replaced by 6 monobasic acid radicals.\\nSix isomeric alcohols of the composition C 6 H 14 6 are known,\\nand theory indicates the possible existence of fourteen.\\nERYTHRITOL.\\nC 4 H 10 O\u00c2\u00b1 C 4 H 6 (OH) 4\\nThis beautiful body was discovered in 1849 by Stenhouse,\\nwho found it among the decomposition products of erythric\\nacid or erythrin, a substance contained in certain lichens.\\nIn 1852, Lamy obtained from an alga, the Protococcus vul-\\ngaris^ a substance which he first named phycite, but which\\nhe afterwards recognized to be identical with erythritol.\\nPreparation. 3)e Luynes first extracts erythrin from a\\nlichen, the Rocella Montagnei, and decomposes it, while still\\nmoist, by slaked lime in closed vessels at a temperature of\\n150\u00c2\u00b0. Under these conditions, erythrin is decomposed into\\ncarbonic acid which is at once taken up by the lime, orcinol,\\nand erythritol, which are separated by crystallization, the\\norcinol being deposited first. The erythritol is purified by\\nwashing with ether, which removes a trace of orcinol.\\nProperties. Erythritol crystallizes in right square prisms.\\nThe crystals are hard, have a feeble, sweet taste, and are very", "height": "4797", "width": "2912", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0641.jp2"}, "640": {"fulltext": "634 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nsoluble in water, soluble in boiling absolute alcohol, and insol-\\nuble in ether. They melt at 126\u00c2\u00b0. Erythritol reacts with\\nthe acids, forming neutral bodies analogous to the ethers\\n(Berthelot).\\nWhen heated with a concentrated solution of hydriodic\\nacid, it is converted into secondary butyl iodide (de Luynes.)\\nC*H 10 O 7HI C 4 H 9 I 4H 2 3P\\nErythritol. Secondary butyl iodide.\\nMANNITOL.\\nC 6 H u 6 C 6 H 8 (OH) 6\\nThis body, discovered by Proust in 1806, exists in a great\\nnumber of vegetables. It is the most abundant constituent\\nof manna, a substance which flows from several species of ash,\\neither naturally or from incisions. It is prepared by dis-\\nsolving manna in distilled water, in which the white of an egg\\nhas previously been beaten up. The solution is boiled several\\nminutes and then filtered through a woollen cloth and allowed\\nto cool. The liquid then solidifies to a mass of crystals which\\nare purified by recrystallization after treatment with animal\\ncharcoal.\\nMannitol forms large, right rhombic prisms. Its taste is\\nsweet, and it is soluble in water and hot alcohol.\\nWhen heated with a concentrated solution of hydriodic\\nacid, it is reduced to a secondary hexyl iodide.\\nC 6 H 14 6 11HI CH3-CH2-CH 2 -CHI-CH2-CH 3 6H 2 51*\\nMannite. j8-secondary hexyl iodide.\\nIt forms a hexacetate, a hexanitrate, and a hexastearate.\\nBy oxidation with nitric acid it yields mannose, an aldehyde,\\nand fructose, a ketone.\\nThere are several stereoisomers of mannitol.\\nDulcitol, C 6 H u 6 which has been obtained from Madagas-\\ncar manna, exists in certain plants, such as Melampyrum\\nnemorosum and Evonymus europseus. It forms large, oblique\\nrhombic prisms, and is less soluble in water than mannitol\\nit is but slightly soluble in alcohol. It melts at 188.5\u00c2\u00b0. Like\\nits isomer, mannitol, it is reduced by hydriodic acid to a\\nsecondary hexyl iodide.\\nSorbitol, C 6 H u 6 obtained by J. Boussingault from the\\nfermented juice of the mountain-ash, is another isomer of\\nmannitol.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0642.jp2"}, "641": {"fulltext": "SUGARS, STARCHES, AND CELLULOSES. 635\\nIt forms small acicular crystals containing water of crys-\\ntallization. Hydriodic acid reduces it to normal secondary\\nhexyl iodide. Sorbitol has been obtained from glucose by\\nreduction.\\nPerseitolj C 7 H 16 7 or Mannoheptitol, is a heptahydric alco-\\nhol which occurs in the leaves and berries of Laurus persea,\\nand has been synthetically prepared from mannose it crys-\\ntallizes in microscopic needles, melting at 188\u00c2\u00b0.\\nSUGARS, STARCHES, AND CELLULOSES.\\nAmong the more widely distributed products of the vege-\\ntable kingdom must be included the various kinds of sugar,\\nstarch, the gums, and the matter of young vegetable cells, or\\ncellulose.\\nThese compounds contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in\\nsuch proportions that the oxygen is present in exactly sufficient\\nquantity to form water with the hydrogen. Their composition\\nis then expressed by the general formula C m (H 2 0) n If all of\\nthe oxygen and hydrogen were removed in the form of water,\\nonly carbon would remain. Hence the name hydrates of car-\\nbon, often applied to this class of bodies.\\nThey can be arranged in three different classes, of which\\nthe types are glucose, saccharose, and starch.\\nThe first of these, termed monosaccharides, comprises a\\nnumber of aldehyde alcohols (aldoses) and ketone alcohols\\n(ketoses) their molecules contain a carbonyl group (CO)\\nand several hydroxyl (OH) groups. According to the num-\\nber of oxygen atoms contained in the molecule, they are\\ndesignated trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, etc. The second\\nclass, embracing di- and tr (saccharides, may be considered to\\nbe ether-like anhydrides of the monosaccharides, formed by\\nthe condensation of two or more molecules of the latter, with\\nelimination of the elements of one or several molecules of\\nwater. Hydrolysis resolves them into their monosaccharide\\ncomponents. The known disaccharides are all derived from\\nthe hexoses according to the number of monosaccharide\\nmolecules that can be obtained from them, they are distin-\\nguished as hexobioses, hexotrioses, etc.", "height": "4795", "width": "2906", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0643.jp2"}, "642": {"fulltext": "636 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe polysaccharides, to which starch and cellulose belong,\\nare very different in their physical properties from the sugars\\nthey are non-crystalline and insoluble. They yield sugars\\nby hydrolysis, but their molecules are much more complex\\nthan those of the disaccharides.\\nMONOSACCHARIDES. DI- AND TRI-SACCHARIDES. POLYSACCHARIDES.\\nGlycerose, OWO* Saccharose, C^H^O Starch, (C6Hi0O5)n\\nErythrose, C4H 8 0* Lactose, C 12 H220 U Inulin, (C6H 05)\u00c2\u00bb +H20\\nArabinose, C^H^O* Maltose, C^H^O Glycogen, (C\u00c2\u00abHiOH )n\\nXylose, C H10O5 Isonialtose, C^HMO 11 Cellulose, (CSHioo^\\nRhamnose, C6H1205 Melitose, C^H^O Dextrin, (C6Hioo )n\\n(Mannose, C6H1206 Melizitose, C^H^O^ Gums, (C6Hi 05)n\\nAldoses^ Glucose, C6H1206\\n(Galactose, C6H1206\\nKetose Fructose, C G Hi20 6\\nARABINOSE.\\nC 5 H 10 O 3\\nThis is the sugar of gum. It is formed when arabin, or\\ngum arabic, is boiled with dilute nitric acid. It crystallizes\\nin brilliant rhomboidal prisms, fusible at 160\u00c2\u00b0. Its aqueous\\nsolution has a sweet taste and is dextrogyrate. It reduces\\ncupro-potassic solutions, but is not fermentable. By an inter-\\nesting but complicated process arabinose can be obtained from\\nglucose (Wohl).\\nXylose is stereoisomer^ with arabinose. It is obtained by\\nheating wood-gum with dilute sulphuric acid.\\nRhamnose, C 6 H 12 5 is another pentose. It contains a\\nmethyl group, and results from the hydrolysis of certain\\nglucosides.\\nMannose, C 6 H 12 6 CH 2 .OH-[CH.OH]*-CHO. Man-\\nnose was first obtained as a product of the oxidation of man-\\nnitol (Fischer). It has since been observed among the sub-\\nstances which result from the hydrolysis of certain naturally\\noccurring hydrates of carbon, such as reserve-cellulose. Man-\\nnose forms friable masses which are very soluble in water,\\ndifficultly soluble in alcohol, and insoluble in ether. It is\\ndextro-rotatory, and fermentable with brewer s yeast. With\\nphenylhydrazine it yields a characteristic and difficultly crys-\\ntallizable compound, C 12 H 18 N 2 2 melting at 195\u00c2\u00b0. With an\\nexcess of phenylhydrazine, it yields the same product as\\nglucose and fructose, normal phenylglucosazone. Nascent\\nhydrogen converts mannose into mannitol, and bromine water\\noxidizes it into mannonic acid. It must, therefore, be re-\\ngarded as the aldehyde of mannitol.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0644.jp2"}, "643": {"fulltext": "GLUCOSE. 637\\nGLUCOSE.\\nC 6 H 12 6\\nThis important body, which forms the solid and crystalliza-\\nble part of honey, exists in a great number of dried fruits, on\\nthe surface of which it forms a well-known white efflorescence.\\nIt is also found in the urine in the disease known as diabetes.\\nIt may be made artificially by the action of dilute sulphuric\\nacid on starch (Kirchhoff), or on cellulose (Braconnot).\\nPreparation. Glucose is prepared in the arts by the fol-\\nlowing process\\n6000 litres of water and 42 kilogrammes of sulphuric acid\\nare introduced into a large wooden trough, and the liquid is\\nheated by jets of superheated steam. When it is in full ebul-\\nlition, 2000 kilogrammes of starch suspended in 2000 litres\\nof warm water are allowed to run in gradually, and in thirty\\nor forty minutes the saccharification is complete. The sul-\\nphuric acid is then saturated with pulverized chalk, the insol-\\nuble calcium sulphate is separated, and the liquid concentrated\\nin boilers heated by steam until it marks 40 or 41\u00c2\u00b0 Baunie.\\nIt is then allowed to crystallize, and solidifies to an opaque,\\nyellowish, crystalline mass, which is glucose.\\nThe sulphuric acid has recently been replaced by hydrochlo-\\nric acid, which produces a whiter product. The small quantity\\nof calcium chloride formed does not prevent the crystallization\\nof the glucose.\\nProperties. This body crystallizes in small, white, rounded\\nmasses, agglomerated like cauliflowers. The crystals contain\\none molecule of water of crystallization (C 6 H 12 6 H 2 0).\\nThey remain unchanged in the air. They melt when heated\\non a water-bath, and lose their water at 100\u00c2\u00b0. Anhydrous\\nglucose, deposited from alcoholic solution, melts at 146\u00c2\u00b0.\\nGlucose dissolves in a little more than its own weight of\\nwater at 17\u00c2\u00b0. It is three times less soluble than cane-sugar,\\nand in solutions of equal concentration it is three times less\\nsweet. It is much less soluble in alcohol than in water.\\nThe solution of glucose rotates the plane of polarization to\\nthe right. The deviation caused by a recently-prepared solution\\ndiminishes after a time as much as fifty per cent. it varies with\\nthe concentration. The specific rotatory power at 20\u00c2\u00b0 is for the\\nyellow ray 4 X [\u00c2\u00ab]d +58.7\u00c2\u00b0 (Tollens).\\nWhen glucose is heated to 170\u00c2\u00b0, it loses the elements of\\n54", "height": "4793", "width": "2904", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0645.jp2"}, "644": {"fulltext": "638 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nwater and is converted into a colorless mass, not very sweet,\\nwhich has received the name glucosan.\\nC 6 H i2 6 c 6 H 10 O 5 H 2\\nGlucose. Glucosan.\\nGlucose forms true compounds with the bases. There is a\\nglucosate of calcium, C 6 H 10 Ca O 6 H 2 0. It is precipitated\\nwhen alcohol is added to a solution of calcium hydrate in an\\naqueous solution of glucose. The glucosates are not stable\\ncarbonic acid decomposes them, regenerating glucose.\\nIf potassium hydrate be added to a solution of glucose and\\nthe liquid be heated, it first becomes yellow, and then rapidly\\nassumes a deep-brown color. The same color is produced\\nwhen glucose is heated with calcium or barium hydrate.\\nOrdinary or cane-sugar does not produce this reaction, and\\ncan thus be distinguished from glucose.\\nThe action of lime on glucose gives rise to the formation\\nof a substance which forms beautiful crystals of the ortho-\\nrhombic type, and which Peligot called saccharin. It is\\ndextrorotatory ([\u00c2\u00ab]d +93.5\u00c2\u00b0). According to Scheibler,\\nit contains C 6 H 10 O 5 and is the anhydride of a saccharmic\\nacid, C 6 H 12 6\\nGlucose reduces various metallic solutions. Gold and silver\\nare precipitated by it from their solutions. If a solution of\\ncupric sulphate be poured into a solution of glucose, and\\npotassium hydrate be added, no precipitate is formed, but\\nthe liquid acquires a dark-blue color. On heating it, a red\\nprecipitate of cuprous oxide is formed.\\nThis reaction, which was discovered by Troemmer, is very\\nsensitive, and can be used for the detection of the smallest\\nquantities of glucose. In making the test an alkaline copper\\nsolution, known as Fehling s solution, is employed. It is\\nbest prepared by dissolving separately 34.6 grammes of crys-\\ntallized copper sulphate and 173 grammes of sodium and\\npotassium tartrate each in half a litre of water, and mixing\\nequal volumes of these solutions when the test is to be made.\\nThe quantity of glucose can be determined by titration with\\nthis solution, for one molecule of sugar reduces exactly five\\nmolecules of cupric oxide.\\nWhen a solution of glucose is heated with bismuth nitrate\\nand an excess of potassium hydrate, a black precipitate of\\nreduced metallic bismuth is formed.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0646.jp2"}, "645": {"fulltext": "FRUCTOSE, OR LEVULOSE. 639\\nGlucose is one of the aldoses, being at the same time a\\npentahydric alcohol and an aldehyde. Its constitution is\\nrepresented by the formula\\nCH 2 .OH-CH.OH-CH.OH-CH.OH-CH.OH-CHO\\nThis is deduced from the following facts acetic anhydride\\nconverts glucose into a pentacetyl derivative, showing it to\\ncontain five hydroxyl groups its reducing properties are due\\nto the presence of an aldehyde group, which is shown by its\\noxidation to gluconic acid, CH 2 OH-(CH.OH*).COOH, and\\nits reduction by nascent hydrogen to mannitol, a primary\\nalcohol, and further confirmed by its reactions with hydrox-\\nylamine and with phenylhydrazine. With one molecule of the\\nlatter reagent, it yields the hydrazone CH 2 .OH(CH.OH) 4\\nCH=N 2 H-C 6 H 5 but upon heating with an excess of phenylhy-\\ndrazine, phenylglucosazone, CH 2 .OH(CH.OH) 3 -C(N 2 HC 6 H 5\\nCH=N 2 C 6 H 5 is produced.\\nGalactose, C 6 H 12 6 This is one of the products of the\\naction of dilute acids and of certain ferments on lactose\\n(page 614). Galactose crystallizes in little masses, formed\\nby the agglomeration of small needles. It is less soluble in\\nwater than glucose, and deviates the plane of polarization to\\nthe right. It is fermentable, and readily reduces cupro-\\npotassic solutions. Nascent hydrogen converts it into dul-\\ncitol. Nitric acid oxidizes it with formation of mucic acid.\\nFRUCTOSE, OR LEVULOSE.\\nC 6 H 12 6 CH 2 OH-CH.OH-CH.OH-CH.OH-CO-CH 2 OH\\nBesides the glucose which effloresces on their surface after\\ndesiccation, many fruits contain another sugar, which strongly\\ndeviates the plane of polarization to the left. It is fructose,\\nformerly known as levulose.\\nFructose exists in inverted sugar (page 643). Many sweet\\nfruits contain inverted sugar among them are grapes 2 cher-\\nries, figs, gooseberries, etc.\\nThe extraction of fructose from inverted sugar of which\\nit constitutes one-half is a laborious procedure. Dubrunfant\\nrecommends the conversion of the sugars into their calcium\\ncompounds the fructosate of calcium is difficultly soluble\\nin water, while the glucosate is readily dissolved, A better", "height": "4792", "width": "2907", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0647.jp2"}, "646": {"fulltext": "640 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nmethod of preparing fructose consists in warming inulin with\\ndilute acids. For this purpose a few drops of sulphuric acid\\nare added to a solution of inulin in water and the liquid\\nheated gently for some time. The sulphuric acid is then\\nprecipitated with barium hydrate and the filtrate evaporated.\\nUpon adding a crystal of fructose, the fruit sugar separates\\nin colorless acicular crystals. It may be purified by recrys-\\ntallization from alcohol.\\nFructose thus obtained contains no water of crystalliza-\\ntion the crystals belong to the orthorhombic system. It\\nmelts at 95\u00c2\u00b0, and is readily soluble in water and in alcohol.\\nThe fructose contained in inverted sugar rotates the plane\\nof polarization to the left, and rather more strongly than\\nthe other component, glucose, turns it to the right for this\\nreason inverted sugar is slightly levorotatory.\\nA fructose which is optically inactive, but agrees in all\\nother respects with the natural product, has been artificially\\nobtained by E. Fischer. He has further succeeded in con-\\nverting this into mannose, glucose, and also in resolving it\\ninto its dextrorotatory and levorotatory modifications. Thus\\nthe synthesis of the most important natural monosaccharides\\nhas been accomplished.\\nFructose is directly fermentable. When heated to 170\u00c2\u00b0,\\nit loses the elements of water and is converted into levulosan.\\nC 6 H i2 6 c 6 H 10 O 5 H 2\\nLevulosan.\\nSorbinose, C 6 H 12 6 a substance which crystallizes in large,\\ntransparent rhomboidal octahedra, has been obtained from\\nthe berries of the mountain-ash by Pelouze. It appears to\\nbe stereoisomeric with the fructoses.\\nSACCHAROSE, OR CANE-SUGAR.\\nC 12 H 22Q11\\nExtraction. Ordinary sugar, which is widely distributed\\nin the vegetable kingdom, is extracted principally from sugar-\\ncane, sugar-maple, and beet-root. Fresh sugar-cane contains\\nabout 18 per cent, of sugar, and beet-roots from 12 to 16 per\\ncent.\\nCertain sweet fruits contain cane-sugar, independently of\\ninverted sugar. According to Buignet, such are apricots,\\npeaches, pine-apples, lemons, plums, and raspberries.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0648.jp2"}, "647": {"fulltext": "SACCHAROSE. 641\\nWe can only briefly indicate the processes which are em-\\nployed for the extraction of sugar from beet-root.\\nThe roots are washed, and reduced to pulp in a machine\\nprovided with a cylinder armed with teeth and having a rapid\\nrotary motion. This pulp is then strongly pressed in woollen\\nsacks by means of a hydraulic press, and the juice is imme-\\ndiately transferred to large boilers having double bottoms and\\nheated by steam, and milk of lime is added.\\nThis operation, which is called clarification, is intended not\\nonly to separate certain substances which form insoluble com-\\npounds with the lime, but to prevent the juice from becoming\\naltered by reason of its acidity. As the sugar itself dissolves\\na large quantity of lime, the latter must be got rid of. A cur-\\nrent of carbon dioxide is consequently passed into the solution,\\nand decomposes the saccharate of calcium. Another process\\nfor removing the excess of lime depends on the employment\\nof ammonium phosphate. Insoluble calcium phosphate is\\nformed, and the ammonia is disengaged on account of the high\\ntemperature at which the operation is conducted. By this\\nprocess the neutralization is more perfect.\\nThe liquid is then heated to about 95\u00c2\u00b0, and filtered through\\na layer of animal charcoal in grains it is then concentrated in\\nevaporating-pans heated by steam. When the syrup marks\\n25\u00c2\u00b0 Baume, it is again filtered through animal charcoal, and\\nthe concentration is finished in pans heated by steam, and in\\nwhich a vacuum is maintained during the evaporation. The\\ncooking of the syrup is thus carried on at a temperature not\\nabove 75 or 80\u00c2\u00b0, and these conditions assure a fine quality of\\nproduct and a good yield by preventing as much as possible\\nthe transformation of the sugar into uncrystallizable sugar.\\nWhen the syrup marks 42 or 43\u00c2\u00b0, it is run into cooling-\\npans, where it is continually stirred until the sugar is depos-\\nited in small crystals. These are distributed in moulds, which\\nconsist of terra-cot ta cones having a hole in the summit, which\\nfor the time is closed. These cones are placed in an oven\\nheated to 25\u00c2\u00b0, where the crystallization takes place when the\\nsyrup has solidified, the holes in the cones are opened and the\\nthick and colored mother-liquor is allowed to drain out it con-\\nstitutes molasses. The loaves of sugar, drained and dried, are\\ndelivered to commerce as crude or brown sugar.\\nFor some years an apparatus has been used for draining\\nand bleaching of crude sugars, which consists of a cylindrical\\nqq 54*", "height": "4795", "width": "2894", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0649.jp2"}, "648": {"fulltext": "642 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ncage having perforated metallic walls. It is put into rapid\\nmotion on its axis, and the molasses is expelled through the\\nperforated walls by centrifugal force. The apparatus is called\\nthe centrifugal drier.\\nRefining of Crude Sugar. The crude sugar is crushed,\\nsifted, and dissolved in about 30 per cent, its weight of water,\\nthe operation being conducted in a boiler heated by steam. 5\\nper cent, of animal charcoal is then thrown into the hot solu-\\ntion, and, after stirring, i per cent, of beef s blood is added.\\nThe latter coagulates in the liquid and envelops all of the sus-\\npended particles, uniting them in a scum which is easily re-\\nmoved. When the liquid becomes clear, it is drawn off and\\nfiltered. It is then passed through grained animal charcoal,\\nwhich completely decolorizes it. It is concentrated in vacuum-\\npans, from which it is drawn into a large copper vessel having\\na double bottom. It is continually stirred until crystallization\\ncommences, after which it is run into moulds, which are then\\nplaced in rooms heated to 20\u00c2\u00b0. After the crystallization is\\ncompleted, the syrup remaining liquid is allowed to drain out.\\nAt the termination of the draining, a creamy mixture of\\nwhite clay and water is poured on the surface of the sugar in\\neach mould, and the water of this broth slowly penetrates the\\nmass of sugar, liquefies the syrup which remains between the\\ncrystals, and carries it to the lower part of the mass. The clay,\\nhaving lost its water, contracts, dries up, and remains upon the\\ndecolorized sugar as a dry cake. It is removed, and a syrup\\nof white sugar is run into the whitened and porous loaf and\\nfills up all of the spaces when it solidifies in the oven.\\nThis operation, the object of which is the decolorizing of\\nthe sugar-loaves, is called claying. The clay broth may be\\nreplaced by syrup of white sugar, an operation which is called\\ndecoloring.\\nThe sugar solidified in the moulds is a compact, crystalline,\\nwhite mass, composed of little grains. It may be obtained in\\nvoluminous crystals by concentrating the syrup until it marks\\n37\u00c2\u00b0 Baume, and then exposing it for some days to a tempera-\\nture of 30\u00c2\u00b0 in copper vessels, across which threads are stretched.\\nThe sugar is deposited on the threads in large crystals known\\nas rock-candy.\\nProperties of Sugar. Sugar crystallizes in large, oblique\\nrhombic prisms, having hemihedral facettes. The crystals are\\nhard, anhydrous, and unalterable in the air. Density, 1.606.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0650.jp2"}, "649": {"fulltext": "SACCHAROSE. 643\\nIt dissolves in one-third its weight of cold water the solution\\nis thick, and is known as simple syrup. \u00c2\u00a3ugar is insoluble in\\nether and in cold absolute alcohol. Boiling absolute alcohol\\ndissolves a little more than one per cent. ordinary alcohol will\\ntake up more. The aqueous solution of sugar deviates the plane\\nof polarization to the right, ([a]D +66.5\u00c2\u00b0), at 20\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAt 160\u00c2\u00b0, sugar melts to a thick, transparent liquid, which\\nsolidifies to an amorphous, vitreous mass on cooling.\\nAVhen maintained for a long time at a temperature of 160\\nor 161\u00c2\u00b0, it breaks up into glucose and levulosan (Gelis).\\nC i2 H 22 n c 6 H 12 6 C 6 H 10 O 5\\nSaccharose. Glucose. Levulosan.\\nBetween 190 and 200\u00c2\u00b0 it loses the elements of water and is\\nconverted into a bitter, brown, amorphous mass, which is desig-\\nnated as caramel.\\nCane-sugar does not reduce alkaline copper solutions, and\\ndoes not react with phenylhydrazine.\\nInverted Sugar. By the action of dilute acids, sugar is\\nconverted, slowly in the cold and rapidly on boiling, into a\\nmixture, in equal proportions, of two isomeric sugars which\\nhave opposite rotatory powers they are glucose and fructose.\\nThe mixture is called inverted sugar.\\nC i2 H 22 n _j_ H 2 c 6 H 12 6 C 6 H 12 6\\nSaccharose. Glucose. Fructose.\\nThe same transformation is effected by the soluble matter\\nof yeast (Berthelot), and also, according to Buignet, by the\\naction of the peculiar ferments which exist in most fruits.\\nSugar only ferments after having first undergone this trans-\\nformation into inverted sugar by the action of the ferment.\\nNitric acid converts sugar into saccharic acid, C 6 H 10 O 8 and\\noxalic acid.\\nConcentrated sulphuric acid carbonizes it.\\nSaccharose resists the action of alkalies better than glucose.\\nIt forms with them and with the bases in general, definite com-\\nbinations known as saccharates.\\nIf a mixture of sugar and slaked lime be triturated with\\nwater and the whole be thrown upon a filter, the liquid which\\npasses through will be colorless and strongly alkaline. When\\nit is heated to ebullition, it changes into a solid mass which\\nagain becomes liquid on cooling. It is a solution of saccharate\\nof calcium, (C 12 R 22 O n 2 .3CaO. Alcohol precipitates from it the\\ncompound C 12 H 22 O n .CaO.", "height": "4761", "width": "2886", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0651.jp2"}, "650": {"fulltext": "644 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nAn excess of strontium hydrate precipitates cane-sugar\\ncompletely from a hot solution the resulting disaccharate,\\nC 12 H 22 O ll .2SrO, is readily decomposed by carbon dioxide into\\nsugar and strontium carbonate. Scheibler has founded a\\nprocess for extracting crystallizable sugar from molasses upon\\nthese reactions.\\nWhen sugar is fused with potassium hydrate, it disengages\\nhydrogen, and carbonate, oxalate, formate, acetate, and pro-\\npionate of potassium are formed.\\nWhen distilled with quick-lime, sugar is decomposed with\\nformation of carbon dioxide, water, acetone, and metacetone,\\nC 3 H 6 0, a liquid having a pleasant odor and boiling at 84\u00c2\u00b0.\\nSugar forms a crystalline compound with sodium chloride.\\nLACTOSE, OR MILK-SUGAR.\\nC 12 H 22()11 H20\\nThis sugar exists in solution in the milk of mammals, and is\\nextracted from the whey which remains after the manufacture\\nof cheese. It is only necessary to evaporate this liquid to\\ncrystallization.\\nMilk-sugar occurs in commerce in cylindrical masses, formed\\nof an agglomeration of crystals around a little stick which\\nserves as a nucleus. The crystals are colorless, hard, and creak\\nwhen crushed by the teeth. They are right rhombic prisms,\\nterminated by octahedral points. They contain one molecule\\nof water of crystallization which they lose at about 140\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThey dissolve in 6 parts of cold, and in 2 parts of boiling\\nwater. The solution turns the plane of polarization to the\\nright. The rotatory power of old solutions is [\u00c2\u00ab]d -f- 52.53\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWhen heated with nitric acid, lactose yields certain acids,\\namong which is one which is but slightly soluble in water,\\nand which is called mucic acid. It contains C 6 H 10 O 8 and is\\nstereoisomeric with saccharic acid, which is also produced by\\nthe oxidation of lactose by nitric acid. Moderate oxidation\\nwith bromine water converts lactose into lactobionic acid,\\nC 12 H 22 12 which upon warming with dilute acids yields\\ngalactose and gluconic acid.\\nWhen boiled with dilute sulphuric acid, milk-sugar is con-\\nverted into glucose and galactose.\\nMilk-sugar reduces cupro-alkaline solutions, but more\\nslowly than glucose.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0652.jp2"}, "651": {"fulltext": "MALTOSE. 645\\nWith phenylhydrazine it yields phenyllactosazone, C 2i H 32\\nN 4 9 yellow needles melting at 200\u00c2\u00b0. When exposed to the\\nair at summer heat, a solution of lactose in presence of calcium\\ncarbonate soon undergoes the lactic fermentation (page 647).\\nMALTOSE.\\nC 12 H- 2 O u H 2\\nThis name is given to the crystallizable sugar produced,\\ntogether with dextrin, by the action of diastase on starch.\\nIt may be prepared by digesting starch paste at 60\u00c2\u00b0 with a\\nsolution of diastase. The solution is precipitated by alcohol,\\nwhich separates the dextrin, filtered, the alcoholic liquid\\nevaporated to a syrupy consistence, more alcohol added, and\\nthe solution set aside to crystallize over sulphuric acid. Mal-\\ntose is a product of the incomplete hydration of starch.\\nMaltose forms masses composed of hard, white needles.\\nIt loses its water at 100\u00c2\u00b0. Its solution turns the plane of\\npolarization to the right. [a]D j-137\u00c2\u00b0. It reduces cupro-\\npotassic solutions, and when boiled with dilute acids is con-\\nverted into glucose. Maltose is directly fermentable. Heated\\nwith acetic anhydride and sodium acetate, it vields an octo-\\nacetyl derivative. C 12 H u 3 (O.CO.Cff) 8 and with an excess\\nof phenylhydrazine it gives phenylmaltosazone. C 24 H 32 X 4 9\\nIsoyyialtose. C 12 H*- 2 O n is formed by the action of hydrochloric acid\\nupon glucose, and from starch in presence of diastase. It has an\\nintensely sweet taste, and is dextrorotatory to about the same extent\\nas maltose. It is decomposed upon gentle heating, but does not\\nseem to be directlv fermentable.\\nMi/cose, or trehalose. C 12 H 22 O u 2H 2 0. was extracted by Mitsch-\\nerlich from the ergot of rye. and has been obtained by Berthelot\\nfrom a Turkish manna (irehala). It crystallizes in hard, rectan-\\ngular octahedra, gritty between the teeth, and having a sweet taste.\\nIt is strongly dextrogyrate. [a]D \u00e2\u0080\u0094199\u00c2\u00b0. It is distinguished from\\ncane-sugar by its ready solubility in boiling alcohol.\\nMelitose. or ra.lfinose. C 1S H 32 16 oH-O. was extracted by Berthe-\\nlot from Australian manna, a sweet exudation of the eucalyptus,\\nand is known to exist in sugar-beets. Being more soluble than\\nordinary sugar, it accumulates in the molasses. It crystallizes in\\nfine needles which lose their water of crystallization at 100\u00c2\u00b0, while\\nthe residue melts at 118\u00c2\u00b0. Melitose is powerfully dextrorotatory,\\n[a]D 104.4\u00c2\u00b0, a property which interferes with the estimation of\\nordinary sugar by polarimetry when both are present. It does not\\nreact with Fehling s solution, but is completely fermentable. On\\nhydrolysis, it yields fructose, glucose, and galactose.", "height": "4792", "width": "2886", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0653.jp2"}, "652": {"fulltext": "646 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nMelezitose, C^H^O\u00e2\u0084\u00a2 2H 2 0, was obtained by Berthelot from\\nBriancon manna, exuded by the larch (Pinus larix). It crystallizes\\nin monoclinic prisms, with two molecules of water, which it loses\\nat 108\u00c2\u00b0. It is dextrogyrate, [\u00c2\u00ab]d +94\u00c2\u00b0. It melts at 157\u00c2\u00b0. Its\\ncomplete hydrolysis yields only glucose.\\nFERMENTATION.\\nIf yeast be introduced into a tolerably concentrated solution\\nof glucose, and the liquid be exposed to a temperature between\\n20 and 30\u00c2\u00b0, bubbles of an incombustible gas will soon be dis-\\nengaged, and this gas will produce a cloud in lime-water. It\\nis carbon dioxide.\\nAfter the disengagement of gas has ceased, a small quantity\\nof alcohol may be obtained by distilling the liquid.\\nIn this experiment, the glucose disappears it is broken up\\ninto alcohol and carbon dioxide. The decomposition is effected\\nby yeast, and is called fermentation. The sugar is the fer-\\nmentable substance the yeast is the ferment.\\nThe ferment is an organized matter which develops and mul-\\ntiplies at the expense of the glucose. The latter, is directly at-\\ntacked by this being which lives at its expense, and undergoes a\\ncomplete decomposition, of which carbon dioxide and alcohol\\nare the principal products. The ferment plays an active part,\\nwhich was first suspected by Cagniard-Latour and Schwann,\\nand demonstrated by Pasteur.\\nAlcoholic Fermentation. The decomposition of glucose\\nunder the influence of yeast constitutes the alcoholic fermenta-\\ntion.\\nThe principal reaction is expressed in the following equa-\\ntion\\nC 6 H i2 6 _ 2C 2 H 6 2C0 2\\nGlucose. Alcohol.\\nIt is shown by the experiments of Pasteur, that only 94 per\\n;ent. of the quantity of glucose decomposed undergoes the\\nchange indicated by the above formula. The remaining 6 per\\ncent, are employed: 1, in the formation of small quantities\\nof higher alcohols, succinic acid, and glycerol 2, in the de-\\nvelopment of new yeast cells.\\nYeast is composed of a mass of cells or ovoid corpuscles,\\nhaving a diameter of y-^ of a millimetre, and arranged in\\nclusters (Fig. 129). Their walls are an elastic membrane,\\nand their contents are liquid or granular. They contain cellu-\\nlose, albuminoid matter, and mineral salts. When they are", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0654.jp2"}, "653": {"fulltext": "FERMENTATION.\\n647\\nintroduced into a substance which contains the materials neces-\\nsary for their development, they multiply rapidly. Pasteur has\\nmade decisive experiments on this point. He planted some\\nyeast cells in a solution of sugar to which he had added a small\\nquantity of an ammoniacal salt and some phosphates. The solu-\\ntion of sugar fermented, and the ferment developed by budding,\\nthe new cells absorbing the\\nammonia and the phosphates.\\nThey obtained from the sugar\\nthe matter necessary to form\\ncellulose, and from the ammo-\\nnia the nitrogen required for\\nthe elaboration of the albumi-\\nnoid matters. However, these\\nartificial conditions are not\\nthose which are best adapted\\nfor the propagation of the cells.\\nThe latter increase with ex-\\ntreme energy in liquids which\\ncontain, besides the yeast, glu-\\ncose, and a small quantity of\\nalbuminoid matter ready formed.\\nLactic Fermentation. This fermentation, of which the\\nconditions have already been indicated (page 597), is accom-\\nplished by the action of a peculiar ferment of vegetable char-\\nacter. It is formed of small round or elongated cells, very\\nshort, and isolated, or in masses. They are much smaller than\\nyeast cells, and constitute the lactic yeast of Pasteur. It only\\nacts upon glucose or lactose in a neutral or alkaline liquid.\\nHence the necessity of adding sodium carbonate or chalk to\\nthe liquid. The reaction consists in a splitting of the glucose\\nmolecule.\\nFig. 129.\\nC 6 H 12Q6\\nGlucose.\\n2C 3 H 6 3\\nLactic acid.\\nButyric Fermentation. This consists in the transforma-\\ntion of calcium lactate into butyrate, a transformation that is\\naccompanied by a disengagement of hydrogen. According to\\nPasteur, this fermentation is caused by a low organism which\\ncan live and thrive only in situations where its members can-\\nnot obtain free oxygen. Such is the energy of their respira-\\ntory functions that free oxygen kills them (Pasteur). They\\ndecompose oxidized bodies and assimilate the oxygen.", "height": "4771", "width": "2887", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0655.jp2"}, "654": {"fulltext": "648 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nWe have already considered the acetic fermentation. We\\nmay add that by the action of a certain ferment, glucose is\\nconverted into mannitol and a gummy matter, very soluble\\nin water, and which gives a viscous consistence to the fer-\\nmented liquid. This is called the viscous fermentation.\\nThere are many other kinds of fermentation, an exceed-\\ningly large number of carbon compounds being capable of\\ndecomposition in this manner the ferments are also very\\nnumerous, and the special fermentation undergone by a sub-\\nstance depends upon the peculiar ferment present.\\nFermented Beverages. The foregoing summary indi-\\ncations regarding fermentation may be supplemented by some\\ngeneral notions upon the fermented beverages wine and beer.\\nWine. It is universally known that wine is the product\\nof the fermentation of grape-juice. This juice contains in\\nsolution inverted sugar, small quantities of gummy matters,\\nvegetable albumen, a trace of fatty matters, coloring matters,\\nfree tartaric and malic acids, and various tartrates, princi-\\npally potassium acid-tartrate, or cream of tartar.\\nThe clarified wine which results from the fermentation of\\nthis juice consists of an aqueous solution of various products,\\nsome of which existed in the juice, and others which are the\\nresult of the transformation through which it has passed.\\nAmong the first are the mineral and vegetable salts of the\\njuice (in smaller proportion, because they are partly deposited\\nwith the lees), the gummy matter, a small quantity of fatty\\nand albuminoid substances, the coloring matters, free tartaric\\nand malic acids, and the tannin derived from the grape-stems\\nand from the skins and seeds.\\nAmong the substances which result from the fermenta-\\ntion are\\n1. Alcohol, which is the principal product.\\n2. Carbonic acid gas still wines retain but a small propor-\\ntion, the fermentation taking place entirely in open vessels, but\\nsparkling wines contain it abundantly under pressure, the final\\nfermentation having taken place in the bottle after corking.\\n3. Small quantities of aldehyde and acetic acid produced by oxi-\\ndation of the alcohol. The acetic acid reacts upon the alcohol con-\\ntained in the wine, forming acetic ether.\\n4. Glycerol and succinic acid, in small quantities (Pasteur).\\n5. Traces of compound ethers, which contribute to the bouquet\\nof the wine. Besides acetic ether, traces of a compound ether called\\ncenanthic ether have been found in wine it appears to be pelargonic", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0656.jp2"}, "655": {"fulltext": "FERMENTATION.\\n649\\nether, C 9 H 17 2 (C 2 H 5 Berthelot states the existence of but slightly\\nvolatile acid ethers (malic, tartaric) in wine.\\nThe following table indicates the quantities by volume of pure\\nalcohol contained in 100 volumes of various wines\\nCalifornia Port 22.00\\nMadeira 20.48\\nPort 20.22\\nSherry 18.00\\nSauterne (white) 15.00\\nCatawba 13.00\\nRhine Wines 11.11\\nCalifornia Riesling 11.20\\nChampagnes 11.00 to 18.00\\nStrong Clarets 8.00 to 12.00\\nLight Clarets 7.5 to 8.00\\nRed Burgundy 7.66\\nRed Macon 7.66\\nWhite Burgundy 7.83\\nBeer. Beer is a fermented beverage, made from a wort of\\ngerminated barley, and ordinarily rendered aromatic by hops.\\nLike all other cereals, barley contains a considerable proportion\\nof starch. During the germination, this starch is partially con-\\nverted into maltose by the action of a nitrogenized matter,\\nwhich is formed in the sprouting grains, and which is called\\ndiastase. In order to saccharify the barley, it is then first\\nnecessary to cause it to germinate, and for this purpose it is\\nmoistened with water, and kept for some time at\\na temperature of 14 or 15\u00c2\u00b0 the object of this\\noperation, called malting, is the development of\\nthe diastase necessary for the saccharification\\nof the starchy matter. When the sprout has\\nacquired about the same length as the grain\\n(Fig. 130), the germination is arrested by ex-\\nposing the malt to the action of a temperature \\\\\\\\/j\\nof about 50\u00c2\u00b0. The dry malt is then reduced\\nto a coarse powder, placed in a large vat, and Fig. 130.\\nbrewed for about three hours with water heated\\nto 50 or 60\u00c2\u00b0. In this operation, the diastase of the malt con-\\nverts the starch into dextrin and maltose, which dissolve, to-\\ngether with the other soluble principles of the grain.\\nThe sweet wort thus obtained is heated with hops, which\\nyield to it their essential aromatic oil. It is then properly\\ncooled and allowed to ferment in deep vats, into which a cer-\\ntain quantity of yeast produced in a previous operation is in-\\ntroduced at the same time. The alcoholic fermentation soon\\nbegins and goes on with great activity during a few days. As\\n2c 55", "height": "4787", "width": "2935", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0657.jp2"}, "656": {"fulltext": "650 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nsoon as it has ceased, the liquid can be delivered for consump-\\ntion. The quality of beer is better when the fermentation\\ntakes place at a low temperature.\\nBeer contains much water, free carbonic acid gas, alcohol (2\\nto 5 per cent.), variable quantities of saccharine matters, dex-\\ntrin, nitrogenized matters, extractive, bitter, and coloring mat-\\nters, essential oil, and various salts. Ale and porter are in\\nnature analogous to beer, but are relatively richer in alcohol\\nand nitrogenous and extractive matters.\\nSTAKCH.\\n(C 6 H 10 O 5 n\\nStarch is universally diffused throughout the vegetable king-\\ndom. It is especially abundant in the seeds of leguminous\\nplants and cereals, and in the potato.\\nExtraction. To extract starch from potatoes, they are re-\\nduced to pulp by means of a rasp, and the pulp is placed in a\\nsieve and washed by a stream of water. The water carries\\nwith it the fine granules of starch, while the torn cells of the\\npotato remain in the sieve. The starch gradually deposits\\nfrom the water, and collects in the bottom of the vessel, where\\nit settles, forming a cake from which the supernatant water\\nmay be separated by decantation.\\nStarch may be extracted from wheat by making a paste of\\nflour and kneeding it in a sieve under a jet of water the starch\\ngranules are carried with the water, and a soft, gray, elastic\\nmass remains in the sieve, constituting the nitrogenized matter\\nof the flour, or gluten.\\nAnother process, almost abandoned at present on account of\\nits offensiveness, consists in allowing the coarsely-ground grain\\nto putrefy. Putrefaction destroys the gluten, while the starch\\nresists decomposition.\\nPhysical Properties. Starch is a white powder, formed of\\ngranules which present an organized structure. Their size and\\nshape are variable (Fig. 131), their diameter being from 2 to 185\\nthousandths of a millimetre. Those of potato starch are larger\\nthan those of starch from grain. These granules are made up\\nof concentric layers, which are more dense as they are nearer\\nthe surface. It is easy to make this structure apparent by\\ncausing the granules to undergo a partial disintegration by the\\naction of hot water. They swell up, burst open, and separate\\ninto thin layers, as shown in Fig. 132.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0658.jp2"}, "657": {"fulltext": "STARCH,\\n651\\nChemical Properties. Starch is insoluble in water, alcohol,\\nand ether. Contact with water heated to 60 or 70\u00c2\u00b0 causes it\\nto swell up considerably, without dissolving. A semi-trans-\\nparent, gelatinous mass results, which is known as starch paste.\\nWhen starch is boiled with a large quantity of water and the\\nwhole is thrown on a filter, the liquid which passes is slightly\\nturbid, and constitutes an emulsion of starch. It contains\\nin suspension flakes of amylaceous matter small enough to\\npass through the filter. It also contains a small quantity\\nof soluble starch (see farther on).\\nIf a few drops of solution of iodine be added to the emul-\\nsion, a deep-blue color is at once produced. This blue color\\ndisappears when the liquid is heated to 90\u00c2\u00b0, and reappears\\non cooling. The compound contains about 18 per cent, of\\niodine, and is known as iodide of starch its constitution\\nis unknown. The reaction serves as a delicate test both for\\nstarch and iodine.\\nFig. 131.\\nFig. 132.\\nMetamorphoses of Starch Dextrin. When long heated\\nto 100\u00c2\u00b0 starch is converted into soluble starch, which yields a\\nblue color with iodine (Maschke).\\nBetween 160 and 200\u00c2\u00b0 it is converted into a body which is\\nvery soluble in water, and the solution of which is not colored\\nby iodine. This solution strongly turns the plane of polariza-\\ntion to the right hence the name dextrin given to this body,\\nwhich is regarded as isomeric with starch, (C 6 H 10 O 5 n A very\\nconcentrated solution of dextrin has the appearance of a solu-\\ntion of gum. It is used as a mucilage for labels and postage-\\nstamps, and for the preparation of immovable surgical dress-\\nings.", "height": "4794", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0659.jp2"}, "658": {"fulltext": "652 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nAlcohol added to a solution of dextrin precipitates the latter\\nsubstance in the form of flakes. Subacetate of lead does not\\nprecipitate dextrin, a character which permits the latter body\\nto be distinguished from gum arabic.\\nWhen starch is boiled with water containing a few per cent,\\nof sulphuric acid, it is first converted into dextrin, then into\\nglucose. It is generally considered that the dextrin is formed\\nby a simple molecular transformation of the elements of the.\\nstarch, and that the glucose is then produced by the simple\\nfixation of one molecule of water.\\nC 6 H 10()5 _|__ H 2 Q _ C 6 H 12Q6\\nStarch. Glucose.\\nAccording to Musculus, this is not the case but soluble\\nstarch is the result of a metameric transformation of starch,\\nand subsequently is converted into dextrin and glucose by a\\ntrue decomposition.\\n3C 6 H 10 O 5 WO C 12 H 20 O 10 C 6 H 12 6\\nStarch. Di-xtrin. Glucose.\\nBy the prolonged action of the acid, the dextrin itself is\\nconverted into glucose.\\nThe transformation of starch into dextrin and saccharine\\nmatter (maltose) takes place easily under the influence of a\\npeculiar ferment which is developed in grain during germina-\\ntion, and to which the name diastase has been given. It\\nmay be obtained by precipitating aqueous extract of malt by\\nalcohol.\\nIf starch be triturated with one and a half times its weight\\nof concentrated sulphuric acid, avoiding an elevation of tem-\\nperature, and the mixture be left to itself for half an hour and\\nalcohol then added, a substance is precipitated which is soluble\\nin water and assumes a rich blue tint by the action of iodine.\\nIt is soluble starch (Bechamp).\\nStarch dissolves abundantly in monohydrated nitric acid,\\nand water precipitates from this solution a white substance,\\nwhich, after washing and drying, constitutes xyloidin. It is\\nmononitrate of starch and is formed by the following reaction\\nC 6 H io 5 _|_ HNQ3 H 2 _|_ c 6 H 9 (N0 3 )0 4\\nStarch. Xyloidin.\\nXyloidin burns with deflagration when heated to 180\u00c2\u00b0.\\nA dinitrate has also been obtained.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0660.jp2"}, "659": {"fulltext": "INULIN GLYCOGEN GUMS. 653\\nINULIN.\\n(C 6 H 10 O 5 n H 2\\nThis body also is largely diffused throughout the vegetable\\nkingdom. It exists in the roots of the elecampane (Inula\\nhelenium), chicory, and Spanish chamomile, in the bulbs of\\ncolchicum, the tubers of the dahlia, in the Jerusalem arti-\\nchoke, etc. It may be extracted from the tubers of the dahlia\\nby reducing them to a pulp and washing the latter in a sieve\\nunder a stream of water. The milky liquid which passes\\nthrough deposits the inulin, which consists of granules analo-\\ngous to those of starch. It swells in cold water, in which it\\nis very slightly soluble. It is very soluble in boiling water,\\nwhich again deposits it in a pulverulent form on cooling. The\\naqueous solution turns the plane of polarization to the left.\\nIt is not colored blue by iodine, which communicates to it a\\nfugitive, yellow-brown tint.\\nBy long boiling with water, or by the action of dilute acids,\\ninulin is converted into fructose, and this reaction affords a\\nconvenient mode of preparing fruit-sugar.\\nGLYCOGEN.\\n(OH^O 5 11\\nThis body, isomeric with cellulose and starch, exists in the\\nanimal economy. Claude Bernard discovered it in the liver,\\nand afterwards in the placenta. It exists also in many organs\\nduring the foetal life. Nearly pure glycogen may be obtained\\nby adding a large quantity of crystallizable acetic acid to a cold\\nand concentrated decoction of liver. It is also precipitated\\nwhen alcohol is added to an aqueous decoction of liver. In a\\npure state, it is a white, amorphous powder. When dried in\\nthe air, it has the composition C 6 H 12 6 (E. Pelouze). At 100\u00c2\u00b0\\nit loses one molecule of water.\\nWith water it forms an opalescent liquid. Alcohol and\\nether do not dissolve it. Boiling with dilute acids converts it\\ninto glucose. Iodine communicates to it a violet or brown-red\\ncolor.\\nGUMS.\\nBy the names gums and mucilages are understood certain\\nsubstances existing everywhere in the vegetable kingdom, and\\nwhich dissolve or swell up in water, giving a mucilaginous\\n55*", "height": "4781", "width": "2921", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0661.jp2"}, "660": {"fulltext": "654 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nconsistence to the liquid. The gums proper are distinguished\\nfrom the mucilaginous substances, which are not really soluble.\\nBoth furnish mucic and oxalic acids when treated with nitric\\nacid. Hydrolysis decomposes them into hexoses and pentoses\\n(galactose, arabinose, xylose).\\nGum Arabic. Gum arabic is identical with Senegal gum.\\nIt flows naturally from different species of acacia. It dissolves\\nabundantly in cold water and is precipitated from its solution\\nby alcohol. Fremy considers that it is composed essentially of\\nthe calcium and potassium salts of an acid which he designates\\nas gnmmic acid (arabin).\\nWhen dried at 100\u00c2\u00b0, the latter body has the composition\\nindicated by the formula C 12 H 22 O n It is very soluble in\\nwater, and its solution rotates the plane of polarization to the\\nleft.\\nWhen heated to 120-150\u00c2\u00b0, it becomes insoluble in water\\nand is converted into metagummic acid. According to Fremy,\\nthe gum of cherry- and plum-trees is a mixture of gummates,\\nwhich are soluble in cold water, and insoluble metagummates.\\nThe metagummates are insoluble in water, but when boiled\\nwith that liquid are transformed into soluble gummates.\\nSubacetate of lead forms an abundant white precipitate in\\nsolutions of gum arabic.\\nWhen gum arabic is boiled with dilute sulphuric acid, it is\\nconverted into a mixture of two saccharine substances one is\\nuncrystallizable, the other crystallizes in large, colorless rhombic\\nprisms, having a sweet taste, and fusible at 160\u00c2\u00b0. It is called\\narabinose. It reduces the cupro-potassic solution and is not\\nfermentable.\\nGum Tragacanth. This gum flows from the Astragalus of\\nthe Levant and of Persia. Bassora gum is derived from a spe-\\ncies of cactus. Both contain a mucilaginous matter insoluble in\\nwater, but which swells up in that liquid, forming a transparent\\njelly. This matter is bassorin. With nitric acid, it yields much\\nmucic acid. When boiled with dilute sulphuric acid, it is readily\\nconverted into crystallizable glucose.\\nCELLULOSES.\\n(C 6 H 10 O 5 n\\nThe frame-work of plant tissues consists of a more or less\\ndelicate membrane which is a secretion of protoplasmic ac-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0662.jp2"}, "661": {"fulltext": "CELLULOSES. 655\\ntivity, and is known as the cell-wall. In the earlier stages\\nof its growth and development this consists of cellulose,\\n(C 6 H 10 O 5 n with a varying amount of water. Gradually,\\nhowever, it is transformed into bodies of more complex con-\\nstitution, the compound celluloses, and, at the same time,\\nmineral matters are deposited in it.\\nThe term cellulose does not denote a chemical individual,\\nbut a group of closely related isomers of similar properties.\\nCotton, hemp, flax, and the pith of certain trees consist\\nessentially of cellulose. Wood, cork, and mucilage are chiefly\\nmade up of the compound celluloses produced by the meta-\\nmorphosis of cellulose. All these bodies are permeated by\\nforeign substances, such as nitrogenous, coloring, and mineral\\nmatters the latter are found more or less modified in the\\nashes.\\nOld linen and cotton serve for the preparation of pure\\ncellulose. Such materials are boiled with a weak solution of\\npotassium hydrate, washed, and successively exhausted with a\\nsolution of chlorine, acetic acid, alcohol, ether, dilute hydro-\\nchloric acid, dilute hydrofluoric acid, and, finally, water, and\\ndried at 100\u00c2\u00b0. The undissolved residue is pure cellulose.\\nProperties. Cellulose is a diaphanous, white solid, of a\\ndensity of 1.5. It is insoluble in all simple solvents, but in\\npresence of certain metallic compounds it forms gelatinous\\nhydrates which are soluble in water. It dissolves completely\\nupon warming with concentrated aqueous solution of zinc\\nchloride, more rapidly and in the cold when a solution of\\nthe salt in strong hydrochloric acid is employed (Cross and\\nBevan). Another valuable solvent for cellulose is cupram-\\nmonium hydroxide dissolved in strong ammonia water\\n(Schweitzer s reagent) this rapidly converts cellulose into\\na hydrate, which is gradually dissolved in the blue liquid.\\nSalts of the alkali metals, acids, alcohol, etc., reprecipitate\\nthe hydrate.\\nWhen submitted to dry distillation, cellulose leaves a resi-\\ndue of carbon and yields numerous gaseous and liquid prod-\\nucts. The gas obtained by the distillation of wood is used for\\nilluminating purposes in some localities. The liquid product\\nordinarily separates into two layers, one of which is aqueous\\nand contains acetic acid, wood-spirit, acetone, etc. the other\\nis insoluble in water and constitutes wood-tar.\\nCellulose is readily attacked by cencentra-ted sulphuric", "height": "4800", "width": "2934", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0663.jp2"}, "662": {"fulltext": "656 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nacid the resulting viscous solution probably contains a com-\\npound of sulphuric acid and cellulose, and also various other\\nproducts resulting from a rapid disintegration of this sul-\\nphate. When the solution is diluted with water and boiled,\\nglucose is formed and sulphuric acid regenerated. Certain\\ncelluloses yield mannose instead of glucose.\\nC 6 H 10 O 5 H 2 C 6 H 12 6\\nCellulose. Glucose.\\nWhen paper is dipped into a cold mixture of sulphuric acid\\nwith half its volume of water, and is then carefully washed\\nand dried, a semi-transparent matter is obtained which has a\\ncertain rigidity, and is similar to parchment in aspect and\\ntoughness. This parchment paper is extensively used as a\\nsubstitute for animal parchment.\\nColloidal cellulose is formed by the action of sulphuric\\nacid of density 1.53 on cellulose, and forms with water a\\nmilky liquid which can be filtered. The action of sulphuric\\nacid or zinc chloride on cellulose produces a body analogous\\nto starch and called amyloid. Cellulose moistened with iodine\\ntincture and then treated with strong sulphuric acid becomes\\nblue. By treatment with acetic anhydride, cellulose has\\nbeen converted into the triacetate C 6 H 7 2 (C 2 H 3 2 3 and the\\ntetracetate C 6 H 6 0(C 2 H 3 2 4 and there are indications that\\nhigher acetates may exist.\\nGun-Cotton. When carded cotton is immersed for half a\\nminute in monohydrated nitric acid, and then rapidly washed\\nin a large quantity of water and allowed to dry in the air, a\\nsubstance is obtained which possesses all the exterior appear-\\nances of cotton, but is very inflammable and burns suddenly\\nwithout residue. It is gun-cotton, or pyroxylin, which was\\ndiscovered by Schonbein in 1847.\\nIn its preparation, the monohydrated nitric acid may be\\nadvantageously replaced by a mixture of one volume of fuming\\nnitric acid and three volumes of sulphuric acid. Pyroxylin\\nseems to be a mixture of dinitrocellulose and trinitrocellulose.\\nC 6 H io 5 C 6 H 8 3 (0-N0 2 2 C 6 H 7 2 (0-N0 2 3\\nCellulose. Dinitrocellulose. Triiiitrocellulose.\\nThese bodies are true nitric ethers, analogous to nitro-\\nglycerin. Alkalies decompose them into an alkaline nitrate\\nand cellulose.\\nGun-cotton looks like cotton, but is more harsh to the touch\\nand sometimes has a light yellowish tint. It burns with a", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0664.jp2"}, "663": {"fulltext": "GLUCOSIDES.\\n657\\nsudden flash, leaving no residue, and produces a great volume\\nof gaseous products consisting of carbon monoxide, carbon\\ndioxide, nitrogen dioxide, etc., and vapor of water. The tri-\\nnitrate is insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, chloroform, and\\nthe cupro-ammoniacal solution. The lower nitrates, how-\\never, are soluble in a mixture of ether and alcohol, and\\ncollodion is essentially such a solution it is much used in\\nsurgery and photography.\\nCelluloid, much used as a substitute for ivory, bone, and\\nhorn, is made by dissolving nitrocellulose in melted camphor,\\nto which resinous substances and coloring matters are some-\\ntimes added.\\nNitro-powders, largely used on account of their smokeless\\nexplosion, are prepared by gelatinizing finely divided gun-\\ncotton by means of a solvent such as ethyl acetate or acetone.\\nThe solvent is removed by pressure and evaporation, and the\\ngelatinous residue is cut into slices or pressed into suitable\\nform. Other substances are usually added to modify the\\nforce of the explosion.\\nGLUCOSIDES.\\nThe glucosides are complex compounds, which break up\\nunder various conditions, fixing the elements of water and\\nyielding glucose and other bodies, just as the compound ethers,\\nin fixing the elements of water, are decomposed into alcohols\\nand acids.\\nVarious immediate principles of vegetable origin can be\\nclassed as glucosides. We may mention particularly the fol-\\nlowing\\nGLUCOSIDES. FORMULAS. ORIGIN.\\nAmygdalin C 20 H 27 NO n bitter almonds.\\nSalicin C 13 H 18 7 willow and poplar bark.\\nPopulin C 20 H 22 O 8 bark and leaves of the aspen.\\nPhloridzin C 21 H 24 10 bark and roots of fruit-trees.\\nArbutin C 12 H 16 7 leaves of the A rctostaphylos uva in si.\\nEsculin C 21 H 2 *0 13 bark of India chestnut.\\nQuercitrin C 36 H 38 20 barkof Quercustinctoria (quercitron).\\nTannin C 34 H 28 22 oak-bark, nut-gall, etc.\\nAmygdalin, C 20 H 27 XO n This body is extracted from the\\ncake of bitter almonds, and it deposits from its alcoholic solu-\\ntion in crystals containing two molecules of water. Its aqueous\\nsolution allows it to crystallize in quite large crystals contain-\\ning three molecules of water*\\nrr", "height": "4786", "width": "2916", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0665.jp2"}, "664": {"fulltext": "658 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nAmygdalin is very soluble in water and in boiling alcohel.\\nIts aqueous solution rotates the plane of polarization to the\\nleft.\\nBy the action of dilute acids amygdalin is decomposed into\\nhydrocyanic acid, benzaldehyde (oil of bitter almonds), and\\nglucose.\\nC 2o H 27 NO n _j_ 2H 2 C 7 H 6 CHN 2C 6 H 12 6\\nAmygdalin. Benzaldehyde. Hydrocyanic Glucose.\\nacid.\\nThe same decomposition takes place by the action of water\\nand a peculiar ferment which is contained in both bitter and\\nsweet almonds, and which is called emulsin, or synaptase. It\\nis a nitrogenized matter, soluble in water, and only acts on\\namygdalin in presence of water. It is well known, indeed, that\\nbitter almonds only develop the odor of prussic acid when\\nmoistened with water.\\nSalicin, C 13 H 18 7 Salicin exists already formed in the bark\\nof the willow and poplar. Wohler discovered its existence in\\ncastoreum. It may be prepared by exhausting willow-bark\\nwith boiling water, concentrating the liquid and digesting it\\nwith litharge. The solution is then filtered and evaporated to\\na syrupy consistence the salicin deposits in a few days.\\nIt occurs in small scales, or brilliant needles, soluble in water\\nand alcohol and insoluble in ether. Its aqueous solution turns\\nthe plane of polarization to the left.\\nSalicin dissolves in sulphuric acid, forming a red liquid.\\nBy the action of a solution of emulsin (the nitrogenous mat-\\nter of almonds), it breaks up into a neutral body called salige-\\nninol, and glucose.\\nC i3 H i8 7 _j_ H 2 _ c 7 H 8 2 C 6 H 12 6\\nSalicin. Saligeninol. Glucose.\\nDilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acids decompose it by\\nthe aid of heat into saliretin and glucose. These bodies will\\nbe described farther on.\\nWhen salicin is fused with potassium hydrate, hydrogen is\\ndisengaged, and salicylic and oxalic acids are formed.\\nBy the action of a mixture of potassium dichromate and\\nsulphuric acid, salicin yields carbon dioxide, formic acid, and\\nan oxidized oil, which is salicylaldehyde, C 7 H 6 2 (Piria).\\nSalicin has been obtained synthetically (Michael).\\nPopulin, C 20 H 22 O 8 +2H 2 O.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Braconnot discovered this sub-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0666.jp2"}, "665": {"fulltext": "GLUCOSIDES. 659\\nstance in the bark and leaves of the aspen (Populus tremula).\\nTo extract it, those substances are exhausted with boiling water,\\nthe decoction is precipitated by subacetate of lead, filtered, and\\nthe filtrate evaporated to a syrupy consistence. On cooling,\\nthe populin is deposited as a crystalline precipitate. When\\nproperly purified, it occurs in very fine, silky, colorless needles.\\nIts taste is sweet; it is but slightly soluble in water, more\\nsoluble in alcohol. By the action of dilute acids, it is decom-\\nposed into benzoic acid, saliretin, and glucose the latter two\\nproducts result from the decomposition of salicin, so that popu-\\nlin appears to be a combination of benzoic acid and salicin.\\nC 20 H 2 2() 8 H 2Q _ C 7 H 6 2 _|_ QlSftKQl\\nPopulin. Benzoic acid. Salicin.\\nPhloridzin, C 21 H 24 10 2H 2 0.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This substance exists in\\nthe bark of apple, pear, plum, and cherry trees, and principally\\nin the roots of fruit-trees. It may be extracted by boiling the\\nroots with water, decanting the boiling solution, concentrating\\nit, and allowing it to stand in a cool place. The phloridzin\\ndeposits on cooling, and may be purified by recrystallization\\nafter decolorizing it with animal charcoal.\\nWhen pure, it forms colorless, silky needles, having a bitter\\ntaste, and an after-taste which is sweet. It is scarcely soluble\\nin cold water, but dissolves abundantly in boiling water and\\nin alcohol. The alcoholic solution turns the plane of polariza-\\ntion to the left.\\nDilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acids decompose it into\\nphloretin and glucose.\\nC 21 H 24 O 10 _|_ H 2 Q _ C 15 H H 5 _|_ C 6 H 12 6\\nPhloridzin. Phloretin. Glucose.\\nPhloretin is a white substance which crystallizes in little\\nscales, slightly soluble in water and very soluble in alcohol.\\nWhen phloretin is heated with potassium hydrate, it breaks up\\ninto plilo ret ic acid and phhroglucinol (page 696).\\nQ15JJHQ5 H 2Q C 9 H 10()3 _|_ C 6 H 6 3\\nPhloretin. Phloretic acid. Phloroglucinol.\\nTannin, or Tannic Acid, C 3 *H 28 22 The names tannins\\nand tannic acids are applied to certain slightly acid com-\\npounds which are largely diffused in the vegetable kingdom,\\nand which have two important properties they precipitate\\nsolutions of gelatin and albuminous matters, and produce a", "height": "4796", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0667.jp2"}, "666": {"fulltext": "660 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nbluish or greenish-black color with the ferric salts. The most\\nimportant of these compounds is the tannin of oak bark, or\\nquercitannic acid. It was formerly considered a glucoside\\naccording to Strecker, it yields glucose upon treatment with\\ndilute acids. More recent researches of Schiff render it\\nprobable, however, that pure tannin is digallic acid, C 14 H 10 O 9\\nthe anhydride of gallic acid (see page 713).\\nTannin exists in oak bark, in sumac, and in large quantities\\nin nut-galls, which are excrescences developed by the sting of\\nan insect on the leaves and branches of the Quercus infectoria.\\nIt is prepared by introducing coarsely-powdered nut-galls into\\na percolator, and exhausting them with ordinary commercial\\nether. The ethereal solution which passes through is collected\\nin a flask, and in the course of a day separates into two or\\nsometimes three layers. The lower layer is a very concen-\\ntrated, aqueous solution of tannin. It is separated and dried\\nin a hot-air oven. The tannin remains as a light, bulky mass,\\nhaving a yellowish color.\\nTannin is a colorless, amorphous solid, having a very astrin-\\ngent taste. It is very soluble in water, less soluble in alcohol,\\ninsoluble in pure ether.\\nIt melts when heated, and between 210 and 215\u00c2\u00b0 it dis-\\nengages carbon dioxide and yields pyrogallol, C 6 H 6 3 which\\nvolatilizes. A black residue remains (metagallic acid).\\nOn contact with the air, the aqueous solution of tannic acid\\nabsorbs oxygen, disengages carbon dioxide, and deposits gallic\\nacid. This transformation takes place more rapidly when oak\\ntannin is boiled with dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid.\\nC H4 H 28Q22 _J_ 4H 2 _ 4 C H 6 5 C 6 H 12 6\\nTannin. Gallic acid. Glucose.\\nA solution of tannic acid produces with ferric salts a bluish-\\nblack precipitate, which constitutes ink. Tannin does not color\\nferrous salts, but the mixture soon blackens on exposure to the\\nair by absorbing oxygen.\\nTannin is employed in medicine as an astringent. Nut-galls,\\nwhich are very rich in tannin, are used for the manufacture of\\nink. A good ink may be prepared by the following receipt:\\nOne kilogramme of powdered nut-galls is exhausted with 14 litres\\nof water the solution is filtered, and a solution of 500 grammes\\nof gum arabic is first added, then a solution of 500 grammes of\\nferrous sulphate (green vitriol). The mixture is well stirred up,\\nand then exposed to the air until it has acquired a fine black color.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0668.jp2"}, "667": {"fulltext": "ACIDS DERIVED FROM THE SACCHARINE BODIES. 661\\nACIDS DERIVED FROM THE SACCHARINE\\nBODIES.\\nBy moderate oxidation (careful treatment with bromine\\nwater) the sugars containing the aldehyde group are con-\\nverted into the corresponding monobasic acids. The most\\nimportant of these are mannonic acid, gluconic acid, and\\ngalactonic acid. They are derived from hexoses and have\\nthe composition C 6 H 12 7\\nWhen subjected to a more energetic oxidizing action (nitric\\nacid or excess of bromine water), the saccharoses and their\\ncorresponding monocarboxylic acids yield dibasic acids. Of\\nthese we may mention the four isomers represented by the\\nformula C 6 H 10 O 8 namely, mannosaccharic acid, saccharic\\nacid, mucic acid, and isosaccharic acid.\\nThe relations which exist between these acids and the\\nsugars from which they are derived afford valuable indica-\\ntions regarding the constitution of the hydrates of carbon.\\nMannonic Acid results from the oxidation of mannose.\\nIt forms a syrupy liquid which readily passes into a crystal-\\nline anhydride (lactone) by the loss of a molecule of water.\\nGluconic Acid is obtained from glucose by oxidation with\\nbromine water. It is stereoisomeric with the preceding.\\nUpon evaporation of its solution it remains as a syrup, which\\ngradually deposits crystals of its lactone.\\nGalactonic Acid corresponds to galactose, and may be\\nprepared from milk-sugar. It has been obtained crystallized\\nits lactone is also known.\\nMannosaccharic Acid is the dibasic acid resulting from\\nthe oxidation of mannose or mannonic acid. When its aqe-\\nous solution is evaporated, it loses two molecules of water and\\nis converted into the corresponding lactone.\\nSaccharic Acid is produced together with oxalic acid\\nwhen cane-sugar is oxidized by nitric acid. It is also formed\\nby the oxidation of sorbitose, glucose, and gluconic acid.\\nFree saccharic acid is a thick liquid, which solidifies upon\\nstanding owing to the formation of its lactone, C 6 H 8 7 The\\nacid potassium salt is sparingly soluble in cold water.\\nMucic Acid was discovered by Scheele in 1780. It is\\n56", "height": "4799", "width": "2922", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0669.jp2"}, "668": {"fulltext": "662 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nprepared by the oxidation of milk-sugar with nitric acid.\\nIt may also be obtained from dulcitol, galactose, and galac-\\ntonic acid. It forms a white crystalline powder which melts\\nat 213\u00c2\u00b0, and is but sparingly soluble in cold water. By boil-\\ning with water it is converted into a lactonic acid. By dry dis-\\ntillation it is converted into pyromucic acid, C 5 H 4 3 (p. 746).\\nPECTIC MATTERS.\\nThese bodies, of which the constitution is still obscure, are\\nlargely diffused in the vegetable world, notably in fleshy fruits\\nand in many roots. They remain in a gelatinous condition\\non evaporation of their aqueous solutions, from which they\\ncan be precipitated by alcohol. They are probably related\\nto the hydrates of carbon.\\nAROMATIC COMPOUNDS.\\nThe compounds of carbon which we have thus far con-\\nsidered may be regarded as derived from methane, CH 4 and\\nthe great majority of them may be obtained from this hydro-\\ncarbon by substitution or by synthesis. They constitute what\\nis known as the aliphatic or fatty series, and are sharply dis-\\ntinguished from another important and not less numerous\\nclass of organic compounds designated as the aromatic series.\\nThese latter are derived from benzene, C 6 H 6 a hydrocarbon\\noccurring in coal-tar, and they bear to this a relation similar\\nto that which exists between methane and its derivatives.\\nThe term aromatic is used because the first studied sub-\\nstances of this series were obtained from aromatic resins and\\noils. It is now recognized that an aromatic smell or taste\\nis not essential to these compounds, but the old name is still\\nretained we even speak of their aromatic character with\\nreference to their chemical behavior.\\nAs a rule the aromatic compounds contain a larger propor-\\ntion of carbon than the members of the fatty series never-\\ntheless, they generally behave like saturated compounds.\\nThey further differ from the aliphatic compounds in the\\nfacility with which they are modified by substitution, and\\nthe products of substitution exhibit many peculiarities which\\ndistinguish them from the marsh-gas derivatives.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0670.jp2"}, "669": {"fulltext": "AROMATIC COMPOUNDS. 663\\nSince the aromatic compounds are all derived from ben-\\nzene, a clear conception of the constitution of this funda-\\nmental body is of the utmost importance. It is just thirty\\nyears since (1865) this problem began to engage the atten-\\ntion of chemists, but in spite of the vast amount of work\\nthat has been done in this direction, it cannot be said that\\nan entirely satisfactory and conclusive solution has been\\nreached. We are chiefly indebted to Kekule and Baeyer for\\nthe theories which are now generally accepted as accounting\\nfor the peculiar character of the aromatic compounds. How-\\never, before we can proceed to discuss these theories, it is\\nnecessary that we acquaint ourselves with the principal facts\\non which they are based.\\n1. The hydrogen of benzene may be readily replaced by chlo-\\nrine, bromine, etc., by which monochlorobenzene, monobromo-\\nbenzene, dichlorobenzene, etc., are obtained.\\nC 6 H 6 C 6 H 5 C1 C 6 H 5 Br\\nBenzene. Monochlorobenzene. Monobromobenzene.\\nC 6 H 4 CP C 6 HW\\nDichlorobenzene. Dibromobenzene.\\nThese chlorides and bromides are analogous to the corre-\\nsponding compounds of the fatty series, but the chlorine or\\nbromine is much more strongly combined with the benzene\\nnucleus, and cannot be exchanged by double decomposition, as\\nis the case with ethyl bromide and ethylene bromide, etc.\\n2. By treatment with strong nitric acid, the hydrogen of\\nbenzene may be replaced by one or more groups (NO 2 form-\\ning the following compounds\\nC 6H6 C6H5-N0 2 C 6 H4 ^2\\nBenzene. Nitrobenzene. Dinitrobenzene.\\n3. The substitution of the group (NH 2 for one atom of\\nhydrogen produces phenylamine, or aniline that of two groups\\nNH 2 for two atoms of hydrogen yields phenylene-diamine.\\nC 6 H 6 C 6 H5-NH2 C6H 4 ^2\\nBenzene. Phenylamine (aniline). Phenylene-diamine\\nand its isomerides.\\n4. The amines of benzene result from the reduction of the\\nnitrobenzenes, but there are other products of the reduction of\\nnitrobenzene. They are the azo-derivatives, of which azoben-\\nzene, C 12 H 10 N 2 discovered by Mitscherlich, is the type. They", "height": "4796", "width": "2927", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0671.jp2"}, "670": {"fulltext": "664 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ncontain two nitrogen atoms (N=N), so united that each pos-\\nsesses one free atomicity which may be satisfied by a mona-\\ntomic group such as C 6 H 5\\nC 6 H 5 -N\\nC 12 H 10 N 2 J,\\nC 6 H 5 -N\\nBy the action of nitrous acid on aromatic compounds con-\\ntaining the group NH 2 peculiar explosive compounds are\\nformed. They are the diazo- derivatives, and contain likewise\\nthe group N=N one affinity, however, is satisfied by a mona-\\ntomic aromatic group, while the other combines it with some\\nother monatomic radical or element. Such is diazobenzene\\nchloride.\\nC 6 H 5 -N\\nii\\nCl-N\\nOnly a few diazo-compounds have been obtained in the\\nfatty series, and these are distinguished from the aromatic\\ndiazo-compounds by their inability to form salts with the\\nmineral acids. Azo-compounds appear to exist only in the\\naromatic series.\\n5. Concentrated sulphuric acid effects the displacement\\nof hydrogen in benzene by the group S0 3 H, sulphonic acids\\nbeing formed.\\nC 6 H 6 C 6 H 5 S0 3 H C 6 H\u00c2\u00b1(S0 3 H) 2\\nBenzene. Benzene sulphonic acid. Benzene disulphonic acid.\\nSulphonic acids exist also in the fatty series, but direct\\nsulphonation is a reaction characteristic of the aromatic\\ncompounds.\\n6. The replacement of one or more atoms of hydrogen by\\nthe same number of hydroxyl groups converts benzene into\\ncompounds known as phenols. They correspond to the alco-\\nhols of the saturated hydrocarbons, but, while the alcohols are\\nperfectly neutral, the phenols have acid characters, although\\nthey are neutral to litmus.\\nC 6 H*.OH C 6 H4 XS C 6 H 3 fOH\\nPhenol. Oxy phenol Dioxy phenol\\n(resorcinol and isomerides). (phloroglucinol and\\nisomerides.)\\n7. If one or more atoms of hydrogen in benzene be replaced\\nby as many methyl groups, CH 3 the higher homologues of\\nbenzene are obtained.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0672.jp2"}, "671": {"fulltext": "AROMATIC COMPOUNDS. 665\\nC\u00c2\u00abH 6 C 6 H 6 benzene.\\nC 7 H 8 C 6 H 5 -CH 3 toluene (methylbenzene).\\nPTT3\\nC 8 H 10 C 6 H 4 ^pTT3 xylene and isomerides (dimethylbenzenes).\\nCH 3\\nC 9 H 12 C 6 H 3 CH 3 inesitylene and isomerides (trimethylbenzenes).\\n^CH 3\\nC i2Hi8 C(CH 3 6 hexamethylbenzene.\\nOne ethyl group can replace one atom of hydrogen in\\nbenzene, and ethylbenzene, isomeric with dimethylbenzene,\\nresults.\\nC6H5-C2H5 C\u00c2\u00abH* ^3\\nEthylbenzene. Dimethylbenzene.\\nThere are many instances of such isomerism, and they re-\\nceive the same interpretation.\\nOne atom of hydrogen in benzene may be replaced by a\\npropyl group, C 3 H 7 and propyl benzene, which ia isomeric\\nwith trimethylbenzene, is the result.\\nOne atom of hydrogen may be replaced by an ethyl group\\nand another by a methyl group, and the new compound would\\nbe ethyl-methylbenzene, isomeric with propylbenzene and with\\ntrimethylbenzene.\\nCH 3\\nC6H -C 3 H7 C6H4 ^!?o 5 C6H 3 ^CH 3\\n111 ^CH 3\\nPropylbenzene (cumene). (Ethyl-meythelbenzene. Trimethylbenzene.\\nThe alcoholic radicals, which are thus substituted for the\\nhydrogen of benzene, constitute, according to the expression of\\nKekule, lateral chains, which are grafted, so to speak, on the\\nbenzene nucleus or principal chain.\\n8. The aromatic acids, properly speaking, result from the\\nsubstitution of one or more carboxyl groups, CO. OH C0 2 H,\\nfor one or more hydrogen atoms in the benzene nucleus.\\nC6H6 C 6 H5-C0 2 H C\u00c2\u00abH* \u00c2\u00a3q2h C 6 H 3 (C0 2 H) 3 C6(C0 2 H)6\\nBenzene. Benzoic acid. Phthalic acid Trimesic acid Mellitic acid.\\nand isomerides. and isomerides.\\n9. Isomerism of Constitution in Substituted Benzene De-\\nrivatives. In the homologues of benzene, the substitution of\\nCI, Br, OH, NH 2 C0 2 H, etc., for hydrogen, may take place\\neither in the benzene nucleus or in the lateral chain isomeric\\ncompounds are thus formed.\\na. By substitution of one atom of chlorine for an atom of\\nhydrogen in toluene, two isomeric compounds, C 7 H 7 C1, may be\\nobtained. In one, the chlorine will be attached to the lateral\\n56*", "height": "4799", "width": "2922", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0673.jp2"}, "672": {"fulltext": "666 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nchain in the other, it will be attached to the benzene nucleus,\\nas is the group CH 3 itself.\\nC6H5-CH3 C6H5-CH2C1 C6H4 CH3\\nToluene. Benzyl chloride. Chloro toluene.\\nb. The phenols result from the substitution of OH for an\\natom of hydrogen in the nucleus. If this substitution take\\nplace in a lateral chain, an aromatic alcohol, isomeric with the\\ncorresponding phenol, is obtained.\\nC 6 H5-CH3 C6H5-CH2(OH) C\u00c2\u00abH* \u00c2\u00a3g 8\\nToluene. Benzyl alcohol. Cresol.\\nc. The substitution of a carboxyl group, C0 2 H, for an atom\\nof hydrogen in the benzene nucleus of toluene, C 6 H 5 -CH 3 pro-\\nduces the aromatic acids, toluic acid, and its isomerides if,\\nhowever, the carboxyl replace a hydrogen atom in the lateral\\nchain, CH 3 iphenylacetic (alpha-toluic) acid, isomeric with\\nthe preceding acids, results.\\nC6H5-CH3 C6H* 3 H C\u00c2\u00abH\u00c2\u00bb-CHMX) 2 H\\nToluene. Toluic acids. Phenylacetic acid.\\nd. When two groups OH are substituted for two atoms of\\nhydrogen in the principal chain, oxyphenols are formed. If\\nthis substitution takes place in both the benzene group and in\\nthe lateral chain, phenol alcohols result.\\nC 6 H3^0H C 6 H* nS 2 H\\n0H OH\\nOrcinol. Saligeninol.\\ne. The substitution of the group NH 2 for one atom of\\nhydrogen in the principal chain, on the one hand, and in the\\nlateral chain, on the other, produces isomeric compounds.\\nC6H5-CH(NH2) C6H* c** 3 2\\nBenzylamine. Toluidine.\\n10. Isomerism of Position in Substituted Benzene Deriv-\\natives. In addition to the preceding isomerisms, the lateral\\nchains may be grafted at different points of the benzene nucleus\\nby substitution for the different hydrogen atoms. Their posi-\\ntions and their relative distances from each other are the causes\\nof numerous isomerisms, called isomerisms of position, to dis-\\ntinguish them from the isomerisms of constitution already\\nexplained.\\nIt is important to understand the principle of this isomer-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0674.jp2"}, "673": {"fulltext": "AROMATIC COMPOUNDS. 667\\nisin. Let us consider the most simple case, that in which\\ntwo atoms of hydrogen are replaced by two other monatomic\\natoms or monatomic groups. Such compounds are the di-\\nsubstituted derivatives of benzene, and experience has shown\\nthat there are three di-substituted derivatives of each kind.\\nThus there are three hydrocarbons containing two groups\\nCH 3 each substituted for one atom of hydrogen in benzene;\\nthree phenols, each containing two groups OH three acids.\\neach containing one group CO H. and one group OH. substi-\\ntuted each for one atom of hydrogen, and three acids, each\\ncontaining two carboxyl groups substituted for two atoms of\\nhydrogen.\\nTheory of the Constitution of Benzene. How then shall\\nwe account for the tenacity with which the six carbon atoms\\nof benzene and of the benzene nucleus of its derivatives are\\nheld together What explanation can be offered for the\\nisomerisms of the substitution products peculiar to the aro-\\nmatic series\\nAccording to a theory propounded by Kekule in 1S65. the\\n6 atoms of carbon in benzene form a closed chain, each being\\nbound to its neighbors, on one side by one. and on the other\\nby two bonds of saturation. One atom of hydrogen is\\nattached to each of these carbon atoms.\\nH\\nA\\nH-C C-H\\ni n\\nH-C C-H\\nV\\nH\\nBenzene.*\\nInnumerable experiments have shown that the chemical value\\nof each of the six hydrogen atoms of benzene is absolutely the\\nsame. If by the action of reagents one of these hydrogen atoms\\nbe replaced by another atom or group of atoms, it is a matter\\nof indifference which of the hydrogen atoms is so replaced,\\nthe product is always identical. This fact indicates that the\\nIn this formula, the connecting lines indicate the saturation of the\\natomicities the double lines indicate the exchange of two atomicities\\nbetween two neighboring atoms of carbon.", "height": "4774", "width": "2916", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0675.jp2"}, "674": {"fulltext": "668\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\narrangement of the hydrogen atoms is perfectly symmetrical\\nin relation to the carbon atoms around which they are\\ngrouped. In other words, the molecular constitution of ben-\\nzene must be (CH) 6 In consequence, each atom of carbon\\nmust be united to one atom of hydrogen, a requirement met\\nby Kekule s theory, and each carbon atom must be sym-\\nmetrically related to the other carbon atoms with which it is\\ncombined. The latter condition is not perfectly satisfied by\\nKekule s theory, for a carbon atom would exchange a double\\naffinity with its neighboring atom on one side, while with that\\non the other side it would exchange but a single atomicity. It\\nwould follow that the combination should be stronger on one\\nside than on the other, and the molecule would not be sym-\\nmetrical.\\nThis difficulty disappears in the following formula proposed\\nby Armstrong and by Baeyer, known as the centric formula\\nH-C\\nH-C\\nC-H\\nC-H\\nThe 6 carbon atoms are arranged at the angles of a hexa-\\ngon, as in the formula of Kekule, but instead of assuming a\\ndouble linking of alternate pairs of carbon atoms, we con-\\nceive the fourth affinity of each carbon atom to be directed\\ntowards the centre, but without actually connecting any two\\ncarbon atoms with each other. While thus augmenting the\\nstability of the molecule, the fourth affinity of each car-\\nbon atom is rendered latent. Although this arrangement\\nis the most satisfactory that has been proposed, it must be\\nadmitted that such a method of disposing of the valences\\nis without analogy in the compounds we have thus far con-\\nsidered.\\nIsomerism of Position. In the benzene molecule the posi-\\ntion of each atom of hydrogen is of the same value. It\\nwill be convenient to represent the formula by a simple", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0676.jp2"}, "675": {"fulltext": "AROMATIC COMPOUNDS.\\n669\\nhexagon and to number these positions as in the following\\ndiagram\\nAccording to Kekule and Baeyer.\\nExperiment has shown that if but a single atom of hydrogen\\nin benzene be replaced by another monatomic atom or group, the\\nresulting compound does not vary, and is incapable of isomerism.\\nThis is not, however, the case if two hydrogen atoms be re-\\nplaced, for theory then predicts, and experiment confirms, the\\nexistence of three isomeric compounds in each case. This\\nisomerism results from the different positions of one of the\\nsubstituted atoms or groups with relation to the other in their\\nattachment to the benzene nucleus. Let X and Y be the two\\nsubstituted monatomic atoms or groups, such as chlorine, hy-\\ndroxyl, nitryl, etc., then the isomerism would be expressed as\\nfollows\\nHC\\nCX\\nHC\\nCH HC\\nCY CH\\nCH\\nCH\\nThe position at 1 being always supposed to be occupied by\\none of the substituted groups, the compounds are named ortho\\nif the other replacement be at 2 or 6, meta if it be at 3 or 5,\\nand para if it be at 4. The relations of 2 and 6 to 1 are the\\nsame, as are also those of 3 and 5 to 1.\\northo\\northo\\nmeta\\nmeta\\npara", "height": "4789", "width": "2871", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0677.jp2"}, "676": {"fulltext": "670\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIn the preceding compounds formed by X and Y, these\\npositions would be marked as follows\\nC 6 H*\\nX(i)\\nY(2)\\nOrtho-derivative.\\nC6H*\\nX(i)\\nY(3)\\nMeta-derivative.\\nC 6 H* f{lj\\nPara-derivative.\\nThe following examples will further explain this isomerism\\nof position, of which we must study numerous cases.\\nORTHO-SERIES.\\nMETA-SERIES.\\nPARA-SERIES.\\nX(i)\\nc\\nHcf (3Y(2)\\nX(i)\\nc\\nHC CH\\nX(i)\\nc\\nH(f V CH\\nHC CH\\nC\\nOrthoxylene.\\nCH OH(2)\\nOrthocresol.\\nHC CY(3)\\nC\\nH\\nH CH3(3)\\nMetaxylene.\\nU M ^OH^)\\nMetacresol.\\nHC CH\\nC\\nY(4)\\nC H CH3(*)\\nParaxylene.\\nL M \\\\0H(*)\\nParacresol.\\nu ^OH(2\\nOrthodiphenol.\\n(pyrocatechin.)\\nn ^OH( 3\\nMetadipbenol.\\n(resorcinol\\nC6 H 4 0H\\nL H \\\\0H( 4\\nParadiphenol.\\n(hydroquinone.)\\nL M ^CO.OH(2)\\nOrthoxybenzoic acid.\\n(salicylic.)\\nH ^00.011(3)\\nMetoxybenzoic acid.\\nL H ^co.onc*)\\nParoxybenzoic acid.\\nc6H4 ^NH2(i)\\nn ^NH2(2)\\nOrthopbenylene\\ndiamine.\\nL H \\\\NH2(3)\\nMetaphenylene\\ndiamine.\\nC6 4 r NH2(i)\\nParaphenylene\\ndiamine.\\nC 6 H ^NH2(i)\\nn ^CO.OH(2)\\n\u00e2\u0080\u00a2rthoamidobenzoic acid.\\nn ^C0.0H(3)\\nMetamidobenzoic acid.\\nM ^CO.OH^)\\nParamidobeuzoic acid,\\nc6H4 /CO.OH(i)\\n^CO.OH(2)\\nPhthalic acid.\\nc6H4 ^C0.0H(i)\\nL M ^C0.0H(3)\\nIsophthalic acid.\\nC M \\\\C0.0H( 4\\nTerepbthalic acid.\\nThese indications will suffice to illustrate the class of isomer-\\nides under consideration. With the tri -substituted derivatives\\nof benzene, theory foresees and experiment has demonstrated\\nthe existence of still more numerous isomerides, but we cannot\\ndwell on them here.\\nTwo very important hydrocarbons are now considered as\\ndirectly related to benzene. They are naphthalene, C 10 H 8 and\\nanthracene, C U H 1(", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0678.jp2"}, "677": {"fulltext": "BENZENE.\\n671\\nNaphthalene is formed by the union of two benzene nuclei,\\ntwo atoms of carbon being common to each nucleus (Erlen-\\nmeyer).\\nAnthracene results from the union of two benzene nuclei by\\nthe intermediation of two carbon atoms, which are themselves\\ncombined together, each by one atomicity, and each of which\\nis combined with one atom of hydrogen (Graebe).\\nThese ideas are indicated in the following graphic formulae,\\nwhich express the reciprocal relations between the atoms of\\ncarbon and hydrogen, but not their real positions in space\\nH\\nA\\nHC CH\\ni ir\\nHC CH\\nV\\nH\\nH H\\nC C\\nHC C CH\\ni II i\\nHC C CH\\ny v\\nH H\\nBenzene. Naphthalene.\\nor their centric equivalents\\nCH\\nHC\\nHC\\nCH\\nCH\\nHC\\nHC\\nH\\nC\\nH\\nH C\\nHC C-C-C CH\\ni ii i ii i\\nHC C-C-C CH\\ni\\nC H C\\nH H\\nAnthracene.\\nCH\\nCH\\nCH\\nCH CH\\nNaphthalene\\nBENZENE AND ITS DERIVATIVES.\\nBENZENE.\\nC 6 H6\\nThis important body was discovered in 1825 by Faraday.\\nMitscherlich obtained it by heating benzoic acid with an\\nexcess of lime.\\nC 7 H 6 2 CO 2 C 6 H 6\\nIt is now obtained in large quantities from coal-tar by dis-\\ntilling the latter body. The more volatile products contain\\nthe benzene, which is purified by fractional distillation. That\\nwhich passes below 85\u00c2\u00b0 is principally benzene, and the latter\\ncrystallizes out when the liquid which passes between 80 and", "height": "4794", "width": "2934", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0679.jp2"}, "678": {"fulltext": "672 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\n85\u00c2\u00b0 is cooled to 5\u00c2\u00b0. The crystals are collected and sepa-\\nrated by pressure from the adhering liquid. The product is\\nbenzene containing a very small proportion of a compound\\nnamed thiophene (page 746), which may be removed by\\nrepeated agitation with strong sulphuric acid (V. Meyer).\\nBerthelot has made the direct synthesis of benzene by ex-\\nposing acetylene to a temperature near redness.\\n3C 2 H 2 C 6 H 6\\nAcetylene. Benzene.\\nBenzene is a colorless, strongly refracting liquid. At 0\u00c2\u00b0 it\\nsolidifies to crystals which melt at 5.5\u00c2\u00b0. It boils at 80.5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt is insoluble in water, but dissolves in alcohol and ether. It\\nis inflammable, and burns with a bright, smoky flame.\\nWhen benzene vapor is passed through a red-hot tube, di-\\nphenyl, C 12 H 10 is formed.\\n2C 6 H 6 C 6 H 5 -C 6 H 5 H 2\\nWhen heated to 275 or 280\u00c2\u00b0 for twenty-four hours with\\n80 to 100 parts of concentrated hydriodic acid, benzene is\\nconverted into hexahydrobenzene, C 6 H 12 (hexamethylene),\\niodine being set free. The formation of small amounts of\\nhexane, C 6 H U has been observed in this reaction.\\nCHLORINE AND BROMINE DERIVATIVES OF\\nBENZENE.\\nBy the action of chlorine or bromine on benzene, two sorts\\nof derivatives are obtained, addition products and substi-\\ntution compounds.\\nAddition Compounds. Two, four, or six atoms of chlorine\\nmay combine directly with benzene, forming the compounds\\nBenzene dichloride, C 6 H 6 C1 2\\nBenzene tetrachloride, C 6 H 6 C1*;\\nBenzene hexachloride, C 6 H 6 C1 6\\nThe last is easily formed by the action of an excess of chlo-\\nrine on benzene exposed to direct sunlight. It crystallizes in\\nbrilliant plates. There is a corresponding hexabromide, formed\\nin the same manner. Boiling potassium hydrate removes the\\nelements of three molecules of hydrochloric acid from benzene\\nhexachloride, converting it into trichlorobenzene.\\nC 6 H 6 C1 6 3HC1 -f C 6 H 3 CP\\nSubstitution Compounds, These compounds are numer-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0680.jp2"}, "679": {"fulltext": "CHLORINE AND BROMINE DERIVATIVES OF BENZENE. 673\\nous, and present interesting examples of isomerism. Only the\\nmono-, penta-, and hexa-derivatives have no isomerides.\\nMonochlorobenzene or phenyl chloride, C 6 H 5 C1, is obtained\\nby passing chlorine through benzene in the presence of a small\\nquantity of iodine. It is also formed by the action of phos-\\nphorus pentachloride on phenol hence the name phenyl chlo-\\nride.\\nC 6 H 5 .OH PCI 5 HC1 POC1 3 C 6 H 5 C1\\nChlorobenzene is a colorless, strongly refracting liquid,\\nhaving a pleasant odor, and boiling at 132\u00c2\u00b0. It is readily\\nprepared by heating diazobenzene chloride (page 687) with\\ncuprous chloride (Sandmeyer).\\nC 6 H 5 -N=N-C1 C 6 H 5 C1 N 2\\nDichlorobenzene, C 6 H 4 C1 2 There are three isomerides\\nOrtho-dichlorobenzene, C 6 H 4 p liquid, boiling at 179\u00c2\u00b0.\\nMeta-dichlorobenzene, C 6 H 4 pjU, liquid, boiling at 172\u00c2\u00b0.\\nPara-dichlorobenzene, C 6 H 4 piMy fusible at 56\u00c2\u00b0, and boil-\\ning at 173\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAmong the other chloro-derivatives we will mention only\\nhexachlorobenzene, C 6 C1 6 which is formed not only by the\\ncomplete chlorination of benzene, but also when vapor of\\nchloroform or of carbon tetrachloride, CC1 4 is passed through\\na red-hot tube. It is a crystallizable solid, fusible at 222\u00c2\u00b0,\\nand boiling at 332\u00c2\u00b0.\\nMonobromobenzene, C 6 H 5 Br, may be made by mixing ben-\\nzene and bromine in the proportion of one molecule of the\\nfirst to two atoms of the second, adding some thin iron wire,\\nand heating for several hours over a small flame. The prod-\\nuct is washed with caustic potash and distilled. A more\\nconvenient method is to warm diazobenzene bromide with\\ncuprous bromide. Monobromobenzene boils at 157\u00c2\u00b0. When\\nheated with sodium, it yields to the latter its bromine, and a\\nC 6 H 5\\nhydrocarbon C 12 H 10 I called diphenyl, is obtained.\\nDibromo-benzenes, C 6 H 4 Br 2 There are three isomerides.\\nThe para-derivative, C 6 H* t SJL is readily formed by the\\n2d ss 57", "height": "4790", "width": "2928", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0681.jp2"}, "680": {"fulltext": "674 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\naction of an excess of bromine on benzene. It crystallizes\\nin beautiful prisms, fusible at 89\u00c2\u00b0. It boils at 218\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIodine and fluorine derivatives of benzene are also known.\\nNITRO-DEBIVATIVES OF BENZENE.\\nNitrobenzene, C 6 H 5 (N0 2 If benzene be poured in small\\nportions into a mixture of strong nitric and sulphuric acids,\\nand water be added to the mixture, an oily, yellow liquid\\nseparates, constituting nitrobenzene.\\nC 6 H 6 HNO 3 H 2 C 6 H 5 (N0 2\\nIt is benzene in which one hydrogen atom is replaced by the\\ngroup (NO 2\\nNitrobenzene is a yellowish liquid, having a strong odor of\\nbitter almonds. It boils at 205\u00c2\u00b0, and solidifies at 3\u00c2\u00b0. It is\\nemployed in perfumery under the name essence of Mirbane.\\nBy the action of reducing agents, such as hydrogen sulphide,\\nammonium sulphide, tin and hydrochloric acid, or iron-filings\\nand acetic acid, nitrobenzene is converted into aniline or phe-\\nnylamine.\\nC 6 H 5 (N0 2 3H 2 2H 2 C 6 H 5 (NH 2\\nNitrobenzene. Aniline.\\nDinitrobenzenes, C 6 H 4 (N0 2 2 The three isomerides are\\nformed when benzene is treated with a large excess of a mixture\\nof nitric and sulphuric acids. The nitro-compounds separate\\non the addition of water, and are purified by crystallization in\\nalcohol. Metadinitrobenzene separates first, crystallizing in long\\ncolorless needles, fusible at 89.9\u00c2\u00b0. Reducing agents convert it\\nsuccessively into nitrophenylamine and phenylene-diamine.\\nC6H 4 N0 2 O c 6 H* N02 O W NH\\na ^N0 2 3 a ^NH 2 3 ^NH 2 3\\nMetadinitrobenzene. Metanitrophenylamine. Metaphenylenediainin\\nAZO-DEMVATIVES OF BENZENE.\\nBesides aniline, there are other products of the reduction of\\nnitrobenzene, and they are of great importance, for they have\\nbecome types of numerous analogous compounds. The first\\nwas described in 1834, by Mitscherlich, under the name of\\nazobenzide it is now called azobenzene.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0682.jp2"}, "681": {"fulltext": "AZO-DERIVATIVES OF BENZENE. 675\\nAzobenzene, C 12 H 10 N 2 is obtained by the action of sodium\\namalgam on an alcoholic solution of nitrobenzene.\\nC 6 H 5 .N\\n2C 6 H 5 .N0 2 4H 2 4H 2 n\\nC 6 H 6 .N\\nAzobenzene forms large red crystals, fusible at 66.5\u00c2\u00b0. It\\nboils at 293\u00c2\u00b0. It is only slightly soluble in water, but dis-\\nsolves readily in alcohol and ether.\\nAzoxybenzene, C 12 H 10 NO. This compound, which is a\\nproduct of the incomplete reduction of nitrobenzene, was dis-\\ncovered by Zinin. It is formed by boiling an alcoholic solution\\nof potassium hydrate with nitrobenzene. Under these conditions\\nthe alcohol is oxidized by the oxygen of the group NO 2\\nC 6 H 5 .N\\n2C 6 H 5 .N0 2 3H 2 3H 2 1 0\\nC 6 H 5 N\\nAzoxybenzene.\\nAzoxybenzene crystallizes in long needles, soluble in alcohol\\nand ether, insoluble in water. It melts at 36\u00c2\u00b0, and is decom-\\nposed when distilled. If heated with iron filings, it becomes\\nconverted into azobenzene.\\nHydrazobenzene, C 12 H 12 N 2 Alkaline reducing agents,\\nsuch as zinc dust and sodium hydroxide, and ammonium sul-\\nphide, in presence of alcohol, convert azobenzene into hy-\\ndrazobenzene.\\nC6H5-N\\nC 6 H5-NH\\nli\\nH2\\nC6H -N\\nC6H5-NH\\nAzobenzene.\\nHydrazobenzene.\\nThe latter body crystallizes in tables, fusible at 131\u00c2\u00b0, almost\\ninsoluble in water but soluble in alcohol and ether. When\\nsubmitted to dry distillation, it breaks up into azobenzene and\\naniline.\\nC 6 H 5 N.H C 6 H 5 .N\\n21 ,i ii 2C 6 H 5 .NH 2\\n(C 6 H 5 N.H C 6 H 5 .N\\nHydrazobenzene. Azobenzene. Aniline.\\nAcids convert hydrazobenzene into a basic isomeride, ben-\\nzidine, from which a number of valuable dye-stuffs (azo-dyes)\\nare derived.\\nC 6 H 5 N.H C 6 H*.NH 2\\nC 6 H 5 N.H C 6 H*.NH 2\\nHydrazobenzene. Benzidine.", "height": "4777", "width": "2916", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0683.jp2"}, "682": {"fulltext": "676 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nHydrazobenzene may be considered as derived from dia-\\nNH 2\\nmide, I by replacement of two hydrogen atoms by phenyl\\nNH 2\\ngroups. The aromatic hydrazines proper are the unsymmet-\\nrical derivatives resulting from the substitution of one or\\ntwo aromatic radicals for hydrogen in one NH 2 group.\\nC 6 H 5 .HN.NH 2 (C 6 H 5 2 N.NH 2\\nPhenylhydrazine. Di- phenylhydrazine.\\nPhenylhydrazine is obtained by reducing diazobenzene\\nchloride with sodium sulphite or stannous chloride.\\nC 6 H 5 N=rNCl 2H 2 C 6 H 5 -NH.NH 2 .HC1\\nIt is a colorless oil, solidifying upon cooling in tabular\\ncrystals which melt at 17.5\u00c2\u00b0. It boils at 241\u00c2\u00b0 with partial\\ndecomposition. The density at 23\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.097. Phenylhydra-\\nzine is sparingly soluble in water, but readily in alcohol and\\nether.\\nIt acts as a powerful base, forming salts with the acids.\\nIts property to react with aldehydes and ketones to form\\nhydrazones has made it a most important reagent for the\\ndetection and isolation of those bodies, especially the sugars.\\nAntipyrine and a number of dye-stuffs are derived from it.\\nBENZENESULPHONIC ACID.\\nC\u00c2\u00abH*-S0 2 .OH\\nAromatic compounds are readily acted upon by concen-\\ntrated or fuming sulphuric acid, the sulphonic group (S0 2 .OH)\\nreplacing one or several atoms of hydrogen.\\nThus, benzenesulphonic acid is formed in the following re-\\naction\\nC6H6 S0 2 mo C6H5.S0 2 .OH\\nIt is prepared by heating for a long time a mixture of\\nequal parts of benzene and concentrated sulphuric acid. The\\nliquid is then diluted with a large quantity of water, and\\nneutralized with barium carbonate. The concentrated solu-\\ntion then yields a barium salt, Ba(C 6 H 5 .S0 3 2 IPO, which\\ncrystallizes in pearly plates. From this salt the acid can be\\nliberated by the careful addition of sulphuric acid. It crys-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0684.jp2"}, "683": {"fulltext": "PHENOL, OR CARBOLIC ACID. 677\\ntallizes in small plates, soluble in water and alcohol. When\\nfused with an excess of potassium hydroxide, it yields phenol.\\nBenzene Sulphone, or Sulphobenzide, (C 6 H 5 2 S0 2 The\\nhydroxyl group in benzenesulphonic acid may be replaced by\\na phenyl group, and the compound so formed is called sulpho-\\nbenzide. It may be obtained by heating phenylsulphuric acid\\nwith phosphoric anhydride to 150\u00c2\u00b0 in sealed tubes, treating the\\nproduct of the reaction with a dilute alkaline hydrate, and crys-\\ntallizing the residue in alcohol. It crystallizes from water in\\nsilky needles, and from benzene in large rhombic prisms. It\\nmelts at 128\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCYANOBENZENE.\\n(phenyl cyanide, BENZONITRILE.)\\nC 6 H 5 .CN\\nThis body is formed in various reactions, particularly in the\\ndestructive distillation of hippuric acid, and by the dehydration\\nof benzamide by phosphoric anhydride.\\nC 6 H 5 -CO.NH 2 H 2 C 6 H 5 -CN\\nBenzamide. Benzonitrile.\\nIt is a colorless oil, which boils at 191\u00c2\u00b0. When heated with\\nthe alkalies, it yields benzoic acid and ammonia.\\nC 6 H 5 -CN 2H 2 C 6 H 5 -C0 2 H NH 3\\nBenzonitrile. Benzoic acid.\\nPHENOL, Oil CARBOLIC ACID.\\nC 6 H 5 .OH\\nThis body bears the same relation to benzene that wood-\\nspirit does to marsh gas it is hydroxy-benzene.\\nCH* CH3.0H\\nMethane. Methyl hydroxide.\\nC 6 H6 C6H5.0H\\nBenzene. Phenol.\\nIt was discovered in coal-tar by Runge, who named it car-\\nbolic acid. Laurent demonstrated that it plays the part of an\\nalcohol. Indeed, it presents points of resemblance with the\\nmonatomic alcohols, but it differs from them by its acid char-\\nacter, on account of which it is sometimes called phenic acid.\\nPreparation. Large quantities of phenol are obtained from\\ncoal-tar, from which it is separated by distillation. That part\\n57*", "height": "4798", "width": "2917", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0685.jp2"}, "684": {"fulltext": "678 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nwhich passes between 150 and 200\u00c2\u00b0 is collected apart and\\nmixed with a saturated solution of potassium or sodium hy-\\ndrate to which solid potassa or soda is added. A crystalline\\nphenate of potassium or sodium is formed it is dissolved in\\nboiling water, the insoluble oil which floats is separated, and\\nthe alkaline solution is neutralized with hydrochloric acid.\\nThe phenol separates it is washed with a small quantity of\\nwater, dehydrated with calcium chloride, and rectified. The\\ndistilled product is cooled to 10\u00c2\u00b0, and the crystals which are\\ndeposited are allowed to drain out of contact with the air.\\nPhenol may be made artificially from benzene by a process\\nwhich is applicable to the preparation of all the phenols. It\\nconsists in treating benzene with fuming or even ordinary\\nsulphuric acid. Benzenesulphonic acid is formed this is\\ndiluted with water to separate the excess of hydrocarbon,\\nand the solution is neutralized with chalk calcium phenyl-\\nsulphonate, which is soluble, and sulphate, which is insoluble,\\nare formed. The calcium benzenesulphonate is converted into\\nsodium salt by double decomposition with sodium carbonate,\\nand after evaporation and desiccation the product is fused\\nin a silver crucible with an excess of potassium hydroxide.\\nThe mass is exhausted with water, and the alkaline solution\\nis decomposed by hydrochloric acid. The phenol separates\\nand is dried and purified by distillation (Dusart, Wurtz,\\nKekule).\\nThe decomposition of sodium or potassium benzenesul-\\nphonate is expressed in the following equation\\nC 6 H 5 .S0 3 K KOH C 6 H 5 .OH K 2 S0 3\\nPotassium benzenesulphonate. Phenol. Potassium sulphite.\\nThere is another very simple synthesis of phenol. In pres-\\nence of aluminium chloride, benzene absorbs oxygen directly\\nand phenol is formed.\\nC 6 H 6 C 6 H 6\\nThis reaction is one of the most unexpected and most in-\\nteresting applications of a general method of synthesis discov-\\nered by Friedel and Crafts (see page 698).\\nPhenol is also formed by the dry distillation of the oxy-\\nbenzoic acids (page 709).\\nC 6 H* \u00c2\u00a3J 0H CO 2 C 6 H 5 .OH\\nOxybenzoic acid. Phenol.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0686.jp2"}, "685": {"fulltext": "PHENOL, OR CARBOLIC ACID. 679\\nProperties of Phenol. Phenol is a solid, crystallizing in\\nlong, colorless needles, having at 0\u00c2\u00b0 a density of 1.084. It\\nfuses at 42\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at 183\u00c2\u00b0. Its odor is peculiar and\\ncharacteristic, its taste acrid and burning. It is poisonous and\\nantiseptic. It is very soluble in alcohol, ether, and acetic acid,\\nand dissolves in 15 parts of water at 20\u00c2\u00b0. Its solution is\\ncolored dark violet by ferric salts, and bromine water forms, even\\nin very dilute solutions, a yellow precipitate of tribromophenol.\\nA. pine shaving moistened with hydrochloric acid assumes a\\nblue color when dipped in phenol and exposed to the air.\\nAlthough phenol is neutral to litmus-paper, it forms definite\\ncombinations with the alkalies. When it is mixed with a very\\nconcentrated solution of potassium hydrate, a crystalline mass\\nis obtained which constitutes potassium phenate, C 6 H 5 .OK.\\nThe same compound is formed, with disengagement of\\nhydrogen, by the action of potassium on phenol.\\nThe solubility of phenol in the alkaline hydrates is applied in\\nthe separation of this body from the neutral oils which accom-\\npany it. The property is common to the phenols, and indicates\\nthe slightly acid character of the class.\\nPhosphorus perchloride converts phenol into phenyl chloride,\\nidentical with monochlorobenzene.\\nC 6 H 5 .OH PCI 5 C 6 H 5 C1 POC1* HC1\\nPhenol. Phenyl chloride.\\nThe hydrogen of the radical C 6 H 5 in phenol can be readily\\nreplaced by chlorine, bromine, or groups such as NO 2 NO, XH 2\\netc. The compounds so formed may sometimes be obtained\\ndirectly, as the nitro-phenols, sometimes by indirect processes.\\nIn the presence of sodium, phenol directly combines with\\ncarbon dioxide, forming salicylic acid (page 709).\\nC 6 H 5 .OH CO 2 Na 2 C 6 H* j^ a 0Na H 2\\nSodium-salicylate of sodium.\\nThe following remarkable reaction of phenol was first noticed\\nby Reiroer and Tiemann. When it is heated with chloroform\\nand an excess of sodium hydrate, in the proportion of one\\nmolecule each of phenol and chloroform and four molecules of\\nalkali, it is converted into salicylaldehyde.\\nC 6 H 5 .OXa+3XaOH CHCl 3 C 7 H 5 2 Na+3NaCl+2H 2\\nSodium phenate. Sodium salicylite.\\nThe compound C 7 H 5 2 Xa is the sodium compound of sali-\\ncylaldehyde, into which it is converted by hydrochloric acid.", "height": "4771", "width": "2932", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0687.jp2"}, "686": {"fulltext": "680 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nETHERS OF PHENOL.\\nPhenyl Oxide, (C 6 H 5 2 0.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This body is formed, together\\nwith other products, by the dry distillation of copper benzoate.\\nIt crystallizes in long needles, fusible at 28\u00c2\u00b0. It boils at 246\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt is very soluble in alcohol and in water. It cannot be\\nreduced by either zinc or hydriodic acid.\\nC 6 H 5\\nMethylphenyl Oxide, or Anisol, prrs 0. Anisol was\\nfirst obtained by distilling anisic acid (page 712) with barium\\noxide or lime.\\nc6h 2S.oh cS c 3\\nAnisic acid. Anisol.\\nIt may be prepared more readily by synthesis in the reaction\\nof methyl iodide on potassium phenate.\\nC 6 H 5 .OK CH 3 I KI C 6 H 5 .OCH 3\\nIt is a colorless liquid, having an ethereal odor. Its density\\nat 15\u00c2\u00b0 is 0.1)91 it is insoluble in water, and boils at 152\u00c2\u00b0.\\nC 6 H 5\\nEthylphenyl Oxide, or Phenetol, rj2tj5 0, may be ob-\\ntained by a process analogous to the last method indicated for\\npreparing anisol. It is an aromatic liquid, boiling at 172\u00c2\u00b0.\\nPhenylsulphuric Acid is analogous to ethylsulphuric acid.\\nfeU OH bU OH\\nEthylsulphuric acid. Phenylsulphuric acid.\\nThe acid is not known in the free state, its potassium salt\\nis formed when potassium phenate is heated with an aqueous\\nsolution of potassium pyrosulphate, K 2 S 2 7 It exists in the\\nurine of herbivorous animals. If phenol be ingested, it appears\\nin the urine as potassium phenylsulphate (Baumann).\\nSUBSTITUTED DERIVATIVES OF PHENOL.\\nAmong the numerous compounds derived from phenol by\\nthe substitution of various elements or groups for the hydrogen\\nof the group C 6 H 5 we can only describe a few of the nitro-\\nand sulphonic compounds.\\nNO 2\\nMononitropheftols, C 6 H 4 qjj. There are three iso-\\nmeric mononitrophenols. Two of them, the ortho- and the", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0688.jp2"}, "687": {"fulltext": "SUBSTITUTED DERIVATIVES OF PHENOL. 681\\npara-, are formed by the action of dilute nitric acid on phenol.\\nThe meta-derivative is obtained by indirect processes.\\nC 6 H 5 .OH N0 2 .OH C 6 H 4 \u00c2\u00a3jg 2 H 2\\nOrthonitrophenol crystallizes in large yellow prisms, slightly\\nsoluble in water, fusible at 45\u00c2\u00b0, and boiling at 214\u00c2\u00b0. It is\\nreadily carried over with vapor of water, and may so be sepa-\\nrated from the para-isomeride.\\nMetanitrophenol is in yellow crystals, fusible at 96\u00c2\u00b0, and\\nquite soluble in water. It does not distil with vapor of water.\\nParanitrophenol deposits from its boiling aqueous solution\\nin long colorless needles, fusible at 114\u00c2\u00b0. They redden on\\nexposure to the air.\\nNascent hydrogen (tin and hydrochloric acid) converts the\\nmononitrophenols into amido-phenols.\\nU OH\\n/N.OH\\nNitrosophenol, or Quinonemonoxime, C 6 H 4\\nBy the action of potassium nitrite and acetic acid, phenol is\\nconverted into nitrosophenol.\\nThis compound is also formed by the action of hydroxyla-\\nmine upon quinone (see page 696), thus\\n/O /X.OH\\nC 6 H* i H 2 N.OH C 6 H* i H 2\\nNitrosophenol crystallizes from hot aqueous solutions in fine,\\ncolorless needles. It dissolves in water, alcohol, and ether,\\nforming pale-green solutions. It becomes brown on exposure\\nto the air, and explodes when heated to 110-120\u00c2\u00b0.\\nTrinitrophenol, or Picric Acid, C 6 H 2 (N0 2 3 .OH.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 When\\nphenol is boiled with concentrated nitric acid, it is converted\\ninto trinitrophenol.\\nCTEP.OH 3HN0 3 3H 2 C 6 H 2 (N0 2 3 .OH\\nThis body has long been known, and is generally called\\npicric acid. It deposits from boiling water in lemon-yellow,\\ncrystalline plates, only slightly soluble in cold water. Its taste\\nis very bitter. It has acid properties, the three groups NO 2\\nseeming to increase the basic nature of the hydrogen atom of\\nthe group OH. With bases it forms crystallizable salts which\\ndetonate with violence when heated.", "height": "4783", "width": "2899", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0689.jp2"}, "688": {"fulltext": "682 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nPotassium pier ate, C 6 H 2 (N0 2 3 .OK, crystallizes in long,\\nyellow needles, soluble in 14 parts of boiling water and in\\n250 parts at 15\u00c2\u00b0. It explodes violently when heated or\\nstruck.\\nPicramic Acid. When a current of hydrogen sulphide is\\npassed through an alcoholic solution of picric acid saturated\\nwith ammonia, sulphur separates and the picric acid is con-\\nverted into picramic acid (A. Girard).\\nC 6 H 2 (N0 2 3 .OH 3H 2 S 2H 2 S 3 C 6 H 2 (N0 2 2 (NH 2 )OH\\nPicric acid. Picramic acid.\\nThe hydrogen sulphide partially reduces the picric acid, and\\none of the three groups (NO 2 is thus converted into a group\\n(NH 2 Picramic acid is dinitro-amido-phenol, that is, phenol\\nin which two atoms of hydrogen are replaced by two groups\\n(NO 2 and a third atom of hydrogen by the group NH 2\\nWhen acetic acid is added to a hot aqueous solution of the\\nammonium salt of picramic acid, the picramic acid is deposited\\nin fine red needles, which melt at 170\u00c2\u00b0.\\nPhenol-sulphonic Acids. These bodies bear the same re-\\nlation to phenol that benzenesulphonic acid bears to benzene.\\nC6H6 C6H5.0H\\nBenzene. Phenol.\\nC6H5-S0 2 .OH C\u00c2\u00abH* 2 QH\\nBenzenesulphonic acid. Phenol-sulphonic acids.\\nC6H3 (S0 2 .OH) 2\\nPhenol-disulphonic acids.\\nOH\\nPhenol-sulphonic Acids, C 6 H 4 g Q 2 q^. The three\\nisomeric phenol-sulphonic acids are known. The ortho- and\\npara-compounds are formed when phenol is dissolved in con-\\ncentrated sulphuric acid. The first is formed in large quantity\\nin the cold, and is readily converted into the para-derivative by\\nheat. The excess of sulphuric acid is separated by neutralizing\\nwith chalk, removing the calcium sulphate by filtration, and\\ndecomposing the solution of the calcium salts with potassium\\ncarbonate. When evaporated, the solution first deposits potas-\\nsium para-phenolsulphonate in hexagonal plates, and the\\northo-phenolsulphonate afterwards crystallizes out in needles,\\ncontaining two molecules of water. The latter salt is very\\nsoluble in water if heated with an excess of potassium\\nhydrate it is converted into pyrocatechin (page 693).", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0690.jp2"}, "689": {"fulltext": "ANILINE, AMIDOBENZENE, OR PHENYLAJIINE. 683\\nC 6 H* \u00c2\u00b0K QK 2KOH K 2 SO s H 2 C 6 H*\\nPotassium phenolsulphonate Potassium compound\\nof potassium. of pyrocatechin.\\nThe ortho acid is used as an antiseptic (aseptol).\\nMetaphenohulphonic acid has also been isolated. It crys-\\ntallizes in fine needles, containing two molecules of water.\\nWhen heated with an excess of potassium hydrate it yields\\nresorcinol (page 693).\\nANILINE, AMIDOBENZENE, OR PHENYLAMINE.\\nC 6 H?N C 6 H 5 .NH 2\\nAniline was discovered by Unverdorben among the products\\nof the distillation of indigo, and was extracted from coal-tar by\\nRunge. It is now prepared artificially by a process discovered\\nby Zinin. This process consists in converting benzene into\\nnitrobenzene, and subjecting the latter to the action of re-\\nducing agents (see nitrobenzene).\\nIron and hydrochloric acid are advantageously used to\\naccomplish this reduction on a large scale in the laboratory\\ntin is generally substituted for the iron.\\nAniline is a colorless, mobile, highly-refracting liquid, having\\na peculiar, unpleasant smell, and an acrid, burning taste. Its\\ndensity at 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.036. It boils at 184.8\u00c2\u00b0. When exposed to\\nthe air, it becomes brown and is eventually resinified. When\\npure, it may be solidified by cold, and then fuses at 8\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAniline is almost insoluble in water, but mixes in all pro-\\nportions with alcohol, ether, and the fatty and volatile oils.\\nIt does not restore the blue color to reddened litmus-paper,\\nbut nevertheless possesses the character of a base, for it\\nforms well-defined salts with the acids.\\nReactions. 1. If a nitrate and sulphuric acid be added to\\naniline, a red color is produced.\\n2. If a few drops of aniline be poured into an excess of sul-\\nphuric acid, and a small quantity of potassium dichromate be\\nadded, a magnificent blue color is developed, which changes to\\nviolet on the addition of water.\\n3. A solution of calcium hypochlorite (chloride of lime)\\nadded to aniline produces a beautiful violet tint.\\n4. When a solution of an aniline salt is heated with cupric\\nchlorate, an intense black color is developed (Ch. Lauth).", "height": "4790", "width": "2926", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0691.jp2"}, "690": {"fulltext": "684 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThese reactions are applied in the arts in the preparation\\nof coloring matters of wonderful brilliancy. Among the\\nmore important of these are rosaniline or magenta and para-\\nrosaniline. which will be described farther on.\\n5. When aniline is added to a mixture of chloroform and\\nalcoholic potash, and heat is applied, the penetrating and\\ncharacteristic smell of phenylcarbylamine is noticed.\\nSalts of Aniline. These are obtained by saturating aniline\\nby the acids.\\nAniline hydrochloride C 6 H 7 N.HC1, forms colorless needles,\\nwhich are fusible, and can be distilled without alteration they\\nare very soluble in water and in alcohol. Platinic chloride pre-\\ncipitates from the solution fine yellow needles of a chloro-plati^\\nnate, (C 6 H 7 N.HCl) 2 PtCl 4\\nAniline oxalate, (C 6 H 7 N) 2 C 2 H 2 4 crystallizes from water in\\nhard, thick prisms. When heated, it loses the elements of\\nwater, and is converted into oxanilide.\\nrw ONH 3 (C\u00c2\u00abH 5 2H2Q C2Q2 NH.C H*\\nAniline oxalate. Oxanilide.\\nANILIDES.\\nBy the action of heat, the aniline salts lose the elements\\nof water, and form compounds which are analogous to the\\nacid amides, and which Gerhardt named an/Hides. When ani-\\nline acetate is heated, it is converted into acetanilide, which\\nis no other than acetamide in which an atom of hydrogen is\\nreplaced by a phenyl group, (C 6 H 5\\nL U ^NH2 L U NH.C6H\\nOxamide. Phenyl oxamide (oxanilide).\\nC 2 H 3 O.NH 2 C 2 H30.NH(C 6 F15)\\nAcetamide. Phenylacetamide (acetanilide).\\nAcetanilide is readily obtained by boiling equi-molecular\\nquantities of aniline and glacial acetic acid. It may be\\npurified by crystallization in boiling water.\\nIt melts at 114\u00c2\u00b0, is readily soluble in hot water and in\\nalcohol. Under the name of antifebrin, it is used in medicine\\nas an antipyretic.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0692.jp2"}, "691": {"fulltext": "DIPHENYLAMINE. 685\\nALKYL DERIVATIVES OF ANILINE.\\nThe alcoholic radicals may be substituted for one or both of\\nthe hydrogen atoms related to the nitrogen in aniline, thus\\nforming secondary and tertiary amines. Among these we will\\nonly consider methyl-aniline and dimethyl-aniline, which are\\nobtained in the arts by heating to 220\u00c2\u00b0 a mixture of aniline,\\naniline hydrochloride, and wood-spirit. The product contains\\nthe hydrochlorides of the methyl-anilines.\\nMethyl-Aniline, C 6 H 5 -NH(CH 3 is a colorless liquid, which\\ngradually becomes brown. Its density at 15\u00c2\u00b0 is 0.976, and it\\nboils at 190-191\u00c2\u00b0. By the action of nitrous acid on methyl-\\naniline, or, better, by the addition of methyl-aniline hydrochlo-\\nride to a solution of potassium nitrite, a thick oil, nitrosomethyl-\\naniline is obtained.\\nN^CH 3 NO.OH H 2 N^CH 3\\n\\\\H \\\\NO\\nIt is methylaniline in which the hydrogen atom of the group\\nNH is replaced by the nitrosyl group, NO.\\nAll of the secondary aromatic amines undergo analogous reac-\\ntions.\\nDimethyl-aniline, C 6 H 5 -N(CH 3 2 is an oily liquid, boiling\\nat 192\u00c2\u00b0, aod solidifying at 5\u00c2\u00b0. Its density is 0.945. When it\\nis submitted to the action of nitrous acid, the phenyl group\\nis attacked.\\n.C 6 H 5 7 C 6 H 4 .NO\\nN^-CH 3 -f NO.OH H 2 N^-CH 3\\n\\\\CH 3 \\\\CH 3\\nDimethyl-aniline. Nitrosodimethylaniline.\\nNitrosodimethylaniline, produced by this reaction, crystallizes\\nin green plates. It may be obtained by treating dimethyl-ani-\\nline hydrochloride with ethyl nitrite or amyl nitrite.\\nA number of valuable dyes, malachite green, for example,\\nare derived from dimethyl-aniline.\\nDIPHENYLAMINE.\\nC12HHN ^H5 NH\\nThis body is derived from ammonia by the substitution of\\ntwo phenyl groups for two atoms of hydrogen. It is formed\\nin various reactions, of which the most interesting was discov-\\n58", "height": "4782", "width": "2892", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0693.jp2"}, "692": {"fulltext": "686 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nered by Grirard and de Laire. It consists in heating aniline\\nhydrochloride to 256\u00c2\u00b0 with aniline. Ammonia is disengaged,\\nand diphenylamine hydrochloride is formed.\\nCW) C 6 H C 6 H5)\\nH N.HC1 H I N C6H5 N NH*C1\\nHJ Hj Hj\\nFree diphenylamine forms crystals fusible at 54\u00c2\u00b0. It boils\\nat 310\u00c2\u00b0. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves in alcohol,\\nether, benzene, and petroleum. Its odor recalls that of oil\\nof rose. Its basic character is not very pronounced, for its\\nsalts are readily decomposed by water.\\nWhen heated with a mixture of oxalic and sulphuric acids,\\nit yields a splendid blue color, soluble in water, and known\\nas diphenylamine blue (Grirard and de Laire).\\nWhen a trace of nitric acid is added to diphenylamine\\ndissolved in strong sulphuric acid, an intense blue color is\\ndeveloped. This is a delicate test for nitric acid.\\nDIAZOBENZENE COMPOUNDS.\\nNitrous acid exerts an energetic action upon aniline and\\nthe analogous bases it is indicated here because it presents\\na great generality and gives rise to remarkable bodies, dis-\\ncovered by P. Griess, and known as diazo-compounds.\\nWhen a current of nitrous vapors generated by the action\\nof nitric acid upon arsenic trioxide is passed into a saturated\\nsolution of an aniline salt, such as the nitrate, crystals of\\ndiazobenzene nitrate are deposited.\\nC 6 H 7 N.HN0 3 HNO 2 2H 2 C 6 H 5 N 2 .N0 3\\nAniline nitrate. Diazobenzene nitrate.\\nThis body is formed by the substitution of one atom of nitro-\\ngen for three atoms of hydrogen in aniline nitrate.\\nC6H -NH2.HN03 aniline nitrate.\\nC 6 H 5 -N=N-(N0 3 diazobenzene nitrate.\\nIt forms long, colorless prisms, very soluble in water, slightly\\nsoluble in alcohol, and insoluble in ether. It explodes violently\\nby heat or by percussion.\\nBesides this nitrate, there are other compounds of diazoben-\\nzene. They all contain the diatomic group N=N, combined", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0694.jp2"}, "693": {"fulltext": "DIAZOBENZENE COMPOUNDS. 687\\non one hand with phenyl, and on the other with chlorine,\\nbromine, or an oxidized group. The following formulae will\\nexplain their constitutions\\nC 6 H 5 -N=N.C1 diazobenzene chloride.\\nC 6 H 5 -N=N.Br diazobenzene bromide.\\nC 6 H 5 -N=N.N0 3 diazobenzene nitrate.\\nC 6 H 5 -N=N.S0 4 H diazobenzene sulphate.\\nThese compounds present several interesting reactions.\\n1. When heated with water, they disengage nitrogen, and\\nare converted into phenols.\\nC 6 H 5 N 2 .N0 3 H 2 C 6 H 5 .OH N 2 HNO 3\\n2. When they are boiled with absolute alcohol, they are re-\\nduced to hydrocarbons, nitrogen being disengaged and the\\nalcohol being transformed into aldehyde.\\nC 6 H 5 N 2 .HSO C 2 H 6 C 2 H*0 C 6 H 6 N 2 H 2 SO\\nDiazobenzene sulphate. Aldehyde. Benzene.\\n3. When warmed with cuprous salts, diazo-compounds give\\noff nitrogen gas and are converted into substitution products\\nof benzene.\\nC 6 H 5 -N=N.Br C 6 H 5 .Br N 2\\nIt is thus possible to replace the NH 2 group in aromatic\\ncompounds by the halogens or cyanogen. This is known as\\nSandmeyer s reaction.\\n4. With auric and platinic chlorides, diazobenzene chloride\\nforms double salts. When the platino-chloride is submitted\\nto dry distillation, it yields chlorobenzene.\\n(C 6 H 5 .N 2 .Cl) 2 PtCl 4 2C 6 H 5 C1 N 2 2C1 2 4- Pt\\n5. Diazobenzene bromide can fix two atoms of bromine,\\nand the bromide so formed yields, on dry distillation, nitro-\\ngen, bromine, and bromobenzene.\\nC 6 H 5 .NW C 6 H 5 Br -f Br 2 N 2\\nA very convenient method of diazotizing aromatic amines\\nconsists in acidifying a mixture of their salts and sodium\\nnitrite (V. Meyer and Ambuhl). It is unnecessary to isolate\\nthe compounds from the resulting solution in order to bring\\nabout the above reactions, which support the view already\\npresented of the constitution of diazo-compounds.\\nDiazoamidobenzene. When aniline is added to an aque-\\nous solution of diazobenzene nitrate or chloride, a diazo-", "height": "4794", "width": "2925", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0695.jp2"}, "694": {"fulltext": "688 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ncompound is obtained which is more complex than the pre-\\nceding and is called diazoamidobenzene,\\nC 6 H 5 N 2 (N0 3 NH 2 .C 6 H 5 C 6 H 5 -N 2 -NH.C 6 H 5 -f HNO 3\\nDiazobenzene nitrate. Aniline. Diazoamidobenzene.\\nThe same body is formed when a current of nitrogen tri-\\noxide is passed into a cooled alcoholic solution of aniline. It\\nforms brilliant, golden-yellow scales, fusible at 91\u00c2\u00b0. It ex-\\nplodes at a higher temperature.\\nIf an alcoholic solution of diazoamidobenzene be left to\\nitself, or, better, if it be warmed with a small proportion of\\naniline hydrochloride, it undergoes a curious transformation,\\nfirst noticed by Kekule. The diazo-compound is converted\\ninto an azo-derivative, amidazobenzene.\\nC 6 H 5 -N 2 -NH.C 6 H 5 C 6 H 5 -N 2 -C 6 H 4 .NH 2\\nDiazoamidobenzene. Amidazobenzene.\\nThis change shows the difference existing between the azo-\\nderivatives described on page 675, and the diazo-compounds.\\nBoth contain the diatomic group N\u00e2\u0080\u0094 N, but in the former com-\\npounds it is related to two aromatic groups, while in the latter\\nit links together an aromatic group, and a monatomic atom or\\ngroup. This may be understood from the following formulae\\nAzo-derivatives. Diazo-derivatives.\\nC 6 H 5 -N 2 -C 6 H 5 C 6 H 5 -N 2 .C1\\nAzobenzene. Diazobenzenechloride.\\nC iH 5 -N 2 -C 6 H*(NH 2 C 6 H 6 -N 2 -NH(C 6 H 5\\nAmidazobenzene. Diazoamidobenzene.\\nThe salts of diazobenzene react not only with aniline and the\\nother primary and secondary aromatic amines, yielding diazo-\\namidobenzene and its analogues they undergo analogous re-\\nactions with other aromatic compounds, such as the phenols,\\nnaphthols, tertiary aromatic amines, metaphenylene-diamine,\\netc. These reactions invariably form azo-compounds, of\\nwhich a large number are manufactured and used as dye-\\nstuffs. An example is the action of diazobenzene nitrate on\\nphenol, and on its sulpho-derivative, metaphenolsulphonic\\nacid (page 683).\\nC6H5-N2-N0 3 C 6 H5.0H C6H5-N 2 -C 6 H\u00c2\u00b1.OH HNO 3\\nDiazobenzenenitrate. Phenol. Azobenzene-phenol.\\nC6H5-N2-N0 3 C 6 H* g^ H C6H5-N2-C6H 3 H HNO 3\\nMetaphenolsulphonic Azobenzene-phegolsulphonic\\nacid. acid.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0696.jp2"}, "695": {"fulltext": "ROSANILINE AND ITS DERIVATIVES. 689\\nThe last compound is the sulphonic acid of azobenzene-\\nphenol, and is one of that class of dye-stuffs known as\\ntropaeolines.\\nThese compounds have acquired great importance from\\ntheir applications in dyeing. That they are numerous may\\nbe understood if it be considered that all aromatic compounds\\ncontaining the group NH 2 may be converted into diazo- and\\nazo-compounds by the methods which have just been indi-\\ncated.\\nKOSANILINE AND ITS DERIVATIVES.\\nC 20 H 21 N 3 O\\nThe magnificent red coloring matter known as magenta is\\nthe chloride of rosaniline it is obtained by oxidizing a mix-\\nture of aniline and ortho- and para-toluidine by means of\\nnitrobenzene or arsenic acid. A mixture of equal molecular\\nproportions of the three bases, with enough hydrochloric acid\\nto saturate two-thirds, and nitrobenzene, is heated to 190\u00c2\u00b0,\\nwhile small quantities of iron are introduced. AYith the aid\\nof a current of steam the excess of nitrobenzene, as well as\\nthe unchanged part of the bases, is expelled from the product,\\nand the residue is dissolved in water. Upon addition of salt\\nand hydrochloric acid, rosaniline chloride separates out by\\nrecrystallization it is obtained in magnificent crystals which\\npresent a green reflection, like the scales of cantharides, and\\ndissolve in alcohol with a rich purple color.\\nThe formation of rosaniline is represented by the following\\nequation\\nC 6 H 7 N 2C 7 H 9 N O 3 C 20 H 21 N 3 O 2H 2\\nAniline. Tohridine. Kosaniline.\\nMore recently rosaniline has been manufactured syntheti-\\ncally by heating paranitrobenzoic aldehyde, (CHO)C 6 H*-N0 2\\nwith aniline and sulphuric acid.\\nProperties of Rosaniline. The methods of preparation\\njust indicated furnish the salts of rosaniline, such as the\\nchloride, which is the rich red coloring matter known as\\nmagenta or fuchsine. The free base is obtained by treating\\na hot, saturated solution of the chloride with an excess of\\nsoda. The rosaniline separates as an almost colorless, crys-\\ntalline precipitate. It is a triacid base which requires three\\nmolecules of hydrochloric acid for its saturation,\\ntt 58*", "height": "4780", "width": "2790", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0697.jp2"}, "696": {"fulltext": "690 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe monochloride of rosaniline, C 20 H 20 N 3 C1 (magenta),\\nforms dark-colored, rhombic tables, having a splendid green\\nreflection. It is bnt slightly soluble in water, but dissolves\\nreadily in alcohol, forming an intense purple solution.\\nThe trihydrochloride, C 20 H 19 N 3 .3HC1, forms yellow-brown\\nneedles which lose hydrochloric acid when heated or when\\ndissolved in water.\\nRosaniline and its salts present two important reactions\\n1. When a salt of rosaniline is treated with reducing agents,\\nsuch as nascent hydrogen (zinc and hydrochloric acid), the\\nbase fixes two atoms of hydrogen and is converted into leuco-\\nrosaniline, C 20 H 21 JNF, a white powder slightly soluble in water.\\n2. By the action of nitrogen trioxide, rosaniline is converted\\ninto a diazo-derivative which yields rosolic acid when boiled\\nwith water (pages 687 and 692) and diphenyltolyl methane,\\nCH\\\\X 6 tt 4 PH 3 w en neate( i with alcohol.\\nCommercial magenta is not a pure salt of rosaniline. Be-\\nsides certain isomerides of this base, it contains considerable\\nquantities of pararosaniline, C 19 H 19 N 3 0, of which rosaniline\\nis the next higher homologue. Our knowledge of these bases\\nand their chemical composition is chiefly due to Hofmann,\\nbut it is to the researches of E. and 0. Fischer that we are\\nindebted for the true explanation of their constitution.\\nThese chemists have shown that pararosaniline and rosani-\\nline must be regarded as derivatives of triphenylmethane,\\nCH(C 6 H 5 3 and diphenyl-tolylmethane, CH^^jJ^ HS\\nUpon treatment with strong nitric acid, these hydrocarbons\\nyield substitution products in which the three hydrogen atoms\\noccupying the para- positions to the CH group are replaced\\nby the nitro-group, and the nitro-compounds are converted\\nby reduction into the corresponding amido-derivatives. The\\nlatter are leuco-pararosaniline and leuco-rosaniline upon oxi-\\ndation, they give para-rosaniline and rosaniline.\\nThe constitution of these bases is expressed by the formulae\\n/C 6 H 4 .NH2 /C 6 H 4 .NH 2\\nC(0H)^-C6H\u00c2\u00b1.NH* C(0H)(-C\u00c2\u00abH*.NH 2\\n\\\\C6H*.NH 2 \\\\C6H3(CH3).NH 2\\nPararosaniline or triamido- Rosaniline or triamido-diphenyl-\\ntriphenylcarbinol. tolylcarbinol.\\nBy subjecting the corresponding leucanilines to the action\\nof nitrous anhydride, and reducing the diazo-compounds thus", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0698.jp2"}, "697": {"fulltext": "COLORING MATTERS FROM ROSANILINE. 691\\nformed by alcohol, the same chemists also obtained the hydro-\\ncarbons C 20 H 18 and C 19 H 16\\nColoring Matters derived from Rosaniline When rosan-\\niline is heated with ethyl iodide, three atoms of hydrogen are\\nreplaced by three ethyl groups, and this triethyl-rosaniline\\nyields with the acids a magnificent violet color, known as Hof-\\nmann s violet.\\nTriphenyl-rosaniline, in which three atoms of hydrogen are\\nreplaced by three phenyl groups, C 6 H 5 is formed when rosani-\\nline is heated with an excess of aniline. This reaction, in\\nwhich ammonia is disengaged, was discovered by Grirard and\\nde Laire.\\nC2 o H 2i N 3 3C6H 5 .NH 2 C 20 H 18 (C 6 H 5 3 N 3 O 3NH 3\\nRosaniline. Aniliue. Triphenyl-#osaniline.\\nThe hydrochloride of triphenyl-rosaniline is of a magnifi-\\ncent blue color, and is known as aniline blue or Lyons blue\\n(Ch. Girard and de Laire). The following formulae show\\nthe interesting relations which exist between rosaniline and\\nits ethyl and phenyl derivatives\\nC 2o H 2i N 3 C 20 H 18 (C 2 H 5 3 N 3 O C 20 H 18 (C 6 H 5 3 N 3 O\\nRosaniline. Triethyl-rosaniline. Triphenyl-rosaniline.\\n(Base of Hofmann s violet.) (Base of Lyons blue.)\\nWe may mention among the derivatives of rosaniline Paris\\nviolet and the aniline greens, particularly the beautiful color-\\ning matter known as night-green, because it retains its rich\\ngreen tint in artificial light.\\nParis violet, first manufactured by Poirrier, is a splen-\\ndid color, produced by the oxidation of methylaniline or\\ndimethylaniline.\\nC6H5) C\u00c2\u00abH5)\\nCH3 IN CH3 N\\nHJ CH3j\\nMethylaniline. Dimethylaniline.\\nCh. Lauth realizes this oxidation, or rather dehydrogena-\\ntion, by heating methylaniline with cupric chloride. The\\nreaction is complex, and, according to Hofmann and Martius.\\ngives rise to trimethyl-rosaniline.\\nWhen heated with methyl chloride, the base of Paris violet\\nfixes two molecules of that compound, forming a combination\\nof trimethyl-rosaniline and methyl chloride. This combination\\nconstitutes night-green.\\nC 20 H 16 (CH 3 3 N 3 .(CH 3 C1) 2\\nDichloromethylate of trimethyl-rosaniline\\n(night-green).", "height": "4790", "width": "2887", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0699.jp2"}, "698": {"fulltext": "692 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nROSOLIC ACIDS.\\nTo the rosanilines which have been described correspond\\nderivatives containing hydroxyl, and which have been named\\nrosolic acids. They contain two hydroxyl groups, substituted\\nfor two groups NH 2 of the rosanilines, and an atom of oxygen\\nwhich replaces the remaining NH 2 group and the group OH.\\nC 19 H 12 (NH 2 3 .OH C 19 H 12 OH 5\\nPararosaniliue. Aurin.\\nC 20 H U (NH 2 3 .OH C^H 14 011\\nRosaniline. Rosolic acid.\\nAURIN AND ROSOLIC ACID.\\nC 19 H u 3 C 20 H 16 O 3\\nWhen 1J part of phenol is heated with 1 part of oxalic\\nacid and 2 parts of sulphuric acid, it is converted into a color-\\ning-matter, which was first described under the name rosolic\\nacid, or coralline-yellow. The same body or analogous bodies\\nmay be obtained by means of the rosanilines (see farther on).\\nIndeed, it has been recognized that there are several homolo-\\ngous bodies having the properties and the constitution of roso-\\nlic acid.\\nRosolic acid made from pure phenol contains C 19 H u 3 and\\nis called aurin (Dale and Schorlemmer). It occurs in very\\nbrilliant, red, triclinic prisms having a blue or green reflec-\\ntion. Rosolic acid proper is a methyl derivative of aurin.\\nAurin was formerly used in dyeing. When it is heated to\\n180\u00c2\u00b0 with an alcoholic solution of ammonia, it is converted\\ninto a bright-red coloring matter, noticed by Persoz, and\\nemployed in dyeing under the name coralline-red.\\nDIOXYBENZENES.\\nC 6 H 4 (OH) 2\\nThree isomeric bodies having the composition C 6 H 6 2\\nOH\\nC 6 H 4 ^tt are known they are derived from benzene by the\\nsubstitution of two hydroxyl groups for two atoms of hydro-\\ngen. These three bodies are pyrocatechin, resorcinol, and\\nhydroquinone.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0700.jp2"}, "699": {"fulltext": "DIOXYBENZENES. 693\\nPyrocatechin, or Catechol, C 6 H 4 q^ 2 i s so named\\nbecause it was first obtained by the destructive distillation\\nof catechu. It is also produced by the distillation of gum\\nkino and various tannins which produce a green color with\\nferric salts. It is generally prepared by conducting hydro-\\niodic acid gas into guaiacol, C 6 H 4 (OH)(OCH 3 heated to\\n195\u00c2\u00b0. Pyrocatechin is a solid body, very soluble in water\\nand alcohol, very slightly soluble in ether it crystallizes from\\nits aqueous solution in rectangular prisms, belonging to the\\northorhombic system. It melts at 104\u00c2\u00b0, and sublimes below\\nthat temperature in brilliant, colorless plates. It boils be-\\ntween 240 and 245\u00c2\u00b0. Its odor is strong and excites sneezing.\\nIt has the character of an acid, like phenol itself. It dis-\\nsolves in the alkalies and in the alkaline carbonates. When\\nexposed to the air, these solutions become colored, first green,\\nthen brown and black. An aqueous solution of pyrocatechin\\nproduces a deep-green color with ferric chloride, which\\nchanges to dark-red on the addition of an alkali. This re-\\naction characterizes the ortho-dihydric phenols\\nResorcinol, C 6 H 4 qtt/3\\\\ which is the homologue of orci-\\nnol, C 7 H 8 2 is formed when certain gums, such as galbanum,\\nasafcetida, gum ammoniac, sagapenum, etc., are fused with\\npotassium hydrate (Hlasiwetz and Barth). It is manufac-\\ntured on a large scale by fusing benzene meta-disulphonic\\nacid with caustic potash. The fused mass is dissolved in\\nwater, supersaturated with sulphuric acid, filtered, and the\\nfiltered solution shaken with ether, which dissolves the resor-\\ncinol. After having driven off the ether on a water-bath, a\\nresidue is obtained which is distilled the resorcinol sublimes\\nand condenses in radiated crystals.\\nOppenheim and Vogt obtained resorcinol by fusing chloro-\\nphenylsulphonic acid with potassium hydrate. The former\\nbody is obtained when chlorobenzene is treated with sulphuric\\nacid.\\nC6H C1 H2SO* IPO C6H^ 3H\\nChlorobenzene. Chlorophenyl-\\nsulphonic acid.\\nC6H* 3K -f 2KOH KCI-+ K2S03 C\u00c2\u00abH*\\nPotassium chlorophenyl- Resorcinol.\\nsulphonate.", "height": "4795", "width": "2897", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0701.jp2"}, "700": {"fulltext": "694 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIt is also formed when metaphenolsulphonic acid is fused\\nwith potassium hydrate.\\nResorcinol forms colorless, prismatic or tabular crystals.\\nIt melts at 110\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at 271\u00c2\u00b0. It is very soluble in\\nwater, alcohol, and ether.\\nHydroquinone, C 6 H 4 \u00e2\u0080\u0094This body is formed when\\npara-iodophenol, C 6 H 4 V L^ is fused with potassium hy-\\ndrate, or more readily by the action of reducing agents, such\\nas nascent hydrogen, hydriodic acid, or sulphurous acid, on\\nquinone.\\nC 6 H 4 2 H 2 C 6 H 6 2\\nWbhler, who discovered it, found it also among the products\\nof the dry distillation of quinic acid.\\nHydroquinone crystallizes in beautiful, transparent, and col-\\norless, hexagonal prisms. It has no odor its taste is sweet-\\nish. It dissolves in 17 parts of water at 15\u00c2\u00b0, and is very\\nsoluble in alcohol and ether. It melts at 169\u00c2\u00b0, and solidifies\\nat 165\u00c2\u00b0. When gently heated, it sublimes in brilliant plates,\\nlike those of sublimed benzoic acid. It partially decomposes\\nwhen abruptly heated. When its vapor is passed through a\\ntube heated to dull redness, it breaks up into quinone and\\nhydrogen. Various oxidizing agents, such as chlorine, ferric\\nchloride, nitric acid, silver nitrate, and potassium dichromate,\\ntransform it into a substance which deposits in magnificent\\ngreen needles, having a metallic reflection. It is quinhydrone\\nor green hydroquinone, C 12 H 10 O 4 a combination of quinone and\\nhydroquinone.\\nQUINONE.\\nC 6 H*0 2\\nThis remarkable body, discovered by Woskresensky, is a\\nproduct of the oxidation of quinic acid, which exists in cin-\\nchona bark. It may be obtained by distilling that acid with a\\nmixture of manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid. The mass\\nswells up and disengages vapors of quinone, which condense\\nin the receiver in brilliant, golden-yellow needles. They are\\npressed between folds of filter-paper and purified by resublima-\\ntion.\\nIt is also formed when various para disubstituted benzols,\\nsuch as phenylene-diamine, amidophenol, phenolsulphonic", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0702.jp2"}, "701": {"fulltext": "QUINONE. 695\\nacid, etc., are treated with oxidizing agents. The best\\nmethod of preparation consists in adding a concentrated\\nsolution of sodium dichromate (3 parts) to a well-cooled\\nmixture of aniline (1 part), water (25 parts), and sulphuric\\nacid (8 parts). The dark-colored liquid is extracted with\\nether, the latter evaporated, and the product crystallized\\nfrom petroleum ether.\\nQuinone crystallizes in long, brilliant, transparent needles\\nof a golden-yellow color. It is very soluble in cold water,\\nand more soluble in alcohol and ether. It melts at 115.7\u00c2\u00b0\\nto a yellow liquid. Quinone sublimes at ordinary tempera-\\ntures, emitting pungent vapors which excite tears.\\nChlorine converts it into a trichloro-derivative, C 6 HC1 3 2\\ncrystallizable in small, yellow prisms, fusible at 164-166\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWhen treated with a mixture of potassium chlorate and\\nhydrochloric acid, quinone is converted into tetrachloroquinone,\\nC 6 C1 4 2 better known as chloranile. This name was given by\\nErdmann, who first obtained this body by the action of chlorine\\non indigo, of which the Portuguese name is anil. The same\\nbody is formed by the action of a mixture of potassium chlorate\\nand hydrochloric acid on a great number of aromatic com-\\npounds, such as phenol, picric acid, salicylic acid, salicin, isatine,\\netc. Tetrachloroquinone forms pale-yellow scales, having a\\npearly, metallic lustre. When gently heated, it sublimes with-\\nout fusing, and leaves no residue. It is insoluble in water and\\nalmost insoluble in cold alcohol, but dissolves in boiling alcohol\\nand separates on cooling in golden-yellow scales.\\nConstitution of Quinone and Hydroquinone. According\\nto G-raebe, these bodies are allied to benzene, from which the first\\nis derived by the substitution of two atoms of oxygen for two\\natoms of hydrogen but as the two atoms of oxygen represent\\nfour atomicities, of which two only are employed in replacing\\nH 2 in benzene, the other two serve to bind together the two\\natoms of oxygen. The couple (0 -0 can indeed play the\\npart of a diatomic group. In the formation of hydroquinone,\\nthese atoms of oxygen separate from each other and each fixes\\none atom of hydrogen, so that two hydroxyl groups are formed\\nand substituted each for one atom of hydrogen in benzene. The\\nfollowing formulae express these relations\\nC 6 H6 C6H* C6H4 0H\\nBenzene. Quinone. Hydroquinone.", "height": "4771", "width": "2905", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0703.jp2"}, "702": {"fulltext": "696\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIn certain respects, however, quinone resembles the di-\\nketones. The observation that upon treatment with hy-\\n/O\\ndroxylamine both a monoxime, C 6 H 4 i and a dioxime,\\n\\\\NOH\\n/N.OH\\nC 6 HV i are produced, is perhaps best explained by the\\nfollowing centric formula, which also satisfactorily exposes\\nthe relation between quinone and hydroquinone.\\no OH\\nOH\\nPHLOROGLUCINOL.\\nC 6 H 6 3 C 6 H 3 (OH) 3\\nPhloroglucinol and its isomeride pyrogallol are trioxyben-\\nzenes they represent benzene in which three atoms of hy-\\ndrogen are replaced by three hydroxyl groups. The relations\\nbetween phloroglucinol, dioxybenzene, and phenol are the\\nsame as those between glycerol, propylglycol, and propyl\\nalcohol.\\nfOH\\nC 3 H\u00c2\u00bb 1 OH\\n(OH\\nGlycerol.\\n(OH\\nCWN OH\\n(OH\\nPhloroglucinol.\\nPhloroglucinol was discovered by Hlasiwetz, who obtained\\nit by heating phloretin (page 659) with a very concentrated\\nsolution of potassa. It is also formed in many other reac-\\ntions, especially when resorcinol, gum-kino, gamboge, and\\ndragon s-blood are fused with potassium hydrate.\\nPhloroglucinol crystallizes in hard, rhombic prisms, having\\na very sweet taste. It is quite soluble in water, alcohol, and\\nether. Its aqueous solution is neutral, and produces a deep-\\nC 3 H7.0H\\nC3 H e\\nPropyl alcohol.\\nPropylglycol.\\nC6H5.0H\\nW|0H\\nPhenol.\\nDioxybenzene.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0704.jp2"}, "703": {"fulltext": "TOLUENE AND ITS DERIVATIVES. 697\\nviolet color with ferric chloride. Its ethereal solution, evap-\\norated upon a microscope-slide, deposits prisms in tangled,\\ntree-like forms which are very characteristic.\\nThe crystals deposited from ether are anhydrous, while\\nthose formed in water contain two molecules of water of\\ncrystallization, which they lose at 100\u00c2\u00b0. The dry crystals\\nmelt at 220\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe chemical character of phloroglucinol is very curious.\\nWhile in many respects it behaves like a triatomic phenol,\\nit forms salts with the alkalies and a triacetate with acetyl\\nchloride, it is also capable of reacting like a triketone\\nwith hydroxylamine, for example, it yields the trioxime\\nC 6 H 6 (N-OH) 3 Bodies which react as if they belonged to\\ntwo distinct chemical classes are said to be tautomeric.\\nPhenols containing more than three hydroxyl groups have\\nbeen obtained. The potassium compound of hexoxybenzene,\\nC 6 (OK) 6 constitutes the explosive potassium carbonyl (page\\n297).\\nTOLUENE AND ITS DERIVATIVES.\\nTOLUENE.\\nC 7 H 8 C 6 H 5 -CH 3\\nToluene is a homologue of benzene. It was discovered\\nin 1837 by Pelletier and Walter H. Deville obtained it by\\ndistilling balsam of Tolu hence its name. It exists in coal-\\ntar, and is separated from that body, like benzene, by frac-\\ntional distillation. It is methyl-benzene, or phenylmetliane,\\nand has been obtained by synthesis by heating a mixture of\\nmethyl iodide and monobromobenzene with sodium (Fittig\\nand Tollens).\\nC 6 H 5 Br CH 3 I 2Na Nal NaBr -f C 6 H 5 -CH 3\\nMonobromobenzene. Methyl-phenyl.\\nA method of synthesis of toluene, which by the generality\\nof its applications is one of the most fecund in chemistry, is\\ndue to Friedel and Crafts. It consists in the reaction of\\nmethyl chloride on benzene in presence of aluminium chlo-\\nride. Toluene is formed, and hydrochloric acid is disengaged.\\n2e 59", "height": "4785", "width": "2868", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0705.jp2"}, "704": {"fulltext": "698 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nIt is probable that the aluminium chloride first acts on thA\\nbenzene, disengaging hydrochloric acid and forming a phenyl\\nderivative of aluminium chloride, which derivative is con-\\ntinually formed and continually decomposed by the methyl\\nchloride. The cycle of reactions would then be represented\\nby the following two equations\\nC 6 H 6 APC1 6 A1 2 C1 5 (C 6 H 5 HC1\\nAPC1 5 (C 6 H 5 CH 3 C1 C 6 H 5 (CH 3 APC1 6\\nWe may add that the toluene thus formed may react with an\\nexcess of methyl chloride, forming hydrochloric acid and dime-\\nthyl benzene (xylene), which in its turn may react upon an ex-\\ncess of methyl chloride. It is thus seen that the methylation\\nof benzene does not stop with the first substitution compound,\\nand that the nature of the products formed depends upon the\\nproportions of the bodies which react. Friedel and Crafts\\nthus succeeded in introducing six methyl groups into ben-\\nzene, and made the synthesis of hexamethylbenzene.\\nC 6 H 6 6CH 3 C1 6HC1 C 6 (CH 3 6\\nHexamethylbenzene.\\nProperties of Toluene. Toluene is a colorless liquid, insol-\\nuble in water. Its density at 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 0.882, and it boils at 111\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWhen it is boiled with dilute nitric acid or a solution of\\nchromic acid, it is transformed into benzoic acid.\\nC 6 H 5 -CH 3 O 3 C 6 H 5 -CO.OH IPO\\nTuluene. Benzoic acid.\\nAs is indicated, the methyl group is attacked and converted\\ninto carboxyl, CO.OIL\\nSUBSTITUTION PRODUCTS OF TOLUENE.\\nThese compounds are numerous, and present various isomer-\\nisms, of whicb we will consider the principles.\\nC 6 H 5\\nWhen chlorine acts upon toluene, l one or more atoms\\nCH 3\\nof hydrogen may be removed and replaced by as many atoms\\nof chlorine. The most simple of the products thus formed is\\nthe compound C 7 H 7 C1, which results from the substitution of\\none atom of chlorine for one atom of hydrogen in toluene, C 7 H 8\\nBut this substitution may take place in the benzene nucleus", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0706.jp2"}, "705": {"fulltext": "SUBSTITUTION PRODUCTS OF TOLUENE.\\n699\\n~C 6 H 5 or in the group CH 3 and two isomeric bodies are thus\\nformed, monochlorotoluene and benzj^l chloride.\\nC6H*C1 C6H\\nCH3\\nMonochlorotoluene.\\nCH2C1\\nBenzyl chloride.\\nCH 3\\nMonochlorotoluene, C 2 H 4 is a di-substituted derivative\\nof benzene it may consequently exist in three isomeric mod-\\nifications, as has already been explained (page 670).\\nIt is thus seen that there are four different bodies derived\\nfrom toluene by the substitution of one atom of chlorine for\\none of hydrogen, namely, benzyl chloride and three monochlo-\\nrotoluenes.\\nThe following table includes a number of toluene derivatives\\nCWCl\\ni\\nC 6 H4(NH2)\\nC 6 H^(OH)\\nC 6 H*(OH) C 6 H\u00c2\u00b1(OH)\\nCH3\\nCH3\\nCH3\\nCHO CO.OH\\nMonochlo-\\nrotoluene.\\nToluidine.\\nCresol.\\nSalicyl Salicylic acid,\\naldehyde.\\nC 6 H5\\nC 6 H 5\\nC6H*\\nC 6 H5\\nC 6 H*\\nCH^Cl\\nCH 2 (NH2)\\nCH2.0H\\nCHO\\nCO.OH\\nBenzyl\\nchloride.\\nBenzyla-\\nmine.\\nBenzyl\\nalcohol.\\nBenz-\\naldehyde.\\nBenzoic acid.\\nAmong these compounds, those placed in the same vertical\\nline present isomerisms easily understood from the fornmlse,\\nwhich express their constitutions and show the atomic group-\\nings.\\nThe bodies in the first horizontal series constitute di-sub-\\nstituted compounds of benzene.\\nToluidines.\\nC8HJ OH\\nCresols.\\nC6H4 OH\u00c2\u00b0\\nSalicjl aldehyde.\\nC6H4 OH\u00c2\u00b0 H\\nSalicylic acid.\\nHence they may exist in three different isomeric modifica-\\ntions, and consequently there are four isomerides of each of\\nthese derivatives of toluene, excepting salicylic acid, just as\\nfor monochlorotoluene.\\nChloro-Derivatives of Toluene. The monoclihrotoluenes\\nare formed by the action of chlorine on cold toluene. Ortho-\\nand metachlorotoluene are liquids boiling between 156 and\\n157\u00c2\u00b0. Parachlorotoluene boils at 160.5\u00c2\u00b0, and below 0\u00c2\u00b0 solidi-\\nfies to a mass which melts at 6.5\u00c2\u00b0-\\nBenzyl chloride, C 6 H 5 -CH 2 C1, is formed when chlorine is\\npassed into boiling toluene.", "height": "4774", "width": "2891", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0707.jp2"}, "706": {"fulltext": "700 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nBenzalchloride, C 6 H 5 .CHCP, and Benzotrichloride,\\nC 6 H 5 .CC1 3 are also formed by the direct action of chlorine\\non boiling toluene. The former boils at 206\u00c2\u00b0 and the latter\\nat 213\u00c2\u00b0. The beautiful green dyestuff, malachite- or aldehyde-\\ngreen, is formed by the action of zinc chloride on a heated\\nmixture of benzotrichloride and dimethylaniline.\\nNitrotoluenes. Monohydrated nitric acid attacks toluene\\nand converts it into nitrotoluenes, C 7 H 7 (N0 2 and dinitro-\\ntoluenes, according to the duration of the reaction. There\\nCH 3\\nare three nitrotoluenes, C 6 H 4 2\\nOrthonitrotoluene, a yellow liquid, boiling between 222 and\\n223\u00c2\u00b0.\\nMetanitro toluene, crystals, fusible at 16\u00c2\u00b0. Boils at 230-\\n231\u00c2\u00b0.\\nParanitrotoluene, almost colorless prisms, fusible at 54\u00c2\u00b0,\\nand boiling at 236\u00c2\u00b0.\\nDinitrotoluene, C 6 H 3 (N0 2 2 CH 3 is formed when toluene is\\ntreated with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. Long\\nneedles, almost colorless, fusible at 70.5\u00c2\u00b0. An isomeride is\\nknown, fusible at 60\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCRESOLS.\\nC 7 IPO C 6 H* 3\\nThere are three cresols, two solid and one liquid. They\\nmay be formed artificially by treating toluene with sulphuric\\nacid, according to the process indicated on page 678, but in\\nthis reaction several isomeric sulphonic acids are formed, and\\nwhen decomposed by potassium hydrate, they yield different\\ncresols.\\nThe cresol discovered by Fairlie, and extracted from wood-\\ntar by Duclos, is a colorless liquid, having an odor like that\\nof phenol. It boils between 189 and 190\u00c2\u00b0, and appears to\\nbe a mixture.\\nOrthocresol is a crystalline mass, fusible at 31\u00c2\u00b0, and boiling\\nat 185-186\u00c2\u00b0.\\nMetacresol is a liquid, boiling at 201\u00c2\u00b0.\\nParacresol forms colorless prisms, fusible at 36\u00c2\u00b0. It boils\\nat 198\u00c2\u00b0 (A. Wurtz).", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0708.jp2"}, "707": {"fulltext": "ORCINOL TOLUIDINES. 701\\nORCINOL.\\nThis body is an oxycresol. It was discovered by Robiquet\\nin 1829, and is obtained, at the same time as erythritol, by\\ndecomposing erythrin by slaked lime at 150\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe orcinol is deposited first in beautiful crystals from the\\nsolution which contains both substances, and it is purified by\\nrecrystallization. It forms colorless, hexagonal prisms, con-\\ntaining one molecule of water of crystallization. It melts at\\n58\u00c2\u00b0, losing its water, and the anhydrous orcinol boils at 290\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe crystals of orcinol become rose-colored in the air.\\nWhen ammonia is added to their aqueous solution and the\\nliquid is exposed to the air, it absorbs oxygen and assumes\\nfirst a violet color and afterwards a brown. A nitrogenized\\nbody is formed which is known as orcein, and constitutes the\\ncoloring principle of the archil of commerce.\\nThe synthesis of orcinol has been made by the action of\\nfused potassium hydrate on the sulphonic acid of niono-\\nchlorotoluene (cresyl chloride. C 6 H 4 C1.CH 3 The chlorine\\nand the group S0 3 H of this compound are thus replaced by\\ntwo groups OH (Vogt and Henninger).\\n(Ci rOH\\nC 6 H 3 J so 3 K 2KOH S0 3 K 2 KC1 C\u00c2\u00abH 3 i OH\\nCH 3 CH 3\\nPotassium chlorocresyl- Orcinol.\\nsulphonate.\\nTOLUIDINES.\\nC7H9N C 6 H\u00c2\u00b1(NH2)-CH 3\\nParatoluidine. Solid toluidine, which is paratoluidine, was\\ndiscovered by Hofmann and Muspratt in 1848. They obtained\\nit by the reduction of paranitrotoluene by ammonium sulphy-\\ndrate. This reduction may also be accomplished by iron and\\nacetic acid, or by tin and hydrochloric acid.\\nC 7 H 7 (N0 2 3H 2 C 7 H 7 (NH 2 2H 2\\nNitrotoluene. Toluidine.\\nAn interesting method of formation of paratoluidine was dis-\\ncovered by Hofmann and Martius. When methylaniline hydro-\\nchloride is heated to 350\u00c2\u00b0 under pressure, paratoluidine hydro-\\n59*", "height": "4791", "width": "2886", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0709.jp2"}, "708": {"fulltext": "702 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nchloride is formed. The methyl group which is united to the\\nnitrogen of the former base is then transposed and exchanged\\nfor an atom of hydrogen of the phenyl group.\\n^C6H5 ^C6H\u00c2\u00b1-CH3\\nH ^H\\nMethylaniline. Toluidine.\\nParatoluidine is a solid heavier than water. It crystallizes\\nfrom its dilute alcoholic solution in large plates. It melts at\\n45\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at 198\u00c2\u00b0. It is almost insoluble in water, but\\nvery soluble in alcohol and in ether.\\nToluidine exists nearly always in commercial aniline. It is\\nimportant and necessary for the preparation of certain aniline\\ncolors.\\nOrthotoluidine was discovered by Rosenstiehl in commercial\\ntoluidine, which is a mixture of para- and orthotoluidine. It is\\nformed by the reduction of orthonitrotoluene by nascent hy-\\ndrogen. It is liquid and does not solidify at 20\u00c2\u00b0. It boils\\nat 199.5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nMetatoluidine. A colorless liquid, boiling at 197\u00c2\u00b0. Densitv\\nat 25\u00c2\u00b0, 0.998.\\nBENZYL ALCOHOL.\\nC 7 H 8 C 6 H 5 -CH 2 .OH\\nBenzyl alcohol is readily prepared by the action of potas-\\nsium hydroxide upon benzaldehyde one molecule of the\\naldehyde is oxidized to benzoic acid, while another is reduced\\nto benzyl alcohol.\\n2C 6 H 5 .CHO KOH C 6 H 5 .COOK C 6 H 5 .CH 2 .OH\\nBenzaldehyde. Potassium benzoate. Benzyl alcohol.\\nIt is also formed by boiling benzyl chloride with soda solu-\\ntion,\\nC 6 H 5 .CH 2 .C1 H 2 C 6 H 5 .CH 2 .OH HC1,\\nand by the action of nascent hydrogen upon benzaldehyde,\\nC 6 H 5 .CHO H 2 C 6 H 5 .CH 2 .OH\\nBenzyl alcohol is a colorless, oily liquid, having a faint\\nbut agreeable odor. It boils at 207\u00c2\u00b0. Density at 0\u00c2\u00b0, 1.0628.\\nWhen heated with nitric acid, it is converted into benz-\\naldehyde (oil of bitter almonds).\\nC 7 H 8 O H 2 C 7 H 6", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0710.jp2"}, "709": {"fulltext": "BENZALDEHYDE. 703\\nChromic acid oxidizes it to benzoic acid.\\n(7H 8 O 2 H 2 C 7 H 6 2\\nThe relations between benzyl alcohol, benzaldehyde, and\\nbenzoic acid are the same as those between alcohol, aldehyde,\\nand acetic acid.\\nCH3-CH 2 .OH alcohol. C 6 H5-CH 2 .OH benzyl alcohol.\\nCH3-CHO aldehyde. C 6 H5-CHO benzaldehyde.\\nCH 3 -C0 2 H acetic acid. OT^-CO 2 benzoic acid.\\nBenzyl Compounds. Benzyl chloride, C 7 H 7 C1 C 6 H 5\\nCH 2 C1, is formed, as has already been remarked, when chlorine\\nis passed into boiling toluene. It is also formed by the action\\nof hydrochloric acid on benzyl alcohol by the aid of heat. It\\nis a colorless liquid having an irritating odor. It boils at\\n176\u00c2\u00b0.\\nBenzylamine, C 6 H 5 -CH 2 .NH 2 This body is formed by the\\naction of nascent hydrogen on benzonitrile (phenyl cyanide),\\nwhich thus fixes four atoms of hydrogen. It is also formed\\nin small quantity, together with dibenzylamine and tribenzyl-\\namine, when benzyl chloride is heated with alcoholic ammonia.\\nIt is a limpid liquid, boiling at 185\u00c2\u00b0, and miscible with water,\\nalcohol, and ether. Density, 0.99 at 14\u00c2\u00b0.\\nTribenzylamine, (C 6 H 5 .CH 2 3 N. This is formed in abun-\\ndance by the action of a hot alcoholic solution of ammonia on\\nbenzyl chloride. It crystallizes in beautiful, colorless needles\\nor plates, fusible at 91\u00c2\u00b0. It is insoluble in water, slightly\\nsoluble in cold alcohol, very soluble in hot alcohol and in ether.\\nBENZALDEHYDE.\\nC 7 H 6 C 6 H 5 -CHO\\nThis body, formerly called benzoyl hydride, exists in the\\nessential oil of bitter almonds, mixed with hydrocyanic acid,\\nboth substances being formed by the action of emulsin and\\nwater on amygdalin (page 658).\\nGrimaux and Lauth have obtained it by oxidizing benzyl\\nchloride by boiling with nitrate of lead or of copper.\\nC 6 H 5 -CH 2 C1 HC1 C 6 H 5 -CHO", "height": "4791", "width": "2921", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0711.jp2"}, "710": {"fulltext": "704 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nBenzaldehyde is a colorless, strongly-refracting liquid,\\nhaving a pleasant odor and a pungent, aromatic taste. It\\nboils at 179.5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nWhen its vapor is passed through a porcelain tube filled\\nwith pumice-stone and heated to redness, benzaldehyde\\nbreaks up into benzene and carbon monoxide.\\nC 7 H 6 CO C 6 H 6\\nWhen exposed to air and light, it absorbs oxygen, and is\\nconverted into benzoic acid.\\nC*H 6 C 7 H 6 2\\nBenzoic acid.\\nLike the aldehydes of the fatty series, benzaldehyde re-\\nduces ammoniacal solutions of silver it combines with\\nsodium-acid sulphite, and yields characteristic compounds\\nwith hydroxylamine and phenylhydrazine.\\nBenzaldehyde reacts with diamide (hydrazine) readily\\nwith elimination of water (Curtius).\\nN 2 H 4 2C 6 H 5 .CHO N 2 (C 6 H 5 .CH) 2 2H 2\\nThe resulting benzalazine melts at 93\u00c2\u00b0.\\nNascent hydrogen, produced by the action of water on\\nsodium amalgam, transforms benzaldehyde into benzyl alco-\\nhol (Friedel).\\nC 7 H 6 H 2 C 7 H 7 .OH\\nChlorine converts it into benzoyl chloride.\\nC 7 H 5 O.H CI 2 HC1 C 7 H 5 0.C1\\nBenzaldehyde. Benzoyl chloride.\\nBenzaldehyde readily undergoes condensation with other\\ncarbon compounds, and is therefore much used for syn-\\nthetical purposes.\\nBenzoin, C 6 H 5 -CH(OH)-CO-C 6 H\\\\\u00e2\u0080\u0094 When crude oil of\\nbitter almonds containing hydrocyanic acid is mixed with\\nalcoholic potassium hydrate, or when the pure oil is mixed\\nwith an alcoholic solution of potassium cyanide, the benz-\\naldehyde is polymerized and converted into a solid body,\\nwhich is benzoin, C u H I2 2 The latter crystallizes in brill-\\niant, colorless prisms, fusible at 133-134\u00c2\u00b0. It is but slightly\\nsoluble in water and cold alcohol, very soluble in boiling\\nalcohol. Oxidation converts it into benzil,", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0712.jp2"}, "711": {"fulltext": "BENZOIC ACID. 705\\nBenzil, or Dibenzoyl, C 6 H 5 -CO-CO-C 6 H 5 is the aromatic\\ndiketone which corresponds to diacetyl. It forms yellow\\nhexagonal prisms, melting at 95\u00c2\u00b0, and soluble in alcohol and\\nether. Benzil combines directly with hydrocyanic acid and\\nwith hydroxylamine. Both the monoxime and the dioxime\\nexist in several stereoisomeric forms.\\nBenzoyl Chloride, C 6 H 5 -C0C1.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 This body is formed by\\nthe action of phosphorus pentachloride on benzoic acid or\\na dry benzoate. It is a colorless, highly-refractive liquid,\\nhaving a peculiar, irritating odor. It boils at 199\u00c2\u00b0. Water\\ndecomposes it into benzoic and hydrochloric acids.\\nC T H 5 O.Cl H 2 C 7 H 5 O.OH -f- HC1\\nAmmonia converts it into benzamide.\\nC 7 H 5 .0C1 NH 3 C T H 5 O.XH 2 HC1\\nBenzamide.\\nBenzoyl chloride may exchange its chlorine for other ele-\\nments. When it is distilled with potassium iodide, potassium\\nchloride and benzoyl iodide are formed. Liebig and Wohler,\\nwho discovered these important reactions, prepared in the\\nsame manner, by double decomposition, benzoyl sulphide and\\nbenzoyl cyanide. These experiments are celebrated they\\nwere the starting-point of the benzoyl theory, which marked\\nan important progress in the development of the theory of\\nradicals. The following formulae indicate the principal benzoyl\\ncombinations\\n(C 7 H 5 0) 2 dibenzoyl (benzil).\\nC 7 H 5 O.H benzoyl hydride (oil of bitter almonds).\\nC 7 H 5 0.C1 benzoyl chloride.\\nC 7 H 5 O.I benzoyl iodide.\\n(C 7 H 5 0) 2 S benzoyl sulphide.\\n(C 7 H 5 0) 2 benzoyl oxide (benzoic anhydride).\\nC H 5 O.OH benzoyl hydrate (benzoic acid).\\nC\u00c2\u00bbH*O.NH a benzainide.\\nBENZOIC ACID.\\nC 7 H 6 2 C 6 H 5 -C0 2 H\\nPreparation. This acid may be obtained from gum benzoin.\\nThat resin is placed in a flat dish over the top of which a sheet\\nof tissue-paper, or light filter-paper is glued (Fig. 133). This\\nuu", "height": "4794", "width": "2922", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0713.jp2"}, "712": {"fulltext": "706\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nFig. 133.\\ndiaphragm forms the base of a paper cone which is then placed\\nover the dish, which is moderately heated on a sand-bath for\\nseveral hours. At the\\nend of that time, the\\nwhole is allowed to\\ncool, and the benzoic\\nacid is found in light,\\nbrilliant, crystalline\\nflakes on the sides of\\nthe cone, and on the\\ndiaphragm.\\nThe benzoin resin\\nmay also be powdered\\nand digested with milk\\nof lime for twenty-\\nfour hours it is then\\nheated to ebullition\\nand filtered. Hydro-\\nchloric acid precipi-\\ntates benzoic acid from the filtered liquid, which contains cal-\\ncium benzoate.\\nBenzoic acid is also prepared by boiling the urine of horses\\nand cows with hydrochloric acid. The hippuric acid which\\nthese urines contain is thus decomposed into benzoic acid\\nand glycocoll. The benzoic acid crystallizes on cooling, and\\nis purified by sublimation.\\nOn a large scale benzoic acid is now generally obtained\\nby oxidizing toluene or benzyl chloride with nitric acid.\\nProperties. Benzoic acid crystallizes in needles, or in thin,\\nbrilliant plates. It has an aromatic odor, and a slightly acid\\ntaste. It melts at 121\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at 250\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt dissolves in 607 parts of water at 0\u00c2\u00b0, and in about 12\\nparts of boiling water. When boiled with a quantity of water\\ninsufficient to dissolve it, it melts. It volatilizes with the vapor\\nof water. It dissolves readily in alcohol and in ether. When its\\nvapor is passed over red-hot pumice-stone, contained in a porce-\\nlain tube, it is decomposed into carbonic anhydride and benzene.\\nC 7 H 6 2 CO 2 C 6 H 6\\nWhen heated with phosphorus pentachloride, it yields ben-\\nzoyl chloride.\\nC 7 H 5 O.OH PCI 5 POCP HC1 C 7 H 5 0.C1", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0714.jp2"}, "713": {"fulltext": "HIPPURIC ACID. 707\\nThe metallic and ethereal salts of benzoic acid are analo-\\ngous to those of acetic acid.\\nBenzamide, C 6 H 5 -CO.NH 2 This body is formed by the\\naction of ammonia gas on benzoyl chloride.\\nC 6 H 5 C0.C1 2NH 3 NH*C1 C 6 H 5 -CO.NH 2\\nIt is also formed by the action of ammonia on ethyl benzoate.\\nC 6 H 5 -CO.OC 2 H 5 NH 3 C 2 H 5 .OH C 6 H 5 -CO.NH 2\\nEthyl benzoate. Alcohol. Benzamide.\\nIt occurs in brilliant, colorless, oblique rhombic crystals,\\nfusible at 128\u00c2\u00b0, and can be sublimed without decomposition.\\nIt is soluble in hot water and in alcohol.\\nBenzophenone, or Diphenyl-ketone, C 13 H 10 O C 6 H 5\\nCO-C 6 H 5 This body is formed, together with benzene, in\\nthe destructive distillation of calcium benzoate (Chancel).\\nCa(C 6 H 5 -C0 2 2 CaCO 3 (C 6 H 5 2 CO\\nCalcium benzoate. Diphenyl-ketone.\\nIt is also obtained by the action of carbonyl chloride upon\\nbenzene in the presence of aluminium chloride (Friedel and\\nCrafts).\\n2C 6 H 6 COC1 2 2HC1 (C 6 H 5 2 CO\\nIt forms large, colorless, or slightly yellow, right rhombic\\nprisms, fusible at 48-49\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at 295\u00c2\u00b0. It is insoluble\\nin water, but very soluble in alcohol.\\nMethylphenylketone, CH 3 -CO-C 6 H 5 or acetophenone,\\nmelts at 15\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at 198\u00c2\u00b0. It is used in medicine as\\na soporific under the name hypiione.\\nHIPPURIC ACID.\\nCH 2 .NH(C 7 H 5 0)\\nC 9 H 9 \u00c2\u00a3T0 3 i K J\\nCO.OH\\nHippuric acid is an important benzoic derivative. Hydro-\\nchloric acid decomposes it into benzoic acid and glycocoll.\\nC 9 H 9 N0 3 H 2 C 2 H 2 N0 5 C 7 H 6 2\\nHippuric acid. Glycocoll. Benzoic acid.\\nRouelle, Fourcroy, and Vauquelin discovered this acid in\\nthe urine of the horse, but confounded it with benzoic acid.\\nIts true nature was recognized by Liebig in 1830. Dessaignes", "height": "4792", "width": "2888", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0715.jp2"}, "714": {"fulltext": "708 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nhas made its synthesis by the reaction of benzoyl chloride on\\nthe zinc compound of glycocoll.\\nC 2 H 5 N0 2 C 7 H 5 0.C1 C 2 H*(C 7 H 5 0)N0 2 HC1\\nGlycocoll. Benzoyl chloride. Hippuric acid.\\nHippuric acid is obtained from the urine of horses and cows\\nby mixing the urine with 2 or 3 times its volume of concen-\\ntrated hydrochloric acid. The hippuric acid separates in col-\\nored crystals.\\nWhen properly purified, it crystallizes in long, colorless\\nprisms, but slightly soluble in cold water, very soluble in boil-\\ning water and in alcohol. When heated in a retort, it decom-\\nposes and yields a sublimate of benzoic acid. At the same\\ntime a certain quantity of an oily body having a disagreeable\\nodor distils: it is phenyl cyanide, or benzonitrile, CN.C 6 H 5\\nSALICYLALDEHYDE (OBTHOXYBENZALDE-\\nHYDE.\\nCTBTO 2 C 6 H*(OH).CHO\\nThis compound, which is isomeric with benzoic acid, exists\\nnaturally in the essential oil of the meadow-sweet {Spiraea ul-\\nmaria). Piria obtained it by oxidizing salicin by potassium\\ndicbromate and sulphuric acid (page 658).\\nIt is also formed by the action of chloroform on phenol in\\npresence of sodium hydrate (page 679).\\nIt is a colorless, highly refracting liquid, and boils at 196.5\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIts density at 13.5\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.173. Its odor is pleasant and its\\ntaste burning. It is quite soluble in water, and dissolves in\\nalcohol and ether in all proportions. It has an acid reaction.\\nIt produces a violet color with ferric chloride. Oxidizing\\nagents convert it into salicylic acid.\\n6H4 ?2o C6H4 \u00c2\u00a3o.OH\\nBy the action of fused potassium hydrate, it is likewise\\ntransformed into salicylic acid, with disengagement of hydrogen.\\nC 7 H 6 2 KOH KC 7 H 5 3 H 2\\nSalicyl aldehyde. Potassium salicylate.\\nSaligeninol. In presence of sodium amalgam and water,\\nsalicyl aldehyde fixes H 2 and is converted into saligeninol\\n(Beincke and Beilstein).\\nC 7 H 6 2 JJ2 _ C 7 H 8 2\\nSalicyl aldehyde. Saligeninol.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0716.jp2"}, "715": {"fulltext": "SALICYLIC (ORTHOXYBENZOIC) ACID. 709\\nThe latter body is also formed, according to Piria, by the\\ndecompositioQ of salicin by ferments and acids (page 658). It\\ncrystallizes in tables having a pearly lustre, or in small, brilliant\\nneedles. It may be made synthetically by the action of methy-\\nlene chloride on sodium phenate (Greene).\\nC6H5.0H CH2C12 2NaOH C6H* ^2 H 2NaC1 H2\\nPhenol. Methylene Saligeninol.\\nchloride.\\nSALICYLIC (ORTHOXYBENZOIC) ACID.\\nCH60 3 C 6 H*(OH).C0 2 H\\nFormation and Preparation. This body was discovered\\nby Piria, who obtained it, in 1839, by fusing salicyl aldehyde\\nwith potassium hydrate.\\nC 7 H 6 2 K0H _ KC 7 H 5 3 H 2\\nOil of meadow-sweet contains it naturally, together with\\nsalicyl aldehyde. The essential oil of Gaultheria procumbens\\n(winter-green) is methyl salicylate (Cahours), that is, sali-\\ncylic acid, in which the atom of basic hydrogen is replaced by\\nmethyl.\\nSalicylic acid was formerly prepared by boiling oil of\\nwinter-green with caustic potassa as long as methyl alcohol\\nis disengaged. Potassium salicylate is formed, and is after-\\nwards decomposed by an excess of hydrochloric acid. The\\nsalicylic acid separates, and is purified by recrystallization\\nfrom boiling water.\\nKolbe and Lautemann formed salicylic acid by synthesis by\\npassing carbon dioxide into phenol in which sodium was dis-\\nsolved. Sodium salicylate is thus formed.\\nC 6 H 5 .OH CO.O C 6H4 H\\nCO.OH\\nPhenol. Salicylic acid.\\nKolbe and Schmitt have improved this process, and large\\nquantities of salicylic acid are now manufactured by treating\\ndry sodium phenate with carbon dioxide under pressure, and\\nheating the product to 130\u00c2\u00b0. According to Schmitt, sodium\\nphenylcarbonate, C 6 H 5 O.COONa, is first formed, and upon\\n60", "height": "4798", "width": "2928", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0717.jp2"}, "716": {"fulltext": "710 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nheating under pressure this is converted into sodium sali-\\ncylate.\\n2C 6 H 5 .ONa CO 2 C 6 H 5 .OH C 6 H* j \u00c2\u00a3O a N a\\nSodium phenate. Phenol. Sodium-salicylate of sodium.\\nAfter removing the excess of phenol by distillation, the\\nmass is exhausted with water, and the solution is treated\\nwith hydrochloric acid, which sets free the salicylic acid.\\nProperties. Salicylic acid crystallizes from its alcoholic\\nsolution in large, monoclinic prisms, and from its aqueous\\nsolution in long needles. It melts at 156\u00c2\u00b0. When mixed with\\npumice-stone and rapidly distilled, it breaks up into carbon\\ndioxide and phenol.\\nC 7 H 6 3 CO 2 C 6 H 6\\nIt is very soluble in alcohol and ether, and in boiling water,\\nbut cold water scarcely dissolves it. Its aqueous solution pro-\\nduces a deep violet color with the ferric salts.\\nWhen salicylic acid is treated with nitric acid, it is converted\\ninto two isomeric nitrogenized acids both are nitrosalicylic\\nacids, C 7 H 5 (N0 2 )0 3\\na-nitrosalicylic acid crystallizes in long, colorless needles,\\nwhich are anhydrous and melt at 228\u00c2\u00b0 they are very slightly\\nsoluble in cold water. It produces a blood-red color with ferric\\nchloride.\\n/5-nitrosalicylic acid crystallizes in long, colorless needles,\\ncontaining one molecule of water of crystallization. When\\nheated, it loses this water and melts at 144-145\u00c2\u00b0. It is slightly\\nsoluble in cold water. Its solution also produces a blood-red\\ncolor with ferric chloride. This acid is also formed when\\nindigo is long boiled with nitric acid. It was formerly called\\nindigotic acid.\\nSalicylic acid possesses antiseptic properties like phenol,\\nwithout presenting the same inconveniences as the latter as\\nregards odor and causticity.\\nMethyl Salicylate, C 7 H 5 (CH 3 )0 3 Cahours first recognized\\nthe oil of Gaultheria, known as essence of winter-green, to be\\nmethyl salicylate. When purified, this body forms a colorless\\noil, having a pleasant odor. It boils at 223.7\u00c2\u00b0. Its density at\\n0\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.1969. Like the phenols, it has the characters of a\\nweak acid. When a concentrated solution of potassium hy-\\ndrate is added to methyl salicylate, a precipitate of potassium", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0718.jp2"}, "717": {"fulltext": "ANISIC ALDEHYDE AND ACID. 711\\ngaultherate is formed. Cahours discovered trie existence of an\\nisomeride of methyl salicylate. It is niethylsalicylic acid. The\\nfollowing formulae indicate the constitutions of these bodies\\nC 6 H\u00c2\u00b1.OH C6H4.0H C6H*.OK C 6 H*.OCH3 CW.OCH 3\\nCO. OH CO.OCH 3 CO.OCH 3 CO.OH CO.OCH 3\\nSalicylic acid. Methyl Potassium Methylsalicylic Methyl\\nsalicylate. gaultherate acid. methylsalicylate.\\nMETOXTBENZOIC AND PAROXYBENZOIC ACIDS.\\nThese two acids are isomeric with salicylic acid.\\nMetoxybenzoic acid is formed under various circumstances\\nespecially when metachloro-benzoic acid, a chloro-derivative of\\nbenzoic acid, is heated with potassium hydrate.\\nC 7 H 5 C10 2 2KOH C 7 H\\\\OK)0 2 KC1 H 2\\nIt is an anhydrous, crystalline powder, consisting of small,\\nsquare tables. Sometimes it is in mammillated crystals. It melts\\nat 200\u00c2\u00b0, and can be distilled without alteration. It is only\\nslightly soluble in cold water, but dissolves more readily in boil-\\ning water.\\nParoxybenzoic Acid is formed under rather remarkable cir-\\ncumstances. We have already seen that in presence of sodium,\\nphenol fixes carbon dioxide, forming sodium salicylate. If the so-\\ndium be replaced by potassium, the same reaction produces potas-\\nsium paroxybenzoate. The same salt is formed when potassium\\nphenate is heated to 210 or 220\u00c2\u00b0 in a current of carbon dioxide\\nbelow 150\u00c2\u00b0, only potassium salicylate is formed.\\nParoxybenzoic acid crystallizes in transparent, oblique rhom-\\nbic prisms, containing one molecule of water of crystallization.\\nWhen anhydrous, it melts at 210\u00c2\u00b0, and is partially decomposed\\ninto phenol and carbon dioxide. It is much more soluble in\\nwater and alcohol than salicylic acid. Its aqueous solution\\ndoes not produce a violet color with ferric chloride.\\nANISIC ALDEHYDE AND ACID.\\nAnisic Compounds. When the oils of anise, of fennel, or\\nof tarragon are heated with nitric acid, they are converted into\\na colorless oil, having a spicy odor, and boiling at 248\u00c2\u00b0. This\\nis anisic aldehyde, C 8 H 8 2 By a mere complete oxidation,\\nthis aldehyde is converted into anisic acid, C 8 H 8 3 The latter\\ncrystallizes from hot water in long needles, and from alcohol in\\nrhomboidal prisms. It melts at 185\u00c2\u00b0, and distils without de-\\ncomposition at about 280\u00c2\u00b0. When heated with barium oxide,", "height": "4794", "width": "2897", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0719.jp2"}, "718": {"fulltext": "712\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nC 6 H4 C00H\\nParoxybenzoic acid.\\nC6H4 /0CH3\\nMethylparoxybenzoic,\\nor anisic aldehyde.\\nC 2 H5\\nC0 2 H C0 2 H\\nPropionic acid. Amidopropionic acid.\\nit- is decomposed into carbon dioxide and anisol (page 680).\\nAnisic aldehyde and acid present very simple relations of com-\\nposition with paroxybenzoic acid.\\nAnisic aldehyde is methylparoxybenzoic aldehyde, and anisic\\nacid is methylparoxybenzoic acid.\\nc6H4 r OCH3\\nn ^CO.OH\\nMethylparoxybenzoic,\\nor anisic acid.\\nTYROSINE.\\nC 9 H n N03\\nThis body seems to be related to the preceding compounds.\\nIt may be regarded as amidopropionic acid in which one atom\\nof hydrogen is replaced by the group C 6 H 4 .OH (paroxyphenyl)\\nas it exists in paroxybenzoic acid.\\nC2H*(NH2) C 2 IF(C6H4.0H)(NH2)\\nC0 2 H\\nOxypnenyl-amidopropionic\\nacid (tyrosine).\\nTyrosine is the product of the decomposition of many nitro-\\ngenized matters in the animal economy. It may be prepared\\nby boiling for sixteen hours 1 part of horn shavings with 2\\nparts of sulphuric acid diluted with 4 times its volume of water.\\nThe liquid is then neutralized with milk of lime, filtered, the\\nfiltrate evaporated to half its volume, acidified with sulphuric\\nacid, and treated with an excess of lead carbonate.\\nThe solution, which contains the tyrosine as lead salt, is de-\\ncomposed by hydrogen sulphide, filtered, and evaporated. The\\ntyrosine crystallizes out, and may be purified by several crystal-\\nlizations. The mother-liquors contain leucine.\\nTyrosine crystallizes in long, colorless needles, often united\\nin tufts. It is but slightly soluble in water and in cold alcohol,\\nmore soluble in hot alcohol, and insoluble in ether. It forms\\ndefinite compounds with both acids and bases. When fused\\nwith potassium hydrate, it breaks up into paroxybenzoic and\\nacetic acids, and ammonia.\\nTyrosine may be recognized by the following reaction.\\nWhen its aqueous solution is boiled with a solution of mer-\\ncuric nitrate, as neutral as possible, a voluminous yellow precip-\\nitate is formed, which assumes a deep copper-red color by\\nboiling with nitric acid containing a small quantity of nitrous\\nacid.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0720.jp2"}, "719": {"fulltext": "GALLIC ACID. 713\\nGALLIC ACID.\\nC 7H6()5 C 6 H 2 (OH) 3 CO.OH\\nThis acid is closely related to salicylic acid. It is dioxysali-\\ncylic acid, and Lautemann obtained it by treating di-iodosali-\\ncylic acid with alkalies.\\nC 7 H 4 P0 3 2KOH 2KI C 7 H 4 (OH) 2 3\\nDi-iodosalicylic acid. Gallic acid.\\nWe have already seen that gallic acid is a product of the\\ndecomposition of tannic acid. It is prepared by exposing\\ncoarsely-powdered and moistened nut-galls to the air, renewing\\nthe water as it evaporates. At the end of two or three months\\na black liquid is separated from the mass by strong pressure,\\nand the solid residue is exhausted with boiling water. Gallic\\nacid crystallizes out on the cooling of the filtered liquid. It is\\npurified by several crystallizations in boiling water.\\nGallic acid forms long, silky needles, which contain one\\nmolecule of water of crystallization. It has no odor its taste\\nis astringent and slightly acid. When heated to 100\u00c2\u00b0, it loses\\ncarbon dioxide and is converted into pyrogallol, or pyrogallic\\nacid.\\nC 7 H 6 5 CO 2 C 6 H 3 (OH) 3\\nGallic acid. Pyrogallol.\\nGallic acid dissolves in 100 parts of cold water, and in 3\\nparts of boiling water. It is very soluble in alcohol, less soluble\\nin ether. Its solution gradually absorbs oxygen when exposed\\nto the air, and at the same time becomes colored and disengages\\ncarbon dioxide.\\nIf a recently boiled solution of gallic acid be passed up into\\na tube filled with mercury and containing no air, and some\\nrecently boiled baryta-water be then added, a white precipitate\\nis formed which at once changes to blue, if a few bubbles of\\noxygen be introduced. The change of color is the indication\\nof an oxidation of the gallic acid, favored in this case by the\\npresence of the alkali.\\nPyrogallol, or Pyrogallic Acid, C 6 H 3 (OH) 3 occurs in\\nbrilliant white laminae which melt at 115\u00c2\u00b0. It is soluble in\\nwater, sparingly soluble in alcohol and ether. It is a power-\\nful reducing agent gold, silver, and mercury are precipitated\\nby it from their solutions. Dissolved in an excess of potash\\nlye, pyrogallol energetically absorbs oxygen. This solution\\n60*", "height": "4778", "width": "2917", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0721.jp2"}, "720": {"fulltext": "714 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nis employed for the rapid estimation of oxygen in air and\\nother gaseous mixtures.\\nThe peculiar reducing properties of pyrogallic acid render\\nit one of the best photographic developers.\\nXYLENES AND DERIVATIVES.\\nC8Hi\u00c2\u00b0=C 6 H*(CH3)2\\nThat portion of coal-tar which boils between 136 and 139\u00c2\u00b0\\ncontains a mixture of isomeric hydrocarbons, which is desig-\\nCH 3\\nnated as xylene. It is dimethylbenzene, C 6 H 4 CnTj 3 ,andcan\\nexist in three different isomeric modifications, like all of the\\ndi-substituted derivatives of benzene.\\nMetaxylene, which boils at 137\u00c2\u00b0, predominates in the mixture\\nof xylenes which is obtained from coal-tar. When oxidized by\\nchomic acid, it is converted into isophthalic acid, C 6 H*(C0 2 H) 2\\nOrthoxylene is a colorless liquid, boiling at 140-141\u00c2\u00b0. Ni-\\ntric acid oxidizes it to orthotoluic acid and farther to phthalic\\nacid.\\nParaxylene is solid, and crystallizes in oblique rhombic\\nprisms, fusible at 15\u00c2\u00b0. It boils at 136-137\u00c2\u00b0. Dilute nitric\\nacid converts it into paratoluic acid. Chromic acid oxidizes it\\nto terephthalic acid.\\nThere are very many derivatives allied to these isomeric\\nxylenes. One or more atoms of hydrogen may be replaced,\\neither in the benzene nucleus or in the methyl chains, by chlo-\\nrine, bromine, or by groups such as OH, NO 2 NH 2 etc. The\\nmethyl chains may be oxidized by boiling the xylenes with nitric\\nor chromic acid, as indicated above. In this case the group\\nCH* is replaced by the carboxyl group CO. OH, and the hy-\\ndrocarbons, C 6 H 4 (CH 3 2 are converted into either toluic acids\\nor phthalic acids, of each of which there are three isomerides.\\nCH* OHK^oh Ce H \u00c2\u00a3O.OH\\nXylenes. Toluic acids. Phthalic acids.\\nWe cannot describe all of these bodies here, but must limit\\nourselves to a brief description of phthalic acid and its isomer-\\nides.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0722.jp2"}, "721": {"fulltext": "PHTHALIC ACIDS. 715\\nPHTHALIC ACIDS.\\nC 8 H60* C 6 H\u00c2\u00b1(CO.OH) 2\\nOrdinary, or Orthophthalic Acid. Laurent obtained this\\nacid by boiling naphthalene for a long time with nitric acid. It\\ncrystallizes in brilliant scales, or in short, thick prisms, which\\nare but slightly soluble in cold water, very soluble in hot water,\\nalcohol, and ether. It melts at 213\u00c2\u00b0, and loses the elements\\nof water at a higher temperature, being converted into phthalic\\nanhydride.\\nc6H4 COOH H2 c6H4 co\\nPhthalic acid. Phthalic anhydride.\\nPhthalic anhydride crystallizes in long, brilliant prisms,\\nfusible at 127-128\u00c2\u00b0. It boils at 277\u00c2\u00b0. It possesses a remarka-\\nble property, which was discovered by A. Baeyer, and which* is\\nnow applied practically in the arts. When heated with the\\nphenols, it combines with them directly with elimination of the\\nelements of water, and compounds are obtained which are\\ndesignated as phthaleins.\\nThus, when phthalic anhydride is heated with ordinary\\nphenol, two molecules of phenol combine with one molecule\\nof phthalic anhydride, with elimination of one molecule of\\nwater, and the phthalein of phenol is obtained.\\nC 6H CO C^-.OH C6H C0 0 H2\\nPhthalic anhydride. 2 mol. phenol. Phenolphthalein.\\nPhenolphthalein occurs as a yellowish crystalline powder.\\nIt melts at 250\u00c2\u00b0 and dissolves readily in alcohol. Its solu-\\ntion turns pink with the slightest trace of free alkali hence\\nit is used as an indicator in alkalimetry.\\nWhen resorcinol is heated with phthalic anhydride, two\\nmolecules of water are eliminated, and a body is obtained to\\nwhich Baeyer has given the name fluorescein.\\n^CO-^ C 6 H*(OH)2 n illu\\nx co/\\nPhthalic anhydride. 2 mol. resorcinol. Fluorescein.\\nFluorescein forms orange-red, crystalline grains, insoluble\\nin cold water, and but slightly soluble in boiling water. It\\ndissolves readily in solutions of the alkalies and alkaline", "height": "4787", "width": "2892", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0723.jp2"}, "722": {"fulltext": "716 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ncarbonates. Its dilute solutions are yellow, and have a mag-\\nnificent green fluorescence. Hence the name fluorescein.\\nTetrabromo-fluorescein, C 20 H 8 Br 4 O 5 is employed in dyeing\\nunder the name eosin. It communicates to silk a beautiful\\nrose-red tint.\\nTerephthalic Acid. Cailliot obtained this body by sub-\\nmitting oil of turpentine to a long ebullition with dilute\\nnitric acid. The same acid is formed by the oxidation of\\nparaxylene and its derivatives by potassium dichromate and\\nsulphuric acid. It is a white powder, almost insoluble in\\nwater, alcohol, and ether. It sublimes without melting and\\nwithout decomposition.\\nIsophthalic Acid is formed by the oxidation of metaxy-\\nlene or metatoluic acid. Long, thin, colorless crystals, slightly\\nsoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, and fusible above 300\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt may be sublimed without decomposition.\\nTRIMETHYL-BENZENES AND ISOMERIDES.\\nThe hydrocarbons C 9 H 12 may be derived from benzene by the\\nsubstitution 1, of three methyl groups for three atoms of\\nhydrogen 2, of a methyl and ethyl group for two atoms of\\nhydrogen 3, of a propyl or isopropyl group for one atom of\\nhydrogen.\\nTheir constitutions are then thus expressed\\nC 6 H 3 (CH 3 3 C6H4 C 2 H 5 C 6 H 5 -C 3 H 7\\nTrimethylbenzenes. Methyl-ethyl benzenes. Propyl and isopropyl benzenes.\\nTrimethylbenzenes. The methyl groups may be arranged\\nin three different ways, and three isomers of position are\\nactually known.\\n/CHT)\\nMesitylene, C 6 H 3 ^-0H 3 3 the symmetrical trimethylbenzene,\\nX CH 3 5\\nis obtained by distilling acetone with an equal measure of sul-\\nphuric acid diluted with half its volume of water the reaction\\nis moderated by adding sand to the mixture.\\nMesitylene is a liquid having a pleasant odor, and boiling at\\n163\u00c2\u00b0. When boiled with dilute nitric acid it is oxidized, and\\nforms successively three acids, in which one, two, or all of the\\nmethyl groups are converted into carboxyl.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0724.jp2"}, "723": {"fulltext": "CYJIENE AND ITS DERIVATIVES. 717\\n/CH 3 /CH 3 /CH 3 /CO.OH\\nC 6 HVCH 3 3 C 6 HVCH 3 CH r-CO.OH C 6 H 3 ^CO.OH\\nX CH 3 5 x CO.OH x CO.OH x CO.OH\\nMesitylene. Mesitylenic acid. Mesidic Trimesic acid.\\nor uritic acid.\\nm\\nWith concentrated nitric acid it yields nitro-derivatives.\\nPseudocumene, or asymmetrical triniethylbenzene,\\n/CH 3 C)\\nC 6 H 3 CH 3 3 exists, together with mesitylene, in coal-tar,\\n\\\\CH 3\\nbut cannot be separated by fractional distillation. It is ob-\\ntained synthetically by treating a mixture of bromoparaxy-\\nlene and methyl iodide with sodium. It boils at 169\u00c2\u00b0.\\nHemimellitliene, C 6 H 3 ^-CH 3 2 has the methyl groups in\\n\\\\CH 3 3\\nadjacent positions, and is produced when bromometaxylene,\\n0) (2) (3)\\nC 6 H 3 CH 3 BrCH\\\\ is made to react with methyl iodide and\\nsodium (Jacobsen). It boils at 175\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCumene, or Isopropylbenzene, C 6 H 5 -C 3 H 7i was obtained by\\nGerhardt and Cahours by distilling cuminic acid with lime.\\nC 6 H 4 ^q H CO 2 C 6 H 5 -C 3 H 7\\nCuminic acid. Cumene.\\nIts synthesis has been made by the action of isopropyl iodide\\non benzene, in presence of aluminium chloride.\\nC 6 H 6 CH 3 -CHI-CH 3 HI C 6 H 5 -CH ^3\\nIt is a colorless liquid, boiling at 151\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCYMENE AND ITS DERIVATIVES.\\nCymene, which is a product of the dehydration of camphor,\\nis methylisopropylbenzene. Its synthesis is made by the ac-\\ntion of sodium on a mixture of parabromisopropyl benzene\\nand methyl iodide (Widnian).\\nIt exists naturally in the essential oil of Cuminum Cyminum,\\nwhich contains also cuminol, or cuminic aldehyde, C 6 H 4 pyj^.\\nTogether with thymol, it exists in oil of thyme. It may be best", "height": "4791", "width": "2898", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0725.jp2"}, "724": {"fulltext": "718 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nprepared by distilling laurel camphor with phosphorus penta-\\nchloride.\\nCymene is a liquid of an agreeable odor density at 0\u00c2\u00b0,\\n0.872. It boils at 175-176\u00c2\u00b0.\\nUpon oxidation with nitric acid it yields paratoluic acid\\nchromic acid converts it into terephthalic acid.\\nTHYMOL, OR THYME-CAMPHOR.\\nThis compound, which is a phenol, presents certain analo-\\ngies to the camphors (page 727). Thymol and its isomeride,\\ncarvacrolj are related to cymene, being oxycymenes.\\nC\u00c2\u00bbH* J; U C 6 H 3 fOH( 3 CH fOHO\\nluu \\\\C 3 H 7 4 \\\\C 3 H 7 4\\nCymene. Thymol. Carvacrol.\\nThymol exists, with cymene and thymene (C 10 H 16 in oil\\nof thyme (Thymus serpyllum), and in the essential oils of\\nPtychotis ajowan and Monarda punctata. It is prepared by\\ntreating these oils with potassium hydrate solution, separating\\nthe insoluble hydrocarbons, and precipitating the alkaline\\nsolution with hydrochloric acid.\\nThymol crystallizes in large colorless plates, fusible at 44\u00c2\u00b0,\\nand boiling at 230\u00c2\u00b0. It possesses antiseptic properties.\\nTERPENES AND CAMPHORS.\\nClosely related to cymene are a number of hydrocarbons\\nof the composition (C 5 H 8 n known as the terpenes, and their\\noxygenized derivatives, the camphors. Both groups of com-\\npounds are widely distributed in nature.\\nThe terpenes proper are represented by the formula C 10 H 16\\nThey form the basis of many essential oils, such as the oils\\nof turpentine, lemon, orange-peel, bergamot, juniper, savin,\\nelemi, eucalyptus, etc.\\nAt low temperatures some of these deposit oxygenized\\nsolid bodies that were formerly designated as stearoptenes,\\nbut are now classed with the camphors.\\nEssential Oils. These volatile liquids are generally ob-\\ntained by distilling the vegetable products which contain\\nthem with water, for, although their boiling-points are be-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0726.jp2"}, "725": {"fulltext": "TERPENES AND CAMPHORS.\\n719\\ntween 150 and 200\u00c2\u00b0, they distil readily with aqueous vapor,\\nand collect in the form, of a layer on the surface of the\\ncondensed water.\\nThe more ordinary process consists in passing a current of\\nsteam through the plants or aromatic vegetables. For this\\npurpose they are placed on a diaphragm, M (Fig. 134), which\\n(ft\\n3\\nM\\nFig. 134.\\nis fixed above the bottom of an ordinary still. The head of\\nthe still is then adjusted, connection is made with a condenser,\\nand a current of steam is passed in by the tube TT T which\\npenetrates into the still. The steam carries with it the essen-\\ntial oil, which diffuses in it by virtue of\\nthe high tension of the vapor of these oils at\\n100\u00c2\u00b0. The mixed vapors rise into the head\\nof the still and condense in the condensing\\nworm. The condensed water, generally\\nclouded by little drops of the essential oil,\\nis received in a vessel of peculiar form,\\nwhich is called a Florentine receiver. It is\\nshaped like an ordinary flask (Fig. 135),\\nhaving at its bottom a tube which curves\\nupwards, in the form of a swan s neck, and\\nthe upper part of which is but little below IG\\nthe mouth of the flask. As the condensed water and oil collect\\nin this ingenious apparatus, the oil separates and floats on the\\nwater as the distillation continues, the liquid rises not only in\\nthe flask, but in the lateral tube, until the water, which is\\nalways in large excess, reaches the level of the curved neck\\nand flows off alone, the lighter oil accumulating in the flask.", "height": "4795", "width": "2891", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0727.jp2"}, "726": {"fulltext": "720 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nOIL OF TURPENTINE.\\nThe most important of the essential oils is oil of turpen-\\ntine, which is obtained by distilling the turpentine of com-\\nmerce with water. Turpentine is a mixture of resin and\\nessential oil, and flows from incisions cut in the trunks of\\ntrees of the genera Pinus, Abies, Picea, Larix.\\nWhen this resinous substance is distilled with water, the\\noil passes over and the resin remains the latter is called\\ncolophony, or rosin.\\nOil of turpentine is a colorless, mobile liquid, having a\\npeculiar odor, and boiling at 158\u00c2\u00b0. Its density at 16\u00c2\u00b0 is\\n0.870. It is insoluble in water, but miscible in all propor-\\ntions with alcohol and ether. According to their origin, the\\nturpentines exhibit certain peculiarities, especially in their\\naction upon polarized light. The following are the most\\nimportant varieties\\n1. American oil of turpentine is obtained from the turpen-\\ntine of Pinus palustris. It rotates the plane of polarization\\nto the right.\\n2. English oil of turpentine (australene) is derived from\\nPinus australis, and is likewise dextro-rotatory.\\n3. French turpentine comes from the Pinus maritima it\\nyields an oil which turns the plane of polarization to the left.\\n4. German oil of turpentine is distilled from the turpentine\\nof Pinus sylvestris. It is levo-rotatory.\\n5. Venetian oil of turpentine comes from the exudation of\\nLarix europma, and is levo-rotatory.\\nMetamorphoses of Oil of Turpentine. 1. When exposed to\\nthe air, oil of turpentine gradually absorbs oxygen, becomes\\nyellow and partly resinified. This slow oxidation is due to\\nthe production of ozone, with which the oil becomes charged\\nit then possesses oxidizing properties (page 71).\\n2. If vapor of oil of turpentine be passed through a red-\\nhot porcelain tube, it is decomposed, yielding isoprene, C 5 H 8\\ncymene, benzene, toluene, xylene, and higher hydrocarbons.\\n3. Concentrated nitric acid oxidizes oil of turpentine with\\nsuch energy that the mixture sometimes takes fire. When\\nboiled with dilute nitric acid, it forms paratoluic, terephthalic,\\nand oxalic acids.\\n4. When a mixture of alcohol, nitric acid, and oil of tur-\\npentine is left to itself for some time, the latter substance", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0728.jp2"}, "727": {"fulltext": "TERPENES. 721\\nfixes the elements of three molecules of water and is con-\\nverted into a crystallized solid body, C 10 H 20 O 2 -f H 2 0, called\\nterpm hydrate. If this hydrate be heated to 100\u00c2\u00b0, it loses\\nwater and is converted into a crystalline mass, fusible at\\n117\u00c2\u00b0 this is terpin.\\n5. When oil of turpentine is mixed with its weight of\\nconcentrated sulphuric acid, and the mixture is agitated, it is\\nconverted into terebene, an optically inactive mixture of ter-\\npenes, which boils at 156\u00c2\u00b0, and a polymeric hydrocarbon,\\nC 20 H 32 which boils between 310 and 313\u00c2\u00b0 (H. Deville). By\\nreason of the reducing action which the oil of turpentine\\nexerts on the sulphuric acid, and which produces sulphurous\\noxide and water, two atoms of hydrogen are removed from\\nthe molecule C 10 H 16 and, independently of terebene. a certain\\nquantity of cymene, C 10 H U is formed (Riban).\\nC 10 H 16 S0 4 H 2 C 10 H U SO 2 2EPO\\n6. The halogens act energetically upon oil of turpentine.\\nAt low temperatures it combines with chlorine and bromine,\\nforming di-halogen addition products, and these upon warm-\\ning give off two molecules of hydrochloric or hydrobromic\\nacid, and are converted into cyniene.\\nC 10 H 16 C p C 10 H 16 CP\\nC 10 H 16 C1 2 _ C 10 H U 2HC1\\nThis conversion of turpentine into cymene is most readily\\neffected by heating it with iodine.\\n7. Oil of turpentine combines with the halogen acids.\\nSome of the turpenes occurring in turpentine combine with\\nonly one molecule of hydrochloric acid, whilst others form\\naddition products with two molecules (see below).\\nTERPENES.\\nOf the hydrocarbons having the composition C 10 H 16 the\\nfollowing have been isolated\\nPinene. This is the chief constituent of the common\\nvarieties of oil of turpentine it is also met with in a large\\nnumber of other essential oils. It exists in two optically\\nactive modifications American oil of turpentine contains\\ndextro-pinene, while the pinene of French turpentine is levo-\\nrotatory.\\n2f vv 61", "height": "4789", "width": "2902", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0729.jp2"}, "728": {"fulltext": "722 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nPinene combines with only one molecule of hydrochloric\\nacid, forming the hydrochloride C 10 H 16 .HC1. This is a solid,\\nmelting at 125\u00c2\u00b0 and boiling at 208\u00c2\u00b0. It smells like camphor,\\nand was formerly called artificial camphor.\\nAddition products of pinene with two atoms of chlorine\\nand bromine are also known.\\nCamphene. Camphene is an artificial product, and is the\\nonly terpene which is solid at ordinary temperatures. It\\nresults from the elimination of hydrochloric acid from pinene\\nhydrochloride, and is readily prepared by heating bornyl\\nchloride, C 10 H 17 C1, with aniline. The melting-point of cam-\\nphene is 50\u00c2\u00b0. Two optically active modifications of opposite\\nrotatory power and an inactive camphene are known.\\nCamphene forms a monohydrochloride, but does not appear\\nto be capable of combining with the free halogens.\\nFenchene resembles camphene in many respects. It was\\nobtained by Wallach by heating fenchyl chloride, an isome-\\nride of bornyl chloride, with aniline. Its odor recalls that\\nof camphene. Unlike the latter it does not solidify at low\\ntemperatures. It combines readily with one molecule of\\nhydrochloric acid and with bromine.\\nLimonene is present in many essential oils, especially in\\nthe oils of orange-peel, lemon, and bergamot. Two active\\nvarieties dextro- and levo-limonene and inactive limonene\\nhave been obtained. This terpene boils at 175\u00c2\u00b0. Its density\\nat 20\u00c2\u00b0 is 0.846. It combines with only one molecule of dry\\nhydrochloric acid, but the resulting compound, C 10 H 16 .HC1,\\nforms addition products when treated with moist hydrochloric\\nacid or with bromine. The dihydrochloride is identical with\\nthat of dipentene. Limonene tetrabromide melts at 105\u00c2\u00b0.\\nDipentene is an optically inactive terpene, formed by the\\naction of heat or acids upon pinene and limonene. It is also\\nproduced in the distillation of caoutchouc, and occurs natu-\\nrally in oil of elemi. Its properties are almost identical with\\nthose of limonene, to which it is closely related. The tetra-\\nbromide melts at 125\u00c2\u00b0.\\nDipentene, as well as the limonenes, form characteristic\\ncombinations, C l0 H 16 .NOCl, with nitrosyl chloride: these\\nnitrosochlorides upon boiling with alcohol are converted into\\nthe corresponding carvoximes, C 10 H 16 .NOH.\\nSylvestrene occurs in Swedish and Russian oils of turpen-\\ntine. Its characters are very like those of the limonenes.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0730.jp2"}, "729": {"fulltext": "TERPENES. 723\\nIt is dextro-rotatory, as is also its (^hydrochloride, which\\nmelts at 72\u00c2\u00b0.\\nPhellandrene. This terpene is found in oil of fennel and\\nin certain eucalyptus oils. It boils at 170\u00c2\u00b0 and rotates the\\nplane of polarization to the right.\\nWhen a solution of phellandrene in petroleum ether is\\nagitated with a solution of sodium nitrite, and acetic acid\\nis gradually added, a voluminous crystalline mass of phel-\\nlandrene nitrosite, C 10 H 16 .N 2 O 3 separates. This rather un-\\nstable body is highly characteristic its melting-point is 102\u00c2\u00b0\\n(Cahours, Wallach).\\nTerpinene is formed by an intramolecular rearrangement\\nof other terpenes, and occurs in oil of cardamom it boils about\\n180\u00c2\u00b0, and forms a characteristic nitrosite fusible at 155\u00c2\u00b0.\\nTerpinolene is obtained by heating pinene with sulphuric\\nacid. It boils about 185\u00c2\u00b0. The tetrabromide melts at 116\u00c2\u00b0.\\nDihydrocymene, which has been made synthetically by\\nBaeyer, boils at 174\u00c2\u00b0, and closely resembles some of the\\nnatural terpenes.\\nOf the other hydrocarbons which are included in the ter-\\npene group, only a few can be mentioned here.\\nIsoprene, C 5 H 8 belongs to the hemiterpenes. It is pro-\\nduced in the destructive distillation of caoutchouc, and\\nreadily polymerizes to dipentene. Isoprene boils at 37\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCedrene and Cubebene, C 15 H 24 represent the sesquiter-\\npenes. They boil between 250 and 260\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCaoutchouc (C 5 H 8 X This poly terpene is contained in the\\nsap of many plants. It is obtained in an impure condition\\nby allowing the milk of certain tropical trees (St/phonia,\\nFicus elastica) to become solid. When fresh it is colorless\\nand extremely elastic, but upon exposure to air and light it\\nbecomes dark and brittle.\\nPure caoutchouc cannot be melted without decomposition.\\nIt is insoluble in water and in alcohol, but soluble in ether,\\ncarbon disulphide, chloroform, and benzene. Its exact con-\\nstitution is not known it is free from oxygen, and on dry\\ndistillation yields hydrocarbons (isoprene, dipentene, etc.).\\nCaoutchouc acquires valuable properties when treated with\\nsulphur. It is then said to be vulcanized.\\nGutta-Percha is obtained from the Isonandra-tree. and\\nresembles caoutchouc in many respects, but is hard at ordi-\\nnary temperatures, and contains oxygen.", "height": "4783", "width": "2921", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0731.jp2"}, "730": {"fulltext": "724 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nORDINARY CAMPHOR, OR LAUREL CAMPHOR.\\nC 10 H 16 O\\nCamphor exists in all the parts of Laurus camphora, a\\ntree occurring in Japan and China, and especially abundant\\nin the Island of Formosa. When the wood is chipped and\\ndistilled with water, the camphor volatilizes and condenses in\\nrice-straw, with which the heads of the stills in which the\\noperation is conducted are filled. The product thus obtained\\nin the form of small crystals, is refined by sublimation in\\nglass vessels heated on a sand-bath.\\nArtificially, camphor has been obtained by the oxidation\\nof camphene and borneol.\\nCamphor forms a semi-transparent, crystalline mass. Its\\nodor is strong and aromatic its taste, bitter and burning. It\\nmelts at 175\u00c2\u00b0, and boils and distils without alteration at 204\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIts density at 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.0. At ordinary temperatures, the ten-\\nsion of its vapor is so great that it sublimes spontaneously in\\nthe vessels in which it is kept.\\nCamphor is almost insoluble in water; when thrown in\\nsmall fragments on the surface of that liquid, it executes gyra-\\ntory movements. It dissolves in alcohol and ether, and the al-\\ncoholic solution rotates the plane of polarization to the right.\\nA levo-rotatory modification of camphor results from the\\noxidation of levo-camphene, and occurs naturally in the oil\\nof Matricaria parthenium.\\nCamphor is inflammable, and burns with a smoky flame.\\nThe following are its principal reactions\\n1. When heated with phosphoric anhydride, or with chlo-\\nride of zinc, it loses the elements of water and is converted\\ninto cymene.\\nC 10 H 16Q H 2 Q C 10 H U\\nCamphor. Cymene.\\nAt the same time, other aromatic hydrocarbons, among\\nwhich are toluene, xylene, and mesitylene, are formed.\\n2. Camphor appears to be a ketone. Although it does\\nnot fix hydrogen directly, it can nevertheless be converted into\\na compound, C 10 H 18 O, which is borneol, or Borneo camphor.\\nThis is accomplished by the action of sodium, which replaces\\nthe hydrogen of a portion of the camphor, forming a sodium-\\ncamphor, while the displaced hydrogen is fixed upon another\\nportion of camphor (Baubigny),", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0732.jp2"}, "731": {"fulltext": "CAMPHOR. 725\\nAccording to this reaction, corroborated by the inverse re-\\naction, which will be indicated farther on, the same relations\\nseem to exist between borneol and camphor as between iso-\\npropyl alcohol and acetone.\\nC io H i6 C 10 H 18 O\\nCamphor. Borneol.\\n3. Like other ketones, camphor reacts with phenylhy-\\ndrazine and with hydroxylamine, forming the hydrazone\\nC 10 H 16 (N 2 HC 6 H 5 and the oxime C io H 16 (N.OH), respectively.\\nCamphoroxime is readily prepared by heating camphor with\\nhydroxylamine hydrochloride and sodium hydroxide in alco-\\nholic solution (Auwers). It forms needle- like crystals which\\nmelt at 115\u00c2\u00b0.\\n4. When camphor is heated for a long time with an alco-\\nholic solution of potassium hydrate, it is decomposed into an\\nacid and an alcohol, which is borneol (Berthelot).\\n2C 10 H 16 O KOH C 10 H 15 KO 2 C 10 H 18 O\\nCamphor. Potassium camphinate. Borneol.\\n5. When vapor of camphor is passed over soda-lime, heated\\nto about 300\u00c2\u00b0, the sodium salt of campholic acid is obtained\\n(Delalande).\\nC io H i6 Na0H c i0 H 17 NaO 2\\nCamphor. Sodium campholate.\\n6. When camphor is subjected to the action of aqueous\\nhypochlorous acid, it is converted into monochloro-camphor,\\nC 10 H 15 ClO, which constitutes a colorless, crystalline mass,\\nslightly soluble in water, freely soluble in alcohol and ether,\\nand fusible at 95\u00c2\u00b0.\\n7. By the action of bromine on camphor at 100 or 120\u00c2\u00b0,\\nmonobromo camphor, C 10 H 15 BrO, and dibromo camphor,\\nC 10 H u Br 2 O, are formed. These bodies crystallize in colorless\\nprisms. The first fuses at 76\u00c2\u00b0, the second, at 57\u00c2\u00b0.\\nA bromide of camphor, C 10 H 16 OBr 2 is also known; it is\\nformed by the action of bromine on a solution of camphor in\\nchloroform. It is a crystalline body which decomposes spon-\\ntaneously, especially by the action of light, losing hydrobromio\\nacid and being converted into monobromo-camphor.\\n8. Heating with iodine converts camphor into carvacrol\\n(page 718).\\nQ10JJ16Q _J_ p _ C 10 H H O _|_ 2HI\\n61*", "height": "4799", "width": "2912", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0733.jp2"}, "732": {"fulltext": "726 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\n9. Camphor absorbs hydrochloric acid gas, forming an oil\\nwhich is instantly decomposed by water, regenerating cam-\\nphor. Cold nitric acid dissolves it, forming an oily liquid\\nwhich is decomposed by water, camphor being precipitated.\\n10. When camphor is boiled with nitric acid, it is oxidized\\nand converted into camphoric acid.\\nC 10 H 16 O Q3 C 10 H 16 O*\\nCamphor. Camphoric acid.\\nFenchone is the name given by Wallach to an isomeride\\nof camphor which occurs in oil of fennel. It melts at 5\u00c2\u00b0\\nand boils at 192\u00c2\u00b0. At 19\u00c2\u00b0 its specific gravity is 0.946. It\\nis dextro-rotatory.\\nAlthough soluble in concentrated nitric acid, it is but\\nslowly oxidized even when boiled with a large excess of this\\nacid.\\nFenchoneoxime forms beautiful crystals, melting at about\\n150\u00c2\u00b0.\\nBORNEOL, OR BORNEO CAMPHOR.\\nC iohi80\\nThis camphor is extracted from the Dryobalanops aromatica,\\na tree which grows in the Sunda Islands. Berthelot has ob-\\ntained it by the action of an alcoholic solution of potassa on\\nordinary camphor. It occurs in small, colorless, transparent,\\nand friable crystals. Its odor recalls at the same time that of\\ncamphor and that of pepper. Its taste is burning. It melts\\nat 206\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at 212\u00c2\u00b0. It turns the plane of polarization\\nto the right. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in\\nalcohol and in ether. When treated with cold, fuming nitric acid,\\nit loses H 2 and is converted into ordinary camphor, C 10 H 16 O.\\nCineol is isomeric with borneol. It is the chief constituent\\nof the oils of cajeput and wormseed. It is a colorless liquid\\nwhich boils at 176\u00c2\u00b0. Its character is that of an oxide.\\nMENTHOL, OR MINT CAMPHOR.\\nCioipoo\\nMenthol is the solid part of the essential oil of mint\\n(Mentha piperita), in which it exists mixed with liquid ter-\\npenes. It is deposited in crystals when oil of mint is cooled.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0734.jp2"}, "733": {"fulltext": "CONSTITUTION OF THE TERPENES AND CAMPHORS. 727\\nIt forms colorless crystals, fusible at 42\u00c2\u00b0 it boils at\\n213\u00c2\u00b0. It rotates the plane of polarized light to the left.\\nDehydrating agents, such as phosphoric anhydride and\\nzinc chloride, convert it into menthene, C 10 H 18 boiling at\\n165\u00c2\u00b0.\\nConstitution of the Terpenes and Camphors. We have\\nseen that, under certain conditions, the benzene nucleus is\\ncapable of forming addition compounds (page 672). Thus,\\nby the action of chlorine or bromine upon benzene in sun-\\nlight, di-, tetra-, and hexa-halogen addition products are\\nobtained, and by heating benzene with a large excess of\\nstrong hydriodic acid, it is converted into hexahydrobenzene,\\nC 6 H 12 In the latter case the benzene nucleus is said to be\\nreduced, the six latent atomicities being satisfied with hydro-\\ngen. When the nucleus is ov\\\\y partially reduced, that is to\\nsay when only two or four atoms of hydrogen are added, the\\naromatic character of the original substance is destroyed,\\nand the derivatives deport themselves like unsaturated com-\\npounds of the fatty series.\\nNow the terpenes of the formula C 10 H 16 contain two atoms\\nmore of hydrogen than cymene, and they are readily con-\\nverted into this hydrocarbon, or derivatives of it, by various\\nreactions. Moreover, their behavior towards the halogens\\nand halogen acids is that of unsaturated compounds. They\\nmust be considered as dihydrocymenes, and the existence\\nof numerous isomerides is explained by assuming that the\\nadded hydrogens occupy different positions. According to\\nWallach, who has made a most careful study of this group,\\nthe structure of pinene and limonene, for example, may be\\nthus represented\\nCH3 CH\u00c2\u00bb\\n6 6\\nHC CH H 2 C CH\\nl\\\\l I I\\nH 2 C X CH HC CH 2\\nV\\nCH C\\nC3 H 7 C3H7\\nPinene. Limonene.\\nThe camphors are oxygenized derivatives of partially re-\\nduced cymenes. Borneo! contains the group CH.OH, and is", "height": "4797", "width": "2896", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0735.jp2"}, "734": {"fulltext": "728 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nderived from a tetrahydrocymene. Ordinary camphor is the\\ncorresponding ketone.\\nTheir constitutions are probably expressed by the formulae\\nCH3 CH3\\n6 6\\nHC CH.OH HC CO\\nH2C CH* H*C CH 2\\nHC HC\\nW C3H\\nBorneol. Camphor.\\nMenthol appears to be an oxyhexahydrocymene.\\nCAMPHORIC ACID.\\nC 1 oH 1 604= CSH^^o q**\\nThis acid, which has long been known, is obtained by the\\nprolonged boiling of camphor with dilute nitric acid. The\\ncamphor, which at first floats as an oily liquid, at last disappears,\\nand camphoric acid deposits as the solution cools. It is puri-\\nfied by dissolving it in a solution of an alkaline hydrate and\\nprecipitating with hydrochloric acid.\\nCamphoric acid crystallizes by the cooling of its hot aqueous\\nsolution in colorless plates. It is only slightly soluble in cold\\nwater, but quite soluble in alcohol. It melts at 178\u00c2\u00b0, and if\\nheated above its fusing-point loses a molecule of water, and\\nCO\\nbecomes converted into camphoric anhydride, C 8 H 14 ^pQ 0,\\nwhich sublimes in brilliant needles, fusible at 217\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCamphoric acid is dibasic its calcium salt yields by dry distilla-\\ntion the compound camphorone, C 9 H U 0, a liquid boiling at 208\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCaC 10 H u O 4 CaCO 3 C 9 H u O\\nCalcium camphorate. Camphorone.\\nBesides ordinary camphoric acid, which is dextro-rotatory,\\nthere are two other modifications, levo-camphoric acid, ob-\\ntained from matricaria camphor, and meso-camphoric acid,\\nformed by the union of equimolecular quantities of the two\\nactive varieties.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0736.jp2"}, "735": {"fulltext": "UNSATURATED AROMATIC COMPOUNDS. 729\\nAmong the other benzene addition compounds we can\\nmention only the following\\nQuercite, C 6 H 7 (OH) 5 This compound is pentahydroxy-\\nhexahydrobenzene, but was formerly considered to be related\\nto the sugars, and was called acorn-sugar, having been first\\nobtained from acorns. It forms monoclinic crystals, fusible\\nat 222\u00c2\u00b0, and subliming at 235\u00c2\u00b0. It is soluble in water and\\nin dilute alcohol, and its solutions are dextro-rotatory, a fact\\nwhich is easily explained, as it contains two similar asym-\\nmetric carbon atoms. Reducing agents convert it into ben-\\nzene, and finally into hexyl iodide.\\nInosite, C 6 H 6 (OH) 6 In 1850, Scherer extracted a sweet\\nsubstance from the muscles, and the same compound has\\nsince been found in the lungs, kidney, spleen, and liver.\\nUnder the name inosite it was long classified with the sugars,\\nbut Maquenne has shown that it is no other than hexahy-\\ndroxyhexahydrobenzene.\\nInosite forms large rhombic tables or transparent, color-\\nless prisms having a sweet taste. The crystals contain one\\nmolecule of water of crystallization, and effloresce in the air.\\nInosite is soluble in water, but insoluble in absolute alcohol\\nand in ether. It is optically inactive, is not fermentable,\\nand will not reduce cupro-alkaline solutions.\\nDambonite, C 6 H 6 (OH)*(CH 3 2 This substance is the\\ndimethyl ether of inosite, and was first obtained by A.\\nGirard from Gaboon caoutchouc. It forms colorless needles,\\nfusible at 190\u00c2\u00b0 and subliming at 210\u00c2\u00b0. It is soluble in water,\\nonly slightly soluble in alcohol. Hydriodic acid reduces it\\nto methyl iodide and inosite the latter product of its reduc-\\ntion was at first supposed to be a distinct substance and\\ncalled dambose.\\nUNSATURATED AROMATIC COM-\\nPOUNDS.\\nThe benzene derivatives so far considered are formed by\\nthe replacement of the hydrogen of benzene by saturated\\ngroups. There are, however, compounds which contain un-\\nsaturated groups, and which can so combine directly with\\nchlorine, bromine, or hydrogen. Among these we will describe\\nonly styrolene and some of its derivatives.", "height": "4784", "width": "2917", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0737.jp2"}, "736": {"fulltext": "730 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nSTYROLENE, OR PHENYLETHYLENE.\\nC 8 H 8 C 6 H 5 -CH=CH 2\\nThis compound, which may be considered as ethylene in\\nwhich one atom of hydrogen is replaced by phenyl (C 6 H 5\\nexists in storax, the thickened juice of the bark of Liquid-\\nambar orientate. It is extracted by passing steam through this\\nbalsam, fused under boiling water the styrolene is carried over\\nwith the steam. It is also formed when cinnamic acid is heated\\nwith lime for this reason it has been sometimes called cinna-\\nmene.\\nIt is a colorless, mobile, strongly-refracting liquid, having an\\nagreeable odor. The styrolene obtained from storax is optically\\nactive, a property which appears due to some impurity, for the\\nhydrocarbon obtained artificially is inactive. Its density at 0\u00c2\u00b0\\nis 0.925, and it boils at 145\u00c2\u00b0. When long kept, it becomes\\npolymerized, and more rapidly if heated, into metastyrolene, a\\ntransparent, amorphous mass, which is reconverted into styro-\\nlene when distilled.\\nStyrolene, being unsaturated, can combine directly with chlo-\\nrine and bromine. The bromide, C 8 H 8 Br 2 crystallizes in needles\\nor plates, fusible at 74\u00c2\u00b0. When heated with hydriodic acid,\\nstyrolene is converted into ethylbenzene.\\nC 6 H 5 -CH-CH 2 2HI C 6 H 5 -CH 2 -CH 3 I 2\\nCINNAMIC ALDEHYDE.\\nC 9 H80 OH5-CH=CH-CHO\\nCinnamic aldehyde exists in the essential oils of cinnamon\\nand cassia. It is formed during the distillation of a mixture\\nof cinnamate and formate of barium, by a reaction similar to\\nthat which yields the fatty aldehydes under the same conditions.\\nIt is made synthetically by passing hydrochloric acid gas into a\\nmixture of ordinary aldehyde and benzoic aldehyde.\\nC6H5-CHO CH 3 -CHO C 6 H5-CH=CH-CHO H 2\\nBenzoic aldehyde. Aldehyde. Cinnamic aldehyde.\\nCinnamic aldehyde is a colorless oil, heavier than water. It\\nhas an aromatic odor. When exposed to the air it becomes\\noxidized into cinnamic acid. It reacts with hydroxylamine\\nand phenylhydrazine, and forms a crystallizable compound\\nwith sodium acid sulphite, a property which permits of its\\nready separation from oil of cinnamon.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0738.jp2"}, "737": {"fulltext": "CINNAMIC ACID. 731\\nCINNAMIC ALCOHOL.\\nC g H ioo C 6 H5-CH=CH-CH 2 .OH\\nStyracin, which may be extracted from storax, is a cinnamyl\\ncinnamate, a compound of cinnamic acid and cinnamic alcohol,\\nand may be readily saponified by potassium hydrate.\\nC 9 H 7 2 .C 9 H 9 KOH C 9 H 7 2 K C 9 H 9 .OH\\nCinnamic alcohol crystallizes in brilliant needles, soluble in\\nalcohol, and slightly soluble in water. It melts at 33\u00c2\u00b0, and\\ndistils without change at 250\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCINNAMIC OR PHENYLACRYLIC ACID.\\nC 9 H 8 2 C 6 H5-CH=CH-CO.OH\\nThis acid exists in Tolu and Peruvian balsams, in storax,\\nand in certain gum benzoins. It is formed by the careful\\noxidation of cinnamic alcohol or aldehyde, and has also been\\nobtained synthetically by heating benzaldehyde with acetic\\nanhydride and dry sodium acetate.\\nC 6 H 5 -CHO CH 3 -COOH H 2 C 6 H 5 -CH-CH-CO.OH\\nAccording to Perkin, who discovered this important re-\\naction, the condensation is caused by the dehydrating action\\nof the sodium salt, but Fittig s researches render it probable\\nthat the latter enters into the reaction and the anhydride is\\nthe dehydrating agent.\\nPerkin s reaction has been extensively applied in the\\npreparation of unsaturated acids, especially of the homo-\\nlogues of cinnamic acid.\\nCinnamic acid is colorless and odorless. It crystallizes from\\nhot water in fine needles, and from alcohol in large prisms. It\\nmelts at 133\u00c2\u00b0. When rapidly heated, it distils almost without\\nalteration at 290\u00c2\u00b0. When distilled with lime, or heated to\\n200\u00c2\u00b0 with water, it is decomposed, yielding styrolene and carbon\\ndioxide.\\nC9H8()2 CO 2 C 8 H\u00c2\u00bb\\nBy fusion with potassium hydrate it is converted into acetic\\nand benzoic acids.\\nC 6 H5-CH=CH-CO.OH 2KOH C 6 H5-CO.OK CH^-CO.OK H 2\\nConcentrated nitric acid converts it into two isomeric nitro-\\ncinnamic acids, C 9 H 7 (N0 2 )0 2 orthonitrocinnamic acid, fusible\\nat 240\u00c2\u00b0, and paranitrocinnamic acid, fusible at 288\u00c2\u00b0.", "height": "4784", "width": "2883", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0739.jp2"}, "738": {"fulltext": "732 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nCinnamic acid can fix directly two atoms of chlorine, bromine,\\nor hydrogen, so forming saturated compounds. Sodium amal-\\ngam converts it into hydrocinnamic or phenylpropionic acid,\\nC 6 H 5 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CO.OH, a compound crystallizing in fine,\\ncolorless needles, fusible at 47.5\u00c2\u00b0, and boiling at 280\u00c2\u00b0. The\\nfollowing formula will show the relations between acrylic and\\npropionic acids, on one hand, and on the other those between\\ncinnamic and hydrocinnamic acids.\\nCH 2 =CH-CO.OH CH 3 -CH 2 -CO.OH\\nAcrylic acid. Propionic acid.\\nCH(C 6 H 5 )=CH-CO.OH CH 2 (C 6 H 5 )-CH 2 -CO.OH\\nCinnamic acid. Hydrocinnamic acid.\\n(Phenyl aery lie.) (Phenylpropionic.)\\nThe cinnamates resemble the benzoates. Ferric chloride\\nproduces a yellow precipitate in their solutions.\\nPhenylpropiolic Acid, C 6 H 5 -CeC-CO.OH, is formed\\nwhen the dibrom-addition product of cinnamic acid, phenyl-\\ndibromopropionic acid, is boiled with alcoholic potash.\\nC 6 H 5 -CHBr-CHBr-CO.OH C 6 H 5 -CEC-CO.OH 2HBr\\nIt crystallizes in needles which melt at 137\u00c2\u00b0. At higher\\ntemperatures the acid is resolved into phenylacetylene and\\ncarbon dioxide.\\nC 6 H 5 -CEC-CO.OH C 6 H 5 -CECH CO 2\\nThe ortho-nitro derivative is used in the artificial prepara-\\ntion of indigo blue.\\nINDIGO.\\nenmnp\\nIndigo is obtained from different species of the genus Indi-\\ngofera it is also found in woad (Isatis tinctoria), but is no\\nlonger extracted from this plant.\\nIn India, indigo is prepared by macerating the stems and\\nleaves of the indigofera, collected at the time of flowering, with\\nwater, in vats where they are allowed to ferment. In 12 or\\n15 hours the liquid is drawn off into other vats, where it is\\nagitated so as to bring it in contact with the air, an opera-\\ntion which occasions the formation of a blue precipitate. The\\nbrown liquor is then drawn off, and the deposit is boiled in\\ncopper vessels it is then pressed between cloths and cut into\\ncubical pieces and dried. In this form the indigo is delivered\\nto commerce.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0740.jp2"}, "739": {"fulltext": "INDIGO. 733\\nIndigo is not contained ready formed in the plants which\\nserve for its manufacture. Schunck considers that these\\nplants contain a substance analogous to the glucosides, indi-\\ncan, which is decomposed by fermentation into indigo, and\\nindoglucin, C 6 H 10 O 6\\nThe indigo of commerce contains from 50 to 90 per cent, of\\ncoloring matter. It generally occurs in irregular masses, of\\nwhich the shade varies from violet-blue to blackish-blue. The\\nmost valued varieties present a brilliant coppery reflection.\\nPure indigo is called indigotin. It may be obtained by\\nheating the indigo of commerce in a current of hydrogen, or\\nby subliming it in small quantities between two watch-glasses\\n(Chevreul). It then forms right rhombic prisms. Indigotin\\nis insoluble in water, in cold alcohol, and in ether, but dis-\\nsolves in hot oil of turpentine and in aniline. When care-\\nfully heated, and in small quantity, it volatilizes, and its\\nvapor density corresponds to the formula C 16 H 10 N 2 O 2\\nConcentrated, or, better, fuming sulphuric acid dissolves\\nindigo at 50 or 60\u00c2\u00b0, forming a beautiful blue solution, which\\ncontains two acids, indigomonosulphonic acid, C 16 H 9 N 2 2\\nS0 3 H, and indigodisidphonic or sulphindigotic acid, C 16 H 8 N 2 2\\n(S0 3 H) 2 The solution of indigo in sulphuric acid is used\\nin dyeing it is prepared by dissolving indigo in a hot mix-\\nture of fuming and ordinary sulphuric acids. The blue solu-\\ntion thus obtained is known as sulphate of indigo, Saxon\\nblue, or composition blue.\\nIndigo carmine is the soluble sodium salt of the disulphonic\\nacid. It is employed in dyeing animal fibres.\\nBoiling dilute nitric acid converts indigo into isatin. The\\nconcentrated acid converts it first into nitrosalicylic acid,\\nC 7 H 5 (N0 2 )0 3 and then into picric acid.\\nWhen heated with potassium hydrate, indigo is converted\\ninto anthranilic (orthamidobenzoic) acid, C 7 H 5 (NH 2 )0 2 or\\ninto salicylic acid, which is formed at the expense of the\\nanthranilic acid.\\nC 7 H 5 (NH 2 )0 2 KOH KC 7 H 5 8 NH 3\\nAnthranilic acid. Potassium, salicylate.\\nWhen indigo is distilled with potassium hydrate, aniline\\npasses over, being formed at the expense of the anthranilic acid\\nfirst formed.\\nC 7 H 7 N0 2 CO 2 C 6 H 7 N\\nAnthranilic acid. Aniline.\\n62", "height": "4801", "width": "2889", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0741.jp2"}, "740": {"fulltext": "734 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nSynthesis of Indigo. Various reactions have been discov-\\nered which are applicable to the synthesis of indigo. The\\nmost important of these are due to von Baeyer, to whom also\\nbelongs the honor of having first (1878) prepared indigo\\nartificially. Only a few syntheses of indigo blue can be\\nconsidered here.\\n1. Isatin chloride, which will be described farther on, when\\ndissolved in acetic acid and treated with zinc dust yields a\\ncolorless liquid, which, when exposed to the air, assumes a\\nblue color, and deposits crystals of indigotin. Ammonium\\nsulphhydrate effects the reduction more rapidly than zinc\\nand acetic acid (Baeyer and Emmerling).\\n2. There exists normally in human urine a compound which\\nmay also be prepared artificially, indoxylsulphate of potassium.\\nWhen it is heated in the air, or treated with feeble oxidizing\\nagents, it is converted into indigo (Baumann and Tiemann).\\nPotassium indoxylsulphate, C 8 H 6 NO.S0 3 K, is a derivative\\nof indoxyl, C 8 H 6 (OH)N, and the conversion of the latter into\\nindigo is represented in the equation,\\n2C 8 H 6 (OH)N O 2 C 16 H 10 N 2 O 2 2H 2\\nIndoxyl. Indigo.\\n3. A much better yield of indigo blue is obtained by the\\naction of reducing agents upon orthonitrophenylpropiolic\\nacid (Baeyer, 1880).\\nC 6 H 4 (NO 2 )CEC-CO.OH 2H 2 =C 16 H 10 N 2 O 2 +2CO 2 +2H 2 O\\no-nitrophenylpropiolic acid.\\nFor this purpose orthonitrocinnamic acid is converted into\\nits dibromide and the latter boiled with alcoholic potash.\\nThe resulting nitro-acid, by careful treatment with glucose\\nand potash, is reduced to indigo. The high price of the re-\\nquired materials has caused this process of manufacture to\\nbe abandoned.\\n4. Baeyer has made an interesting synthesis of indigo\\nfrom orthonitrobenzaldehyde, C 6 H 4 ^q 2 A This com-\\npound reacts with acetone, in presence of sodium hydrate, form-\\ning a compound, C 10 H 9 NO 3 which contains the elements of\\nacetone and orthobenzoic aldehyde, less one molecule of water.\\nC 7 H 5 (N0 2 )0 C 3 H 6 C 10 H 9 (NO 2 )O H 2\\nOrthobenzoic aldehyde. Acetone. Acetonic derivative of ortho-\\nbenzoic aldehyde.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0742.jp2"}, "741": {"fulltext": "INDIGO. 735\\nAn excess of sodium hydrate converts this last body into\\nacetic acid and indigo.\\n2C 10 H 9 NO 3 C 16 H 10 N 2 O 2 2C 2 H 4 2\\n5. According to Heumann, indigo is produced when\\nphenylglycocoll is fused with potash.\\nC 6 H 5 NH.CH 2 .COOH O 2 C 16 H 10 N 2 O 2\\nBaeyer s researches indicate that the molecular structure\\nof indigo is expressed by the following formula\\nC 6 H 4 -CO CO-C 6 H*\\nHN C=6\u00e2\u0080\u0094 NH\\nIndigo White, C 16 H 12 N 2 2 This body, which was discov-\\nered by Chevreul in 1812, results from the action of nascent\\nhydrogen on indigo. It is produced when the latter substance\\nis submitted to the action of alkaline solutions in presence\\nof reducing matters, such as sulphurous or phosphorous acid,\\nhydrogen sulphide, zinc, ferrous hydroxide, or grape-sugar.\\nC 16 H 10 N 2 O 2 JJ2 C 16 H 12 N 2 2\\nIndigo white is ordinarily prepared by introducing a mix-\\nture of indigo, ferrous sulphate, slaked lime, and water into a\\nvessel, which should be entirely filled with the mixture and\\nthen hermetically sealed and allowed to stand for two days. A\\nclear, alkaline solution is thus obtained, which is decanted, and\\nsupersaturated with hydrochloric acid, out of contact with the\\nair. A deposit of indigo white is formed, and must be collected\\non a filter, rapidly washed with boiled water, and dried in a\\nvacuum.\\nThe body thus obtained has a dirty-white color, and is with-\\nout either taste or smell. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves\\nwith a yellow color in alcohol, ether, and alkaline solutions.\\nOn contact with air it absorbs oxygen, and is converted into\\nindigo blue. Nitric acid rapidly brings about this transformation.\\nUses. Indigo is largely used in dyeing. The principle of\\nits application depends on the conversion of the indigo blue\\ninto indigo white by reducing agents. The reduced indigo\\nwhite is soluble in alkaline solutions, and in this form is fixed\\non the fabrics it is reconverted into indigo blue by exposure\\nto the air. The mixture just indicated for the preparation\\nof indigo white (ferrous sulphate, indigo, lime, and water) is\\nmost frequently employed. It constitutes what is known as\\nthe vitriol vat.", "height": "4798", "width": "2829", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0743.jp2"}, "742": {"fulltext": "736 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nSchiitzenberger and de Lalande have described a process\\nof dyeing with indigo, based on the employment of sodium\\nhydrosulphite as the reducing agent.\\nISATIN.\\nC 8 H5]Sr0 2 C 6 H4 ^\u00c2\u00b0^COH\\nThis body was discovered by Erdmann and Laurent in 1841.\\nIt is a product of the oxidation of indigo by dilute nitric acid.\\nC 8 H 5 NO C 8 H 5 N0 2\\nPure isatin crystallizes sometimes in large, dark, gold-\\ncolored prisms, sometimes in small, reddish-yellow prisms\\nhaving a brilliant lustre. It is only slightly soluble in cold\\nwater and in ether, but more soluble in boiling water, and very\\nsoluble in alcohol. Its solutions are brown-red. As it contains\\na carbonyl group, CO, isatin forms, like other ketones, crys-\\ntallizable compounds with sodium acid sulphite, hydroxyla-\\nmine, and phenylhydrazine. Isatin gives a characteristic\\nreaction with thiophene. When a trace of the latter is added\\nto a solution of isatin in sulphuric acid, a blue solution is ob-\\ntained from which water precipitates indophenin, C 12 H 7 NOS.\\nWhen distilled with potassa, isatin yields aniline.\\nC 8 H 5 N0 2 4KOH 2K 2 C0 3 C 6 H 7 N H 2\\nIsatin. Aniline.\\nIt dissolves in solutions of the alkaline hydrates, forming\\nviolet solutions, which become yellow when boiled, the isatin\\nbeing converted into isatic acid.\\nC 8 H 5 iN0 2 H 2 C 8 H 7 N0 3\\nIsatin. Isatic acid.\\nSynthesis. Among various methods by which isatin may be\\nprepared synthetically, the following, discovered by Baeyer, is\\nmost interesting\\nOrthonitrobenzoyl chloride is converted into a cyanide, which,\\nby hydration, yields orthonitrobenzoyl-carbonic acid. By reduc-\\ntion of the latter, the corresponding amide, isatic acid, is ob-\\ntained, and this is converted into isatin by dehydration.\\nM ^NO 2 2 L M -N0 2 ^NO 2 U ^NO 2\\nOrthonitrobenzoic Orthynitrobenzoyl Orthonitrobenzoyl Orthonitrobenzoyl\\nacid. chloride. cyanide. carbonic acid.\\nC 6 H* 2 COOH H 2 C 6 H 4 g\u00c2\u00b0\\\\COH\\nJsatic acid. Isatin.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0744.jp2"}, "743": {"fulltext": "INDOL. 737\\nBy the action of chlorine, isatin yields substitution products\\nThese latter break up, like isatin itself, by the action of potas-\\nsium hydrate, yielding chlor -anilines (Hofmann).\\nC 8 H 4 C1N0 2 4KOH 2K 2 C0 3 C 6 H 6 C1N H 2\\nMonochlorisatin. Monochloraniline.\\nWhen isatin is heated with phosphorus pentachloride, in pres-\\nence of benzene, isatin chloride is obtained. This may serve, as\\nhas been seen, for the synthesis of indigo.\\nC\u00c2\u00abH* ^\u00c2\u00b0\\\\cOH PC1 5 C6H\u00c2\u00b1 ^\u00c2\u00b0^CC1 POC1 3 HC1\\nIsatin. Isatin chloride.\\nProducts of the Reduction of Isatin. To isatin are re-\\nlated certain products of its reduction, which are interesting\\nand which have been studied by Knop and Baeyer. They are\\nDioxindol C 8 H 7 X0 2\\nOxindol C8H*XO J\\nIndol C*H 7 X.\\nIsatic acid, which has been mentioned, may be considered as\\ntrioxindol, C 8 H 7 N0 3 Dioxindol and oxindol are formed suc-\\ncessively by the action of sodium amalgam on an aqueous solu-\\ntion of isatin.\\nC 8 H 5 N0 2 H 2 C 8 H 7 N0 2\\nIsatin. Dioxindol.\\nC 8 H 7 N0 2 H 2 C 8 H 7 NO H 2\\nDioxindol. Oxindol.\\nINDOL.\\nC\u00c2\u00bbH\u00c2\u00bbN C 6 H\u00c2\u00b1 CH\\nBy reducing oxindol by zinc powder with the aid of heat,\\nBaeyer obtained indol, the parent substance of the indigo\\ngroup.\\nC 8 H 7 NO Zn C 8 H 7 N ZnO\\nOxindol. Indol.\\nHe has also made the synthesis of indol by heating ortho-\\nnitrocinnamic acid with potassium hydrate and iron filings.\\nC 6 H* CH=CH-CO.OH C 6 Hi CH^ CH CQ2 Q2\\nOrthonitrocinnamic acid. Indol.\\nThis reaction is a proof of the constitution of indol and its\\nderivatives.\\nProperties. Indol is a solid, crystallizing in brilliant colorless\\nplates. It melts at 52\u00c2\u00b0, and boils with partial decomposition\\nwio 62*", "height": "4796", "width": "2818", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0745.jp2"}, "744": {"fulltext": "738 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nat 245\u00c2\u00b0. Its vapor is carried over by vapor of water. Its\\nodor recalls that of naphthylamine. It dissolves readily in\\nboiling water and in alcohol and ether. It has feebly basic\\nproperties.\\nIndol is formed normally during the pancreatic digestion by\\nthe breaking up of albuminoid matters. It occurs, together\\nwith its methyl derivative, skatol, in human excrements.\\nSkatol, C 9 H 9 N, has also been obtained synthetically in\\nshining leaflets, having a strong faecal odor, and melting\\nat 95\u00c2\u00b0.\\nNAPHTHALENE.\\nCioHs\\nThis important compound was discovered by Garden in 1820,\\nin coal-tar. Its composition was determined by Faraday, and\\nits properties and transformations were principally studied by\\nLaurent.\\nIt is a frequent product of the dry distillation of organic\\nmatters, and is formed in abundance when these matters, or\\nthe products of their decomposition, are heated to high tem-\\nperatures. Thus it is formed in large quantities when tar is\\npassed through red-hot tubes.\\nNaphthalene is extracted from coal-tar, and is purified by\\ncrystallization in alcohol, or by sublimation.\\nProperties. Naphthalene occurs in rhombic tables when it\\nhas been sublimed, and is deposited in prisms from its ethereal\\nsolution. It melts at 79.2\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at 218\u00c2\u00b0. It is inflam-\\nmable, and burns with a very smoky flame. It is insoluble\\nin water, slightly soluble in cold alcohol, freely soluble in\\nboiling alcohol and in ether.\\nBy its general properties naphthalene is closely related to\\nbenzene reagents affect it in a similar manner, and the com-\\npounds which result from the replacement of its hydrogen\\natoms, or the addition of hydrogen or chlorine, are analogous\\nto the corresponding benzene derivatives.\\nNitric acid attacks naphthalene, forming nitro-derivatives,\\namong which is nitro-naphthalene, C 10 H 7 (NO 2 which crystal-\\nlizes in sulphur-yellow, rhombic prisms, fusible at 61\u00c2\u00b0. By\\nlong boiling with dilute nitric acid, naphthalene is converted\\ninto phthalic acid and carbon dioxide. Nitronaphthalene\\noxidized in the same manner yields nitrophthalic acid.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0746.jp2"}, "745": {"fulltext": "NAPHTHALENE.\\n739\\nBy the action of reducing agents nitronaphthalene is con-\\nverted into amidonaphthalene (a-naphthylaniine), just as\\naniline results from the reduction of nitrobenzene. This\\namidonaphthalene, upon oxidation, gives phthalic acid.\\nThese facts are readily explained by assuming that the\\nnaphthalene molecule is formed by two benzene nuclei joined\\ntogether, or condensed, in such a manner that two adjacent\\ncarbon atoms are common to both (Erlenmeyer), thus,\\nor\\nKekule s formula.\\nCentric formula.\\nWhen phthalic acid is produced by the oxidation of naph-\\nthalene, one of the nuclei is destroyed, and the two carbon\\natoms which remain attached to the other nucleus become\\noxidized to carboxyl. In nitronaphthalene, under the same\\nconditions, the nucleus which does not contain the nitro-\\ngroup is oxidized, while in the case of amidonaphthalene\\nthe other nucleus, which contains the amido-group (in ex-\\nactly the same place as the nitro-group of the former acid),\\nis destroyed.\\nThis view of the constitution of naphthalene derives sup-\\nport from various syntheses (see a-naphthol), and satisfac-\\ntorily accounts for all known cases of isomerism in the naph-\\nthalene group.\\nAccording to the positions occupied by the substituting\\natoms or groups, we have two series of mono-derivatives.\\nThe a-compounds are those which result from the replacement\\nof one of the four hydrogen atoms which occupy an ortho-\\nposition with respect to a carbon atom common to both\\nnuclei and in the ^-compounds one of the remaining four\\npositions is taken by the entering atom or group.\\nNumerous isomers are known of many of the disubstituted\\nnaphthalenes. When the substituting atoms or groups are\\nidentical, ten are theoretically possible, and when the sub-\\nstituents are different, as many as fourteen isomers may\\nexist.", "height": "4796", "width": "2821", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0747.jp2"}, "746": {"fulltext": "740 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nChlorine acts on naphthalene in two ways it combines\\ndirectly, forming chlorides of naphthalene, and produces\\nnumerous substitution products which generally combine\\nwith an excess of chlorine. Bromine yields only substitution\\ncompounds.\\nAmong all these products, we may mention the following\\nC 10 H 8 C1 2 naphthalene dichloride. C 10 H 7 C1 monochloronaphthalene.\\nC10H8C1* naphthalene tetrachloride. C 10 H6C1 2 dichloronaphthalene.\\nC 10 H 6 C1 2 C1 4 dichloronaphthalene tetra- C 10 H5C1 3 trichloronaphthalene.\\nchloride.\\nC 10 C1 8 C1 2 perchloionaphthalene di- C 10 C1 8 perchloronaphthalene.\\nchloride.\\nConcentrated sulphuric acid dissolves naphthalene, forming\\na- and j3-Naphthalenesulphonic acids, C 10 H 7 .SO 3 H\\nfc/ \\\\3fr\\nS03JT\\nThe formation of the first of these acids is expressed in\\nthe following equation\\nC 10 H 8 SO*H 2 H 2 C 10 H 7 .SO 3 H\\nNaphthalene. Naphthalenesulphonic acids.\\nNAPHTHOLS.\\nC 10 H 7 .OH\\nThese bodies are formed artificially by treating naphtha-\\nlene with sulphuric acid, and fusing the naphthalenesulphonic\\nacids so obtained with potassium hydrate (see page 678).\\nC 10 H 7 .SO 3 K KOH K 2 S0 3 C 10 H 7 .OH\\nPotassium naphthalene- Naphthols.\\nsulphonate.\\na-Naphthol is formed by heating phenylisocrotonic acid* to\\nits boiling-point (Fittig and Erdmann).\\nCH CH\\nC C CH\\nCH CH\\nHC C CH\\n1 II 1\\nC CH CH 2\\nH 2 1 II 1\\nHC C CH\\nCH CO.OH CH C(OH)\\na-Naphthol forms silky needles or laminae, soluble in alco-\\nhol, ether, and benzene, almost insoluble in cold water,\\nslightly soluble in boiling water. It melts at 94\u00c2\u00b0, and boils\\nThis is obtained by the action of benzaldehyde upon succinate of\\nsodium in presence of succinic anhydride.\\nC6H .CHO C0.0H-CH2.CH2.C00H C6H5-CH=CH-CH2CO.OH CO- H20", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0748.jp2"}, "747": {"fulltext": "ANTHRACENE AND PHENANTHRENE. 741\\nat 278-280\u00c2\u00b0. Its aqueous solution produces a violet color\\nwith chloride of lime. When treated with reagents, it forms\\nderivatives analogous to those of phenol.\\n/?-naphthol is prepared from sodium /5-naphthalenesulpho-\\nnate. It crystallizes in small rhombic tables, fusible at 122\u00c2\u00b0,\\nand boils at 285-290\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe mono- and di-sulphonic acids, obtained by heating the\\nnaphthols with sulphuric acid, are used in the preparation of\\nmany important coloring matters. Naphthol yellow, for ex-\\nample, is dinitro-a-naphthol sulphonic acid, and /3-naphthol\\norange and rocellin (a substitute for cochineal) are complex\\nderivatives of /?-naphthol.\\nNAPHTHYLAMINES.\\nC 10 H 9 N C 10 H 7 .NH 2\\nZinin obtained amidonaphthalene in 1842 by reducing\\nnitronaphthalene by ammonium sulphydrate, which may be\\nadvantageously replaced by iron and acetic acid.\\nC 10 H 7 (NO 2 3H 2 2H 2 C 10 H 7 (NH 2\\nNitronaphthalene. Naphthylamine.\\nThis a-naphthylamine forms fine, colorless needles. It sub-\\nlimes at a gentle heat, melts at 50\u00c2\u00b0. and boils without alteration\\nat 300\u00c2\u00b0. It has a fetid odor. Its reaction is not alkaline,\\nalthough it perfectly neutralizes the acids, with which it\\nforms well-defined and crystallizable salts. When exposed\\nto the air, the salts of naphthylamine acquire a violet color,\\nprobably due to an absorption of oxygen.\\n^-naphthylamine is prepared by heating /?-naphthol with\\nammonia in presence of zinc chloride. It crystallizes in\\npearly needles, fusible at 112\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at 294\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe reactions of the naphthylamines are analogous to\\nthose of aniline. Their diazo- and diazoamido-derivatives\\nare applied in the preparation of valuable dyes.\\nANTHRACENE AND PHENANTHRENE.\\nC H H 10\\nAnthracene, which is solid, exists in the less volatile\\nproducts of the distillation of coal-tar. It is obtained from\\nthe last products of this operation. The mass, which has\\na buttery consistence, is squeezed in a filter-press, and the", "height": "4797", "width": "2817", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0749.jp2"}, "748": {"fulltext": "742 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nresidue is submitted to repeated distillations it is finally\\npurified by compression and several crystallizations in ben-\\nzene.\\nAnthracene may be formed artificially by several processes.\\n1. By passing the vapor of toluene and various derivatives\\nof that body through a tube heated to bright redness. Under\\nthese conditions, two molecules of toluene lose six atoms of\\nhydrogen, and are converted into anthracene.\\nC6H5-CH3 C6HM3H\\nm 3H 2 i\\nC 6 H5-CH3 C6H*=0H\\n2 iuol. toluene. Anthracene.\\n2. By heating phthalic anhydride with benzene in presence\\nof aluminium chloride, orthobenzoylbenzoic acid is obtained\\nthis, upon treatment with phosphorus pentoxide, is converted\\ninto anthraquinone, which, when reduced with zinc dust,\\nyields anthracene.\\nIn the pure state, anthracene forms monoclinic tabular\\ncrystals which are colorless, and present a magnificent blue\\nfluorescence (Fritzsche). They melt at 213\u00c2\u00b0, and distil with-\\nout alteration at 345\u00c2\u00b0.\\nBy the action of oxidizing agents, such as chromic acid, an-\\nthracene is converted into a solid body, which crystallizes in\\nbeautiful yellow needles, fusible at 276\u00c2\u00b0, and which can be\\nsublimed without alteration. It is anthraquinone, C u H 8 2 a\\nbody which bears the same relations to anthracene as quinone\\nto benzene.\\nC 6 H 6 C U H 10\\nBenzene. Anthracene.\\nC 6 H 4 2 C M H 8 2\\nQuinone. Anthraquinone.\\nThe constitution of anthraquinone is expressed by the formula\\nC 6 H* C 6 H 4\\nBy treating anthraquinone with bromine, Graebe and Lieber-\\nmann converted it into dibromanthraquinone, C u H 6 Br 2 2 a\\nsolid body, which crystallizes in yellow needles.\\nPhenanthrene. Besides anthracene, there is another hydro-\\ncarbon of the same composition, which exists in coal-tar, and\\nmay also be formed artificially. It is called phenanthrene, and\\nforms colorless scales, having a bluish fluorescence. It melts\\nat 100\u00c2\u00b0, and boils at 340\u00c2\u00b0. It is soluble in 50 parts of alco-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0750.jp2"}, "749": {"fulltext": "ALIZARIN. 743\\nhoi at 13\u00c2\u00b0 very soluble in hot alcohol, and in ether and\\nbenzene.\\nIts constitution is expressed by the formula\\nC 6 H 4 CH\\ni ii\\nC 6 H 4 CH\\nALIZARIN.\\nC 14 H 8 0\u00c2\u00b1=C U H 6 (0H) 2 2\\nNatural State and Synthesis. Alizarin is the name ap-\\nplied to the coloring matter of madder (Rubia tinctorum)\\nwhich Eobiquet was the first to extract in a pure state.\\nGraebe and Liebermann made its synthesis in 1868 by\\nheating dibromanthraquinone to 200\u00c2\u00b0 with potassium hy-\\ndroxide.\\nC 14 H 6 Br 2 2 2KOH 2KBr C u H 6 (OH) 2 2\\nDibromanthraquinone. Alizarin.\\nAlizarin does not exist ready formed in the madder plant.\\nThe latter contains a glucoside to which Robiquet has given\\nthe name ruberythric acid, and which is decomposed by the\\naction of acids into alizarin and glucose.\\nC 26 H 28 n _|_ 2 H 2 C u H 8 4 2C 6 H 12 6\\nRuberythric acid. Alizarin. Glucose.\\nPreparation. Alizarin may be extracted from madder by\\nboiling the latter with a solution of alum. The filtered liquid,\\nleft to itself for some days, deposits impure alizarin as a brown-\\nred precipitate, and holds in solution another coloring matter\\nwhich is called purpurin.\\nThe precipitated alizarin is purified by washing with dilute\\nhydrochloric acid, and crystallization in alcohol. The product\\nthus obtained is exhausted with a boiling solution of alum,\\nwhich removes the purpurin, and is finally dissolved in ether,\\nwhich deposits it in crystals.\\nAlizarin is now almost exclusively obtained from anthra-\\ncene. This hydrocarbon is oxidized to anthraquinone, and\\nthe latter body treated with fuming sulphuric acid to con-\\nvert it into anthraquinonesulphonic acid. The sodium salt\\nof this acid is fused with sodium hydroxide, and a small\\nquantity of potassium chlorate is added to the fused mass.\\nC 16 H 7 (S0 3 Na)0 2 3NaOH+0 2 C u H 6 (ONa) 2 2 Na 2 S0 4 +2H 2", "height": "4800", "width": "2814", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0751.jp2"}, "750": {"fulltext": "744 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThe alkaline mass is dissolved in water, precipitated by\\nhydrochloric acid, and the precipitate purified by crystalliza-\\ntion from toluene and finally by sublimation.\\nThe artificial product is delivered to commerce in the form\\nof a paste, but the reaction by which it is formed produces, at\\nthe same time, isomerides which remain mixed with the aliza-\\nrin, properly so called. Eight isomeric compounds are known\\nhaving the composition C 14 H 8 4 One of them, purpuroxam\\nthin, is contained in small quantity in madder.\\nProperties of Alizarin Alizarin forms long, brilliant,\\norange-yelk w prisms. It is scarcely soluble in cold water, but\\ndissolves better in boiling water, and is soluble in alcohol,\\nether, and carbon disulphide. It melts at 278\u00c2\u00b0, and sublimes\\nin long, orange-red needles. It dissolves in sulphuric acid\\nwith a blood-red color, and water precipitates it without alter-\\nation from this solution. Boiling dilute nitric acid converts\\nit into oxalic and phthalic acids. When alizarin is heated\\nto redness with zinc powder, it is reduced to anthracene\\n(Grraebe and Liebermann).\\nAlizarin forms combinations with the bases it dissolves\\nin ammonia, with a purple color, and in the caustic alkalies,\\nyielding purple solutions which have a blue reflection.\\nUses. Alizarin produces a red color (Turkey red) on\\nfabrics that are mordanted with alumina, or with ricinoleic-\\nsulphonic acid* and a violet on those which are mordanted\\nwith ferric oxide.\\nPURPUMN.\\n14 H6(OH)\u00c2\u00bbO a\\nThis name is given to another coloring matter which may be\\nextracted from madder, and which has already been mentioned.\\nIt appears to exist in the plant as a glucoside. It dissolves\\nreadily in alcohol and ether, with a red color.\\nIt crystallizes from weak alcohol in orange-colored needles,\\nwhich contain one molecule of water of crystallization. From\\nconcentrated alcohol, it deposits in red, anhydrous needles.\\nWhen heated, it melts at 254\u00c2\u00b0, and sublimes in red needles.\\nWith aluminium mordants, it gives scarlet-red shades.\\nPurpurin is an oxyalizarin, or a trioxyanthraquinone,\\nC u H 5 (OH) 3 2 indeed, it may be obtained by treating a\\nThis is prepared by treating castor oil with sulphuric acid.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0752.jp2"}, "751": {"fulltext": "FURFURANE, THIOPHENE, AND PYRROL. 745\\nsolution of alizarin in concentrated sulphuric acid with an\\noxidizing agent, such as manganese dioxide (de Lalande).\\nInversely, the reduction of purpurin reproduces alizarin\\n(Rosenstiehl). It undergoes a complete reduction, and is\\nconverted into anthracene, when heated with zinc-dust.\\nAnthrapurpurin and favopurpurin are isomeric with the\\npurpurin just described they are contained in commercial\\nalizarin.\\nThe hydrocarbons of the aromatic series and the products\\nobtained from them by substitution and addition all contain\\nclosed chains consisting of carbon atoms exclusively. There\\nexist, however, very numerous compounds of an aromatic\\ncharacter whose nuclei are not made up entirely of carbon\\natoms, but in which other elementary atoms, such as oxygen,\\nsulphur, and nitrogen, form part of the closed chains.\\nAmong these bodies we will consider furfurane, thiophene,\\npyrrol, pyridine, and quinoline, and some of their more im-\\nportant derivatives.\\nFURFURANE, THIOPHENE, AND PYRROL.\\nWhen the barium salt of pyromucic acid (page 662) is\\nheated with a little soda-lime, a colorless liquid of peculiar\\nodor, furfurane, C 4 H 4 0, distils.\\nThiophene, C 4 H 4 S, void pyrrol, C*H 4 NH, are similar bodies\\nwhich occur in small quantities in coal-tar.\\nThe striking analogies in the chemical behavior of these\\nbodies, as well as their close resemblance to benzene, are best\\naccounted for in the formulae\\nHC CH HC CH HC CH\\nII II II II II II\\nHC CH HC CH HC CH\\nS NH\\nFurfurane. Thiophene. Pyrrol.\\nFurfurane is contained in pine-tar. It boils at 32\u00c2\u00b0, is\\ninsoluble in water, but miscible with alcohol and ether.\\nIts most important derivative is fuvfurol, C 4 H 3 0-CHO, an\\naldehyde. This is formed in the dry distillation of many\\ncarbohydrates, and most readily by heating bran or sawdust\\n2g 63", "height": "4799", "width": "2838", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0753.jp2"}, "752": {"fulltext": "746\\nELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nwith dilute sulphuric acid. Furfurol is a colorless liquid of\\npeculiar odor. It boils at 162\u00c2\u00b0. When heated with silver ox-\\nide and water it is oxidized to pyromucic acid, C 4 H 3 O.COOH,\\nwhich also results from the dry distillation of mucic acid.\\nPyromucic acid crystallizes in colorless leaflets, melting at\\n134\u00c2\u00b0. Treated with bromine and water, it is converted into\\nfumaric acid, carbon dioxide being given off.\\nThiophene was discovered by V. Meyer in commercial\\nbenzene. Its isolation from this source offers considerable\\ndifficulty, but a very pure product may be obtained syntheti-\\ncally by heating a mixture of dry sodium succinate and phos-\\nphorus trisulphide (Volhard and Erdmann).\\nThe physical as well as the chemical properties of thio-\\nphene are remarkably like those of benzene. It is a colorless,\\nmobile liquid, which congeals at very low temperatures. Its\\nboiling-point is at 84\u00c2\u00b0. The derivatives of thiophene are\\nmade in the same manner as those of benzene, which they\\nclosely resemble in their properties.\\nOf the homologues of thiophene, thiotolene, C 4 H 3 S.CH 3\\nand thioxene, C 4 H 2 S(CH 3 2 occur in coal-tar. Having nearly\\nthe same boiling-points as the corresponding benzene deriva-\\ntives, they accumulate in the fractions constituting commer-\\ncial toluene and xylene.\\nThiophtene, C 6 H 4 S 2 may be regarded as the naphtha-\\nlene of the thiophene group. Its constitution is expressed\\nby the formula\\nC\\nHCi 1 iCH\\nNitroihiophene, C 4 H 3 S.N0 2 is one of the products of the\\naction of nitric acid upon thiophene. It is a solid, crystal-\\nlizing in monoclinic prisms, and melting at 44\u00c2\u00b0. It boils at\\n224\u00c2\u00b0. Upon reduction with tin and alcoholic hydrochloric\\nacid, it yields amidothiophene, C 4 H 3 S.NH 2 The free base,\\nwhich is a colorless oil, is very unstable. It is not diazotized\\nby treatment with nitrous acid, but it forms azo-compounds\\nwith diazo-derivatives of benzene.\\nThiophenesulphonic acid, C 4 H 3 S.S0 3 H, is easily obtained\\nby the direct sulphonation of thiophene by repeated treat-\\nment with sulphuric acid, commercial benzene may be de-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0754.jp2"}, "753": {"fulltext": "PYRIDINE AND ITS DERIVATIVES. 747\\nprived of the admixed thiophene. When superheated with\\nwater, the sulphonic acid is resolved into thiophene and sul-\\nphuric acid.\\nThe very numerous derivatives of thiophene that have\\nbeen described by V. Meyer and others also include phenols,\\naldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, etc.\\nThe indophenin reaction, which has already been given\\n(page 736), constitutes the most delicate test for thiophene.\\nPyrrol was discovered by Runge. It is present in coal-\\ntar and in bone-oil, and is produced in the dry distillation\\nof ammonium mucate. When freshly prepared it is a color-\\nless liquid, which turns brown in the air. It boils at 131\u00c2\u00b0.\\nAlthough practically insoluble in water, it mixes readily with\\nalcohol and ether. Metallic potassium converts it into potas-\\nsium-pyrrol, C 4 H 4 (NK), a crystalline body which is decom-\\nposed by water into pyrrol and potassium hydroxide. When\\ntreated with nascent hydrogen, pyrrol is reduced to pyrroline,\\nC 4 H 6 (NH), a strong base, boiling at 91\u00c2\u00b0. By heating this\\nbase with hydriodic acid, it takes up more hydrogen and is\\nconverted into pyrrolidine, C 4 H 8 (NH), an alkaline liquid\\nwhich boils at 83\u00c2\u00b0.\\nThe most characteristic test for pyrrol consists in exposing\\nto its vapor a pine shaving moistened with hydrochloric acid\\nit assumes a deep-red color.\\nA great variety of substitution products of pyrrol have been\\nobtained. Both the hydrogen of the imido-group and that\\nunited with the carbon atoms may be replaced by alkyl groups.\\nIodol (tetraiodopyrrol), C 4 P(NH), is an odorless substitute\\nfor iodoform. It is made by the action of iodine and an\\nalkali upon pyrrol. It crystallizes in yellow leaflets, soluble\\nin alcohol.\\nPYRIDINE AND ITS DERIVATIVES.\\nFrom the oil obtained by the dry distillation of animal mat-\\nters, and which was formerly known as the bone oil of Dip-\\npel, Anderson has extracted a series of bases isomeric with\\nthe aromatic amines. Among these bases are the following\\nPyridine, C 5 H 5 X.\\nPicolines, C 6 H X, isomeric with aniline.\\nLutidines, C 7 H 9 N, isomeric with toluidine.\\nCollidines, C 8 H n N, isomeric with xylidines.\\nParvolines, C 9 H 13 N, etc.", "height": "4782", "width": "2806", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0755.jp2"}, "754": {"fulltext": "T48 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nThese bases also occur in coal-tar in fact, they are gen-\\nerally formed when nitrogenous organic matter is subjected\\nto destructive distillation.\\nSome of the bases, as well as many of their derivatives,\\nhave been obtained synthetically. The following are the\\nmost important modes of formation that have been observed\\n1. Pyridine is produced when a mixture of acetylene and\\nhydrocyanic acid is passed through a red-hot porcelain tube.\\n2C 2 H 2 HCN C 5 H 5 N\\n2. By the action of ammonia upon certain aldehydes oxi-\\ndized bases are formed, thus\\n2C 3 H 4 NH 3 C 6 H 9 NO H 2\\nAcrolein. Acrolein-amnionia.\\n2C 4 H 6 -j- NH 3 C 8 H 13 NO H 2\\nCrotonaldehyde.\\nBy dehydration these condensation products yield pyridic\\nbases.\\nC 6 H 9 NO C 6 H 7 N H 2\\nPicoline.\\nC 8 EFNO C 8 H n N H 2\\nCollidine.\\n3. Baeyer and Ador have also obtained a collidine (alde-\\niiydine) by heating aldehyde-ammonia in closed vessels.\\n4C 2 H*0 NH 3 C 8 H n N 4H 2\\nCollidine.\\n4. Pyridine is formed by the action of methylene iodide\\nand sodium methylate upon potassium pyrrol.\\n5. Piperidine (hexahydropyridine) results when penta-\\nmethylene hydrochloride is rapidly heated.\\nC 5 H 10 (NH 2 2 .HC1 C 5 H n N NH 4 C1\\nThis base yields pyridine when heated with concentrated\\nsulphuric acid.\\n6. A dihydro-dicarboxylic acid of collidine is obtained\\nwhen aldehyde-ammonia is heated with acetoacetic ether.\\n2C6H 1() 3 CH 3 .CHO NH 3 C 5 N(H 2 )(CH 3 3 (CO.OH) 2 3H 2\\nThe two additive hydrogen atoms are removed by treat-\\nment with nitrous acid.\\nThe first term of the series is pyridine. According to an\\ningenious hypothesis of Korner. this compound has a consti-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0756.jp2"}, "755": {"fulltext": "PYRIDINE. 749\\ntution analogous to that of benzene, the five carbon atoms\\nand the nitrogen atom forming a closed chain similar to the\\nbenzene nucleus.\\nH H\\nC C\\nHC CH HC CH\\nI II I II\\nHC CH HC CH\\nV\\nC N\\nH\\nBenzene. Pyridine.\\nThe higher homologues of pyridine, such as picoline, luti-\\ndine, and collidine, then result from the substitution of one\\nor more methyl or other alcoholic groups for the hydrogen\\nof pyridine. According to the position of these groups with\\nrelation to the nitrogen atom in the pyridic chain, isomerism\\nwill occur, precisely analogous to that which we have con-\\nsidered in the case of the aromatic amines.\\nPyridine may, indeed, be regarded as a mono-substituted\\nbenzene, its nitrogen occupying the place of a CH group.\\nThe mono-derivatives of pyridine are therefore analogous\\nto the di-derivatives of benzene. They exist in three isomeric\\nforms, designated as a-, 0-, and ^-derivatives, and correspond-\\ning to the ortho-, nieta-, and para-disubstituted benzenes.\\nWe cannot extend these theoretical considerations. How-\\never, the pyridic bases and quinoline, which is related to\\nthem, appear to take part in the constitution of the natural\\nalkaloids. Indeed, some of the latter, such as cinchonine\\nand brucine, yield by distillation with potassium hydrate a\\nmixture of pyridic bases and quinoline.\\nPyridine, C 5 H 5 N. This base has been obtained from the\\nanimal oil of Dippel by Anderson, and from coal-tar by\\nGreville Williams.\\nIt may be prepared from these products, but is best ob-\\ntained in a pure condition by heating nicotinic acid (see\\npage 750) with lime.\\nC 5 H 4 N.COOH C 5 H 5 N CO 2\\nIt is a colorless liquid, having a characteristic odor, and at\\n0\u00c2\u00b0 a density 0.986. It boils at 115\u00c2\u00b0, and is soluble in water\\nand alcohol. It is an energetic base, forming deliquescent salts.\\nSodium converts it into a polynieride, dipyridine, C 10 H 10 N 2\\n63*", "height": "4791", "width": "2820", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0757.jp2"}, "756": {"fulltext": "750 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nPiperidine, or hexahydropyridine, C 5 H n N, is formed by\\nthe action of sodium upon a hot alcoholic solution of pyridine.\\nIt is a colorless liquid, whose odor suggests that of pepper.\\nIt boils at 106\u00c2\u00b0, and is miscible with water and alcohol.\\nPiperidine is a powerful base which forms crystalline salts\\nwith acids.\\nWe cannot describe the other pyridic bases they all exist\\nin several isomeric modifications. Thus, there are three pico-\\nlines, or methyl-pyridines, C 5 H 4 (CH 3 )N nine lutidines, of\\nwhich six are dimethyl-pyridines and the others ethyl\\nderivatives. The collidines comprise trimethyl-pyridines,\\nmethylethyl-pyridines (aldehydine), and propyl-pyridines.\\nUnder the action of oxidizing agents, such as potassium\\npermanganate in alkaline solution, the pyridic bases behave\\nlike aromatic hydrocarbons. The lateral chains are oxidized\\nand converted into carboxyl, CO. OH. Thus methylpyridine\\n(/3-picoline) and ethylpyridine (/?-lutidine) yield the same\\npyridine-carboxylic (nicotinic) acid.\\nC 5 H 4 H3 and C 5 H 4 H5 yield C 5 H* 0H\\nMethylpyridine. Ethylpyridine. Nicotinic acid.\\nPicolinic acid and isonicotinic acid are the corresponding\\na- and ^-derivatives.\\nThere are six pyridine-dicarboxylic acids.\\n/CO.OH\\nC 5 H 3 ^CO.OH\\n\\\\n\\nquinoline.\\nC 9 H 7 N\\nGerhardt obtained this base by distilling certain natural\\nalkaloids, among which are quinine and cinchonine, with\\npotassium hydroxide. It is identical with a base which Runge\\nhad extracted, several years previous, from coal-tar, and which\\nhe named leucol or leucoline.\\nConsiderable quantities of quinoline are found in bone-oil.\\nBeing accompanied by isomeric and homologous bases (iso-\\nquinoline, quinaldine, lepidine, etc.), the pure substance can-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0758.jp2"}, "757": {"fulltext": "QUINOLINE, ETC. 751\\nnot readily be isolated from any of these sources. It may,\\nhowever, be prepared synthetically by a method which was\\ndiscovered by Skraup, and which consists in heating aniline\\nwith glycerol and sulphuric acid in presence of nitrobenzene.\\nC 6 H 5 .NH 2 C 3 H 8 3 C 9 H 7 N 4H 2\\nAniline. Glycerol. Quinoline.\\nThe sulphuric acid aids the condensation by its dehy-\\ndrating action, and the nitrobenzene plays the part of an\\noxidizing agent.\\nQuinoline is a mobile, colorless, strongly refracting liquid.\\nIts density at 0\u00c2\u00b0 is 1.081, and it boils at 238\u00c2\u00b0. It has a pene-\\ntrating odor and a very bitter taste. It is insoluble in water\\nwith acids it forms well-defined salts, and behaves as a ter-\\ntiary base. With ethyl-iodide it forms quinoline ethiodide.\\nC 9 H N I 2H5\\nQuinoline is related to the true aromatic compounds, and\\nat the same time to the pyridic bases. Its synthetical forma-\\ntion and its reactions have led to the following representation\\nof its constitution, which is that of naphthalene, in which\\na group CH is replaced by an atom of nitrogen.\\nH H\\nC C\\nHC C CH\\nI II I\\nHC C CH\\nC N\\nH\\nOuinaldine, or a-niethylquinoline, C 9 H 6 (CH 3 )N, is present\\nin coal-tar, and is formed when aniline is heated with paral-\\ndehyde and hydrochloric acid (Doebner and Miller).\\nC 6 H 5 .NH 2 2C 2 IPO O C 10 H 9 N 3H 2\\nIt is a colorless liquid, boiling at 246\u00c2\u00b0.\\nBesides quinaldine, there exist six mono- methyl quinolines\\nand many higher homologues.\\nIsoquinoline is very similar to its isomeride, quinoline. It\\nis present in coal-tar, and has been obtained synthetically.\\nIt is a solid, melting at 22\u00c2\u00b0. Its boiling-point is the same\\nas that of quinoline.", "height": "4786", "width": "2794", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0759.jp2"}, "758": {"fulltext": "752 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nWhen oxidized with potassium permanganate it yields cin-\\nchomeronic and phthalic acids. The former is one of the\\npyridine dicarboxylic acids its carboxyl groups are in the\\nft- and ^-positions. Hence the constitution of isoquinoline\\nmust be\\nH H\\nc c\\nf\\\\/%\\nHC C CH\\nI II I\\nHC C N\\nx/\\\\s\\nC C\\nH H\\nAcridine, C 13 H 9 N, is another solid base contained in coal-\\ntar. It accompanies anthracene, from which it may be sepa-\\nrated by treatment with sulphuric acid.\\nIt crystallizes in colorless needles, fusible at 110\u00c2\u00b0, but sub-\\nliming even below this temperature. It boils at 360\u00c2\u00b0. It\\nforms salts, which in dilute solutions exhibit a blue fluores-\\ncence.\\nThe constitution of acridine is expressed by the formula\\nH\\nH\\nC\\nC\\nHC C-\\nH\\n-C\u00e2\u0080\u0094 C CH\\n1 II\\nHC C-\\n1 II 1\\n-N\u00e2\u0080\u0094 C CH\\nC\\nY\\nH\\nH\\nALKALOIDS.\\nThis term has been applied to the nitrogenous organic\\nbases which are derived from plants. Many of these sub-\\nstances are possessed of poisonous or medicinal properties\\nthey constitute the active principles of vegetable drugs.\\nThe alkaloids cannot be said to represent a sharply-defined\\ngroup of compounds. While the constitution of only a small\\nnumber of these complex bodies is clearly established, it is\\nwell known that the great majority are derivatives of pyri-\\ndine, quinoline, and isoquinoline, others are closely related", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0760.jp2"}, "759": {"fulltext": "CONINE. 753\\nto uric acid, and still others belong to different groups of the\\nfatty and aromatic series.\\nIt is customary to divide the alkaloids into two classes, the\\nfirst of which includes the liquid and volatile bases, the second\\nthose which are solid. The latter generally contain oxygen,\\nthe former do not.\\nWith few exceptions the alkaloids are very sparingly solu-\\nble in water; most of them, however, dissolve readily in\\nalcohol, ether, chloroform, benzene, etc., and they all form\\nsoluble salts with acids.\\nA number of special reagents are used to isolate and identify\\nthe alkaloids. Platinic and auric chlorides form well-defined\\ncrystalline double salts (chloroplatinates and chloraurates)\\nwith their hydrochlorides, and tannic acid, phosphomolybdic\\nacid, potassium mercuric iodide, etc., produce precipitates in\\ntheir solutions. From these insoluble compounds the alkaloids\\ncan be regenerated with the aid of alkalies.\\nCONINE.\\nC 8 H 17 N\\nThis is a liquid and volatile alkaloid which is extracted from\\nthe hemlock Conium maculatum). The seeds of this plant are\\ncrushed and distilled with sodium hydrate. The alkaline liquid\\nwhich collects in the receiver is neutralized by dilute sulphu-\\nric acid, evaporated to a syrupy consistence, and the residue\\nexhausted with a mixture of alcohol and ether, which dissolves\\nthe conine sulphate, and leaves ammonium sulphate. The alco-\\nhol and ether are driven out by evaporation a concentrated\\nsolution of sodium hydrate is added to the conine sulphate, and\\nthe liquid is distilled. The conine passes with a certain quan-\\ntity of water, on which it floats. It is separated, dried over\\nsome fragments of calcium chloride, and rectified in a\\nvacuum.\\nLadenburg made the synthesis of conine by heating a-\\npicoline with aldehyde and subjecting the resulting a-allyl-\\npyridine to the action of nascent hydrogen.\\nC 5 H 4 (CH 3 )N CH 3 -CHO H 2 C 5 H 4 (CH=CH-CH 2 )N\\na-picoline. x-allylpyridine.\\nxx", "height": "4788", "width": "2806", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0761.jp2"}, "760": {"fulltext": "754 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nConine is therefore a-propylpiperidine.\\nCH 2\\nH 2 C CH 2\\nH 2 C CH-CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 3\\nNH\\nIt contains one asymmetric carbon atom, and exists in\\nthree stereoisomeric modifications. Natural conine is dextro-\\nrotatory, and the synthetic conine which is inactive can\\nreadily be broken up into the two active varieties.\\nConine is a limpid, oleaginous liquid, having a penetrating\\nand nauseating odor, recalling that of hemlock. It boils at\\n168\u00c2\u00b0. It is slightly soluble in water, more so in cold than\\nin hot water, so that a cold, saturated solution becomes clouded\\nwhen heated. It is very soluble in alcohol and in ether. It\\nhas a strongly alkaline reaction, immediately restoring the blue\\ncolor to reddened litmus-paper. It precipitates many metallic\\noxides from solutions of their salts. On contact with the air\\nit becomes brown and resinified. The density of conine at 0^\\nis 0.886 it rotates the plane of polarized light towards the\\nright.\\nConine is often mixed with methylconine, a compound de-\\nrived from conine by the substitution of a methyl group for\\nan atom of hydrogen, and formed artificially by the action\\nof methyl iodide on conine.\\nWertheim has obtained from the flowers and seeds of the\\nhemlock a solid alkaloid, which he has named conhydrine,\\nC 18 H 17 NO, and which contains the elements of conine plus a\\nmolecule of water.\\nNICOTINE.\\nClonic\\nThis alkaloid exists in tobacco. It may be obtained by ex-\\nhausting tobacco with boiling water and evaporating the liquid\\nto a syrupy consistence on a water-bath the still hot extract\\nis then mixed with twice its volume of alcohol, allowed to settle,\\nand the alcoholic liquid separated from the thick lower layer,\\nwhich contains much calcium malate. The alcohol is distilled\\noff, and the residue exhausted with strong alcohol, of which\\nthe greater part is then driven off by evaporation. Potassium", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0762.jp2"}, "761": {"fulltext": "PIPERINE ATROPINE. 755\\nhydrate is added to the alcoholic extract, which is then agitated\\nwith ether, which dissolves the nicotine set free. A few grammes\\nof oxalic acid added to the ethereal solution causes the separa-\\ntion of a syrupy deposit which contains oxalate of nicotine.\\nThis salt is decomposed by potassa, and the nicotine set free is\\ndissolved out by ether. After the ether has been expelled on\\na water-bath, the nicotine is distilled in a current of hydrogen,\\nthat part being retained which passes above 180\u00c2\u00b0 (Schloesing).\\nProperties. Nicotine is a colorless liquid, having an offen-\\nsive, penetrating odor. It rotates the plane of polarization to\\nthe left. It boils between 2-40 and 250\u00c2\u00b0, not, however, with-\\nout undergoing partial decomposition. Above 146\u00c2\u00b0, it begins\\nto distil slowly, and at 100\u00c2\u00b0 it emits white vapors at ordinary\\ntemperatures it gives off so much vapor that a rod wet with\\nhydrochloric acid will be enveloped in white fumes if held a\\nlittle distance above the nicotine.\\nNicotine dissolves in all proportions in water, alcohol, and\\nether. It has a strongly alkaline reaction, and perfectly neu-\\ntralizes the acids, and precipitates the metallic oxides from\\nsolutions of their salts. It is one of the most violent poisons\\nknown. It is a diatomic base its chloroplatinate, which\\ncrystallizes in red prisms, has the composition\\nC 10 H u N.(HC0 2 .PtCl 4\\nPIPERINE.\\nC 17 H 19 N0 3\\nThis alkaloid occurs in various species of pepper, particularly\\nin black pepper, from which it may be extracted by alcohol.\\nIt crystallizes in quadrilateral prisms, fusible at 129\u00c2\u00b0, very\\nsoluble in alcohol and ether, and insoluble in water. Its re-\\naction is neutral, and its salts are not well defined. Sulphuric\\nacid dissolves it, producing a dark-red color. When distilled\\nwith soda-lime, it yields piperidine (page 750).\\nATROPINE.\\nC17H23X0 3\\nThis alkaloid, which is largely used in the treatment of dis-\\neases of the eyes, was discovered in 1833 by G-eiger and Hesse,\\nand by Mein, in the belladonna, or deadly nightshade (Atropa\\nBelladonna). Planta has shown the identity of atropine and", "height": "4797", "width": "2895", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0763.jp2"}, "762": {"fulltext": "756 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\ndaturine, which, has been obtained from the thorn-apple\\n(Datura Stramonium).\\nIt appears that atropine does not exist already formed\\nin the deadly nightshade, but that it is formed during ex-\\ntraction from an isomeric alkaloid, hyoseyamine, which,\\ntogether with another alkaloid, hyoscine, exists naturally in\\nthe plant.\\nPreparation. Belladonna-root is reduced to powder and\\ndigested several days with alcohol. The solution is filtered,\\nslaked lime, in quantity equal to one-twentieth of the weight of\\nroot employed, is added, the solution again filtered, and rendered\\nslightly acid with sulphuric acid. It is again filtered, and f of\\nthe alcohol distilled off. The residue is concentrated at a gentle\\nheat, and a concentrated solution of potassium carbonate is added\\nuntil the liquid, now neutral, begins to be clouded. After a few\\nhours, the precipitate is separated by filtration, and potassium\\ncarbonate is added to the filtrate as long as impure atropine is\\nprecipitated. The next day, the deposit is collected on a filter,\\npressed, dried, and exhausted with 96 per cent, alcohol. The\\nsolution is decolorized with animal charcoal, the liquid diluted\\nwith five or six times its volume of water and put in a cool,\\ndark place. The atropine is deposited in 12 or 24 hours in\\ncrystalline needles.\\nProperties. Atropine crystallizes in delicate needles, fusi-\\nble at 115\u00c2\u00b0. It dissolves in 300 parts of cold water, and in\\nalmost all proportions of alcohol. It is less soluble in ether.\\nAt 140\u00c2\u00b0 it volatilizes, but the greater part of it is decomposed.\\nIn burning, atropine diffuses the odor of benzoic acid. When\\nit is treated with potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid,\\nbenzyl aldehyde distils an.d benzoic acid is formed (PfeifFer).\\nAtropine is a virulent poison. A solution of sulphate of\\natropine is used in medicine. A single drop, even of a very\\ndilute solution of this salt, produces dilatation of the\\npupil.\\nWhen a small quantity of atropine or one of its salts is\\nmoistened with nitric acid, evaporated to dryness, and the\\nresidue treated with alcoholic potash, a rich violet color is\\ndeveloped (Vitali).\\nA solution of bromine in aqueous hydrobromic acid throws\\ndown from solutions of atropine a yellow amorphous precipi-\\ntate which soon becomes converted into characteristic crystals\\n(Wormley).", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0764.jp2"}, "763": {"fulltext": "COCAINE. 757\\nWhen heated with baryta water, or with hydrochloric acid,\\natropine breaks up into tropine and tropic acid (Lossen and\\nKraut).\\nC 17 H 23 N Q3 H 2 Q _ C 9 H 1\u00c2\u00b00* C 8 H 15 NO\\nAtropine. Tropic acid. Tropine.\\nTropine is an energetic base, soluble in water, alcohol, and\\nether from the latter solvent it separates in tables, fusible at 61\u00c2\u00b0,\\nTropic acid is the phenyl derivative of hydracrylic or ethyl-\\nenelactic acid.\\nCIF.OH CH 2 .OH\\nCH2.CO.OH H CO H OH\\nEthylenelactic acid. Tropic acid.\\nIt forms small crystals, fusible at 117\u00c2\u00b0. By long boiling\\nwith hydrochloric acid, or with baryta water, it loses a molecule\\nof water, and is converted into atropic acid, C 9 H 8 2 which\\nis isomeric with cinnamic acid.\\nCH(C 6 H5) CH 2\\nCH C(C6H5)\\nCO.OH CO.OH\\nCinnamic acid. Atropic acid.\\nTropic acid and tropine combine, forming a true salt. When\\nlong heated with dilute hydrochloric acid, this salt loses the\\nelements of water, and atropine is formed.\\nC 8 H 15 NO.C 9 H 10 O 3 H 2 C 17 H 23 N0 3\\nTropine tropate. Atropine.\\nThis partial synthesis of atropine has been effected by\\nLaden burg.\\nCOCAINE.\\nCocaine was obtained by Niemann from coca leaves (Ery-\\nthroxylon Coca). It has been studied by Wbhler and Lassen.\\nPreparation. Coca leaves are exhausted several times with\\nwater at a temperature between 60 and 80\u00c2\u00b0, and the solu-\\ntion is precipitated by lead acetate, and filtered the filtered\\nsolution is freed from excess of lead acetate by addition of\\nsodium sulphate and then, after a new filtration, the solution\\nis evaporated. Sodium carbonate is then added until it pro-\\nduces a faint alkaline reaction the liquid is lastly agitated\\nwith ether, which takes up the cocaine and leaves it on evapo-\\nration.\\n64", "height": "4783", "width": "2888", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0765.jp2"}, "764": {"fulltext": "758 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nProperties. Cocaine crystallizes in oblique rhombic prisms\\nof four or six sides, which are colorless and odorless, and fuse\\nat 98\u00c2\u00b0. It is but slightly soluble in cold water, more soluble in\\nalcohol, very soluble in ether. Its taste is bitter, its reaction\\nslightly alkaline. When heated with hydrochloric acid, it ab-\\nsorbs two molecules of water and decomposes into methyl\\nalcohol, benzoic acid, and a crystallizable alkaloid, ecgonine,\\nC 9 H 15 N0 3\\nC i7 H 2i N0 4 2H 2 C 9 H 15 N0 3 CH 4 C 7 H 6 2\\nAccording to Einhorn, ecgonine is a carboxylic acid of\\ntropine.\\nCocaine has been made artificially by successively intro-\\nducing the benzoyl and methyl groups into ecgonine.\\nIt is used in surgery as a local anaesthetic.\\nALKALOIDS OF CINCHONA.\\nThe different cinchona barks owe their febrifuge virtues to\\nseveral alkaloids, of which the more important, quinine and cin-\\nchonine, were discovered by Pelletier and Caventou in 1820.\\nSince then, quinidine and cinchonidine have been isolated, the\\nfirst isomeric with quinine, the second with cinchonine. All\\nof these are crystallizable alkaloids. When their sulphates are\\nheated with sulphuric acid, they are converted into two new\\nisomerides, quinicine and cinchonicine. The latter are not crys-\\ntallizable.\\nHence the following six alkaloids are known\\nCinchonine, cinchonidine, cinchonicine C 19 H 22 N 2\\nQuinine, quinidine, quinicine C 20 H 24 N 2 2\\nThese alkaloids are by no means distributed in the same\\nmanner in the numerous species and varieties of cinchona bark,\\nand these barks are not equally rich in alkaloids. The follow-\\ning summary gives some indications of this difference\\n1 KILOGRAMME OF BARK YIELDS QUININE SULPHATE. ^T^frl^\\nYellow bark (Cinchona Calisaya) 30-32 grammes. 6-8 grammes.\\nRed bark Cinchona succirubra) 20-25 8\\nf Loxa Cinchona condami-\\nPale bark i nea) 8 6\\nHuanu co (Cinchona nitida) 6 12\\nftuinic Acid. In the cinchonas, the alkaloids are combined\\nwith a well-defined, crystallizable acid, whose composition is\\nexpressed by the formula C 7 H 12 U 6 It is quinic acid.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0766.jp2"}, "765": {"fulltext": "QUININE. 759\\nThis acid is obtained from the calcium quinate which is de-\\nposited in a few days, when the liquid separated from the quino-\\ncalcium precipitate is concentrated and allowed to stand (see\\nfarther on).\\nThis calcium quinate is purified by several crystallizations,\\nand its solution decomposed by oxalic acid. The quinic acid\\nremains in the solution, and separates in crystals when the\\nliquid is properly concentrated.\\nQuinic acid crystallizes in beautiful, transparent, oblique\\nrhombic prisms. It is very soluble in water, and but slightly\\nsoluble in absolute alcohol. It melts at 161.5\u00c2\u00b0, losing at the\\nsame time the elements of water.\\nIts aqueous solution rotates the plane of polarization to the\\nleft.\\nQuinic acid is the benzene addition compound, hexahydro-\\ntetrahydroxybenzoic acid, C 6 H (OH) 4 CO.OH, and when dis-\\ntilled with a mixture of sulphuric acid and manganese dioxide,\\nit yields quinone, C 6 H 4 2\\nQUININE.\\nC 20 H 2 \u00c2\u00b1X 2 O 2\\nWhen ammonia is added to a solution of sulphate of quinine,\\na white precipitate of quinine is obtained, which, when left to\\nitself and moistened with water from time to time, becomes\\ncrystalline by combining with one molecule of water.\\nQuinine is very bitter. It dissolves in 2266 parts of cold,\\nand in 760 parts of boiling water in 1.33 parts of cold alco-\\nhol, and 22.6 parts of ether (Regnault). It is also soluble in\\nchloroform. Its alcoholic solution turns the plane of polar-\\nization to the left. When water at 32\u00c2\u00b0 is added to the hot\\nalcoholic solution until a cloud begins to form, resinous quinine\\nis deposited, and also colorless, prismatic crystals containing\\nthree molecules of water. From its ethereal or alcoholic solution,\\nquinine crystallizes in delicate silky needles, fusible at 177\u00c2\u00b0.\\nQuinine is diacid, that is, each molecule of the base re-\\nquires for the formation of saturated salts, two molecules of a\\nmonobasic or one of a dibasic acid. It is a tertiary base uniting\\ndirectly with the alcoholic iodides to form quaternary iodides.\\nQuinine Sulphate, 2(C 20 H 2 *N 2 O 2 \\\\S( H 2 8H 2 0.\u00e2\u0080\u0094 Prep-\\nration. This salt, which is extensively used in medicine, is\\nprepared by boiling yellow bark Cinchona Calisaya) or red\\nbark (Cinchona succirubra~) with water acidulated with sul-", "height": "4777", "width": "2882", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0767.jp2"}, "766": {"fulltext": "760 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nphuric or hydrochloric acid. A slight excess of milk of lime\\nis then added in small quantities to the decoction, and precip-\\nitates not only the quinine and cinchonine, but all of the color-\\ning matter (cinchonine red), which forms an insoluble com-\\npound with the lime. The quinic acid remains in solution as\\ncalcium quinate. The quino-calcium deposit contains also the\\nexcess of lime, and calcium sulphate, in case sulphuric acid\\nhas been employed. It is collected on a cloth, allowed to drain,\\npressed, and dried. It is then exhausted with boiling alcohol,\\nwhich dissolves out the alkaloids.\\nThe alcoholic solution, concentrated by distillation, deposits\\nthe cinchonine in crystals, in case the bark employed be rich\\nin that alkaloid. The mother-liquor retains the quinine. It\\nis neutralized by sulphuric acid, and the alcohol distilled off.\\nThe quinine sulphate crystallizes in a mass on cooling, and is\\npurified by redissolving it in boiling water and adding animaJ\\ncharcoal.\\nIt has been proposed to replace the alcohol, in the extrac-\\ntion of the quino-calcium deposit, by certain fixed or volatile\\noils, which dissolve quinine. For this purpose, petroleum and\\nthe heavy oils produced by the distillation of tar, and which are\\nabundant in commerce, may be used with advantage. After\\nhaving dissolved the alkaloids in these oils, the solutions are\\nagitated with dilute sulphuric acid, which removes from them\\nthe quinine and cinchonine. Sulphates are thus obtained which\\nmay be crystallized.\\nProperties. Quinine sulphate occurs in long, thin, light\\nneedles, which are somewhat flexible. It requires for its solu-\\ntion 740 parts of water at 13\u00c2\u00b0, or about 30 parts of boiling\\nwater. The solution restores the blue color to reddened litmus-\\npaper. It turns the plane of polarization to the left (Bouchar-\\ndat). When crystallized in alcohol, quinine sulphate contains\\nonly two molecules of water.\\nIf some quinine sulphate be suspended in cold water, and a\\nfew drops of sulphuric acid be added, the sulphate dissolves\\nand the liquid acquires a blue fluorescence.\\nIn this case, quinine sulphate, which is a basic salt, is con-\\nverted into a salt, C 20 H 24 N 2 O 2 .SO 4 H 2 which has an acid reac-\\ntion, and is called quinine acid sulphate. This salt crystallizes\\nin quadrilateral prisms containing 7 molecules of water it is\\nthe normal sulphate. A still more acid sulphate is known,\\nC 20 H 24 JSPO 2 .(SO 4 H 2 2 7H 2 0.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0768.jp2"}, "767": {"fulltext": "CINCHONINE. 761\\nIf an excess of chlorine- water be added to a solution of\\nquinine sulphate, and the liquid be supersaturated with ammo-\\nnia, a beautiful green color will be produced.\\nThis reaction is characteristic of quinine.\\nWhen tincture of iodine is added to a solution of quinine\\nsulphate in hot acetic acid, in a few hours the liquid deposits\\nlarge, thin plates. It is iodoquinine sulphate, C 20 H 24 N 2 OT.\\nSOH 2 5H 2 (Herapath).\\nThese crystals appear green by reflected light, and are almost\\ncolorless by transmitted light. When two of them are crossed,\\nthe portions which are superposed almost entirely intercept the\\npassage of light. In this respect, iodoquinine sulphate acts\\nas a polarizer, like tourmaline.\\nUses. Quinine sulphate is a valuable remedy. It is prin-\\ncipally employed as a febrifuge, and generally in the treatment\\nof diseases of an intermittent type. It is successfully admin-\\nistered in other diseases, especially in acute articular rheuma-\\ntism, gout, certain neuralgias, etc.\\nCINCHONINE.\\nC 19 H 22 N 2\\nCinchonine is obtained as an accessory product in the manu-\\nfacture of quinine. It deposits from its alcoholic solution in\\nbrilliant, colorless, quadrilateral prisms. It is insoluble in\\nwater, but soluble in alcohol and chloroform. It is almost\\ninsoluble in ether, a property which distinguishes it from qui-\\nnine. Its alcoholic solution turns the plane of polarization to\\nthe right.\\nCinchonine has a bitter taste. It melts at 257\u00c2\u00b0, and when\\ncautiously heated in the bottom of a closed tube, it partly sub-\\nlimes in very light, delicate crystals. When treated with a\\ndilute solution of potassium permanganate, it forms various\\nsubstitution products, and a new base remains, less oxidizable\\nthan cinchonine. It is liydrocinclionine. Caventou and Willm\\nconsider that this base is contained, in the state of mixture, in\\ncommercial cinchonine.\\nWhen distilled with potassium hydrate, cinchonine yields\\nquinoline and a mixture of pyridic bases.\\nAmong the oxidation products obtained by the action of\\n64*", "height": "4788", "width": "2908", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0769.jp2"}, "768": {"fulltext": "762 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nnitric acid, or, better, potassium permanganate, on cinchonine,\\nwe may mention two they are\\nC 7 H 5 NO* C 5 H 3 N(CO.OH) 2\\nCinchomeronic or pyridine dicarboxylic acid.\\nC 10 H 7 NO 2 C 9 H 6 N(CO.OH)\\nCinchoninic or quinoline-y-carboxylic acid.\\nWeidel, who has studied these acids, has also described\\nanother oxidation product of cinchonine, an acid, C 9 H 6 N 2 6\\nFrom the nature of its decomposition products, it is prob-\\nable that cinchonine contains a pyridine and a quinoline\\nnucleus.\\nWhen oxidized by chromic acid, quinine yields methoxy-\\nquinoline-^-carboxylic acid, which makes it appear probable\\nthat quinine is methoxycinchonine.\\nSTRYCHNINE AND BRUCINE.\\nPelletier and Caventou discovered these two alkaloids In\\nvarious vegetable products derived from plants belonging to the\\ngenus Strychnos, such as nux vomica (seeds of the Strychnos\\nNux vomica), false angustura bark, which comes from the same\\nStrychnos, Saint Ignatius bean (seeds of the Strychnos Ignatii),\\netc. These alkaloids, to which igasurine has recently been\\nadded (Desnoix), appear to be combined in the Strychnos with\\nan acid but little known, which Pelletier and Caventou called\\nigasuric acid.\\nStrychnine, C 21 H 22 N 2 2 Preparation. Strychnine is ex-\\ntracted from nux vomica by a process analogous to that which\\nserves for the preparation of quinine. The crude strychnine\\nwhich deposits in crystals from its alcoholic solution is always\\nmixed with brucine. The two alkaloids are separated by con-\\nverting them into nitrates, which are made to crystallize the\\nstrychnine nitrate, less soluble than that of brucine, deposits\\nin needles, and the concentrated solution afterwards deposits\\nvoluminous crystals of brucine nitrate. To isolate the alka-\\nloids, the corresponding nitrates are precipitated by ammonia,\\nand the alkaloid dissolved in boiling alcohol, which deposits it\\nin crystals on cooling.\\nProperties. Strychnine crystallizes in rectangular octa-\\nhedra, sometimes in quadrilateral prisms terminated by four-\\nsided pyramids. It is colorless and odorless, but extremely\\nbitter. It is insoluble in water and in ether, and scarcely\\nsoluble in absolute alcohol. It dissolves readily in ordinary", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0770.jp2"}, "769": {"fulltext": "ALKALOIDS OF OPIUM. 763\\nalcohol, in chloroform, and in the volatile oils. Its alcoholic\\nsolution turns the plane of polarization to the left.\\nWhen strychnine or one of its salts is moistened with\\nstrong sulphuric acid, and a little potassium dichromate\\nadded, a blue color is produced, which changes to violet and\\nred, and at last disappears.\\nAmong the products of the action of fused potassium hy-\\ndroxide upon strychnine are quinoline, indol, and picoline.\\nStrychnine is one of the most active poisons known even\\nin very small doses it produces violent tetanic spasms.\\nBrucine, C 23 H 26 N 2 4 4H 2 0. Brucine, separated from\\nstrychnine by the process above indicated, crystallizes by slow\\nevaporation of its solution in weak alcohol in oblique rhombic\\nprisms, which are often quite large. These crystals, which\\ncontain four molecules of water, rapidly effloresce in the air.\\nBrucine is almost insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in\\nalcohol and very slightly in ether. The alcoholic solution ro-\\ntates the plane of polarization to the left.\\nIf brucine be moistened with nitric acid, it immediately\\nassumes a blood-red color and, by the aid of a gentle heat,\\ndisengages carbon dioxide and vapors which contain methyl\\nnitrite (Strecker).\\nWhen fused with potash, it yields homologues of pyridine.\\nALKALOIDS OF OPIUM.\\nOpium is the thickened juice of the capsules of the white\\npoppy {Papaver somniferinii). It is obtained by making in-\\ncisions in these capsules from the base to the summit. A milky\\njuice exudes, and in the course of a day thickens and solidifies\\nin tears. These are removed, pressed together, and fashioned\\ninto variously-formed masses.\\nThe basic nature of morphine, one of the crystallizable\\nprinciples of opium, was recognized in 1806 by Sertiirner.\\nBesides this, opium contains a number of alkaloids combined\\nwith several acids. Among the latter are a syrupy acid, which\\nhas recently been recognized to be lactic acid (Buchanan), and\\nmecojiic acid, C 7 H 4 7 The latter is one of the more impor-\\ntant constituents of opium it possesses the characteristic prop-\\nerty of producing a blood-red color with ferric salts. Opium\\ncontains also a gummy matter, soluble in water, and a brown,\\ninsoluble, resinous matter, which remains in the mass when", "height": "4786", "width": "2905", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0771.jp2"}, "770": {"fulltext": "764 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nopium is exhausted with water. The aqueous solution of opium\\nhas a brown color. The following alkaloids have been obtained\\nfrom opium\\nMorphine C^H^NO 3\\nCodeine C 18 H 2 iN0 3\\nThebaine C 19 H 21 N0 3\\nPapaverine C 21 H 2 iNO\u00c2\u00b1\\nNarcotine C 22 H 23 N0 7\\nNarceine C 23 H 29 N0 9\\nStill other alkaloids have been obtained from opium, but\\nit is probable that some of them are produced during the\\nprocess of extraction. Of those enumerated, we will describe\\nonly morphine, codeine, and narcotine.\\nMORPHINE.\\nC 17 H 19 N0 3\\nPreparation. 1. Opium is cut into slices and exhausted\\nwith water. The solution is evaporated to a syrupy consistence\\nand the still hot extract is mixed with an excess of pulverized\\nsodium carbonate. After the lapse of twenty-four hours, the\\nprecipitate is collected and exhausted with dilute acetic acid,\\nwhich dissolves the morphine and leaves the narcotine. The\\nliquid is filtered, decolorized by animal charcoal, and super-\\nsaturated with ammonia. The morphine is precipitated, and\\nis purified by crystallization in alcohol (Merck).\\n2. One kilogramme of opium is exhausted with cold water\\n100 grammes of pure lime are added to the liquid, which is\\nthen evaporated to a syrupy consistence at a temperature of 65\\nor 75\u00c2\u00b0. After cooling, the mass is exhausted with 3 litres of\\nwater which leaves the meconate of calcium the latter is\\nseparated by filtration. The liquid is then evaporated to one-\\nfourth its volume, and while it is still hot, 50 grammes of\\ncalcium chloride dissolved in 100 grammes of water and 8\\ngrammes of hydrochloric acid are added.\\nThis mixture is left to itself for about two weeks, when it\\nwill be found to have set in a mass of crystals which are bathed\\nin a colored mother-liquor. The deposit is pressed in a cloth,\\ndissolved in boiling water, with addition of animal charcoal,\\nand the solution filtered. On cooling, a mass of crystals is\\nformed, consisting of a mixture of morphine hydrochloride and\\ncodeine hydrochloride. These are pressed, dissolved in water,\\nand ammonia is added, which precipitates the greater portion of", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0772.jp2"}, "771": {"fulltext": "MORPHINE. 765\\nthe morphine, while the codeine remains in solution. The\\ndeposit is collected on a filter and redissolved in boiling alcohol,\\nfrom which the morphine crystallizes on cooling (Robertson\\nand Gregory).\\nProperties. Morphine crystallizes in small, colorless, right\\nrhombic prisms, having a bitter taste. It is insoluble in ether,\\nin chloroform, and in benzene. The alcoholic solution rotates\\nthe plane of polarization to the left. The crystals contain one\\nmolecule of water which they lose at 100\u00c2\u00b0. Morphine dis-\\nsolves easily in a solution of potassium hydrate it is very\\nslightly soluble in ammonia almost insoluble in water.\\nTests. 1 If a few drops of a solution of iodic acid be added\\nto an alcoholic solution of morphine, the liquid immediately\\nassumes a brown or yellow color, due to the liberation of iodine.\\nIodic acid exerts an oxidizing action on morphine.\\n2. If a small quantity of morphine in powder be added to a\\nsolution of ferric chloride, a blue color is produced. This\\ncharacteristic recalls an analogous reaction brought about by\\nthe phenols, and leads to the belief that morphine contains a\\nphenolic hydroxyl group (Grimaux).\\n3. Nitric acid produces an orange-red color with morphine.\\nThe last two reactions are characteristic.\\nWhen morphine is heated to 200\u00c2\u00b0 with potassium hydrate,\\nit disengages methylamine.\\nWhen heated with zinc dust, it yields phenanthrene, and\\nvarious pyridic and quinolic bases studied by Gerichten and\\nSchroetter.\\nMorphine Hydrochloride. This salt, of which the prepara-\\ntion has already been indicated, crystallizes in silky needles,\\nsoluble in 1 part of boiling and 16 or 20 parts of cold water;\\nit is very soluble in alcohol. The crystals contain C 17 H 19 N0 3\\nHC1 3H 2 0.\\nPlatinic chloride forms a yellow precipitate of a double chlo-\\nride in an aqueous solution of morphine hydrochloride.\\n(C 17 H 19 N0 3 .HCl) 2 .PtCl 4\\nHydrochloride of morphine is much used in medicine.\\nWhen its solution is heated to 60\u00c2\u00b0 with silver nitrite, the\\nbase is oxidized and converted into oxymorphine, C 17 H 19 N0 4\\nWhen morphine is heated to about 140\u00c2\u00b0 with concentrated\\nhydrochloric acid, it is transformed into a new base, apomor-\\nphine, C 17 H 17 N0 2 derived from morphine by the removal of", "height": "4793", "width": "2894", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0773.jp2"}, "772": {"fulltext": "766 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\none molecule of water (Matthiessen). This base possesses\\nspecial therapeutic properties. When administered by hypo-\\ndermic injection or swallowed, it acts as an emetic.\\nCODEINE.\\nC 18 H 21 N Q3\\nCodeine is methylmorphine. It is obtained from the am-\\nmoniacal mother-liquor from which the morphine is deposited,\\nin the preparation of the latter body by the process of Robert-\\nson and Gregory. For this purpose, the mother-liquor is con-\\ncentrated and caustic potassa is added, which precipitates the\\ncodeine. It is collected, dissolved in hydrochloric acid, the\\nsolution decolorized with animal charcoal, and the codeine again\\nprecipitated by potassa. Lastly, the precipitate is dissolved in\\nordinary ether, which deposits the codeine in voluminous crys-\\ntals by spontaneous evaporation.\\nThese crystals are right rhombic prisms, and contain one\\nmolecule of water. Anhydrous ether deposits codeine in anhy-\\ndrous rectangular octahedra, fusible at 150\u00c2\u00b0.\\nCodeine dissolves in 89 parts of water at 15\u00c2\u00b0, and is more\\nsoluble in boiling water. Alcohol and ether dissolve it readily,\\nand the alcoholic solution rotates the plane of polarization to\\nthe left.\\nStarting with the idea that morphine contains a phenolic\\nhydroxyl group, Grimaux conceived that the solution of\\nmorphine in potassium hydrate should contain the compound\\nC 17 H 18 N0 2 .OK indeed, by treating this alkaline solution with\\nmethyl iodide, he obtained codeine.\\nC i7 H i8 N0 2 0K CH3I _ ki C 17 H 18 N0 2 .OCH 3\\nThis reaction certainly demonstrates that codeine is methyl-\\nmorphine.\\nIf bromine-water be poured upon codeine in fine powder,\\nthe latter dissolves, and is converted into hydrobromide of\\nmonobromo-codeine. By the continued addition of bromine-\\nwater, a yellow precipitate is formed, consisting of hydrobro-\\nmide of tribromo-codeine, that is, codeine in which three atoms\\nof hydrogen are replaced by three atoms of bromine.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0774.jp2"}, "773": {"fulltext": "NARCOTINE. 767\\nNARCOTINE.\\nNarcotine may be extracted from the residue of opium which\\nhas been exhausted by water. This is treated with hydrochloric\\nacid, filtered, and the filtrate precipitated by sodium carbon-\\nate. The precipitate is dissolved in alcohol, and the alcoholic\\nsolution decolorized by animal charcoal. The narcotine crys-\\ntallizes out on cooling.\\nIt forms brilliant, colorless prisms, belonging to the system of\\nthe right rhombic prism. It melts at 170\u00c2\u00b0. It is insoluble in\\ncold water, and requires for its solution about 60 parts of cold\\nabsolute alcohol, or 12 parts of boiling absolute alcohol. It is\\nsoluble in ether, a character which distinguishes it from mor-\\nphine. Its alcoholic and ethereal solutions have a bitter taste,\\nand turn the plane of polarization to the left.\\nIf a few crystals of narcotine in a watch-glass be moistened\\nwith sulphuric acid containing a trace of nitric acid, an intense\\nblood-red color is produced.\\nBy the action of certain oxidizing agents, narcotine is de-\\ncomposed into a new alkaloid, cotarnine, and an acid which is\\ncalled opianic acid (Wbhler).\\nC 22 H 23 N0 7 C 10 H 10 O 5 C 12 H 13 N0 3\\nNarcotine. Opianic acid. Cotarnine.\\nCotarnine crystallizes in colorless, silky needles, grouped in\\nstars.\\nWhen heated with water, narcotine breaks up into cotarnine\\nand meconine, which is also present in opium.\\nC 22 H 23 N0 7 _ c i0 H 10 O 4 C 12 H 13 N0 3\\nNarcotine. Meconine. Cotarnine.\\nWhen subjected to the action of hydriodic acid, narcotine\\nloses successively three methyl groups, and yields hydriodides\\nof three new bases. One of them contains C 19 H 17 N0 7 and has\\nbeen designated as nomarcotine or normal narcotine. It is\\nformed according to the equation\\nC 22 H 23 N0 7 3HI _ c i9 H 17 N0 7 3CH 3 I\\nNarcotine. Nomarcotine. Methyl iodide.\\nHence narcotine itself represents trimeihyl -nomarcotine\\nC 19 H u (CH 3 3 N0 7 (Matthiessen and Foster).\\nThe intermediate terms between narcotine and nomarcotine\\nare also known.", "height": "4795", "width": "2904", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0775.jp2"}, "774": {"fulltext": "768 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nACONITINE.\\nC 33 H* N0 12\\nThe Aconitum Napellus contains, independently of aconitic\\nacid, a base which was extracted by Geiger and Hesse. It\\noccurs as a white powder, or as colorless, tabular crystals, only\\nslightly soluble in water, very soluble in alcohol. Its taste is\\nacrid and bitter. It is a violent poison. Its nitrate crystal-\\ntizes readily.\\nThe following two alkaloids, theobromine and caffeine, are\\nnot derivatives of the fundamental alkaloidal nuclei they\\nare closely related to uric acid.\\nTHEOBROMINE.\\nC 7 H 8 N*0 2\\nTheobromine exists in the beans of the cocoa (Theobroma\\nCacao). To prepare it, the crushed cocoa beans are exhausted\\nwith water, and the aqueous extract is precipitated by lead ace-\\ntate. The precipitate is separated by filtration, and the filtrate\\nis freed from an excess of lead by hydrogen sulphide it is then\\nagain filtered, and evaporated to dryness. The residue is dis-\\nsolved in absolute alcohol and the solution concentrated the\\ntheobromine separates as a crystalline powder, having a bitter\\ntaste, slightly soluble in alcohol and ether. It may be sublimed.\\nIt is soluble in ammonia.\\nCAFFEINE, OR THEINE.\\nC 8 H 10 N 4 O 2\\nCaffeine was extracted from coffee in 1821 by Pelletier and\\nCaventou, and by Robiquet and Runge. Liebig, Pfaff, and\\nWohler determined its composition. It exists in coffee, tea,\\nParaguay tea (leaf of the Ilex Paraguaiemis), and guarana\\n(seeds of the Paullinia Sorbilis). The latter product contains\\n5 per cent. Caffeine is methyl-theobromine.\\nPreparation. Caffeine, or theine, is generally obtained\\nfrom tea. Powdered tea is exhausted several times with cold\\nalcohol, and the tincture is precipitated by subacetate of lead,\\nfiltered, and a current of hydrogen sulphide passed through", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0776.jp2"}, "775": {"fulltext": "SUBSTITUTES FOR NATURAL ALKALOIDS. 769\\nthe filtrate to precipitate the excess of lead. The filtered\\nliquid is then evaporated to one-fourth its volume, neutralized\\nby potassium hydrate, and allowed to crystallize (Herzog).\\nProperties. Caffeine forms long, colorless, silky needles,\\ncontaining one molecule of water. It loses its water of crys-\\ntallization at 100\u00c2\u00b0, melts at 225\u00c2\u00b0, and sublimes without alter-\\nation at a higher temperature. It is only slightly soluble in\\ncold water, but dissolves readily in boiling water, and in\\nalcohol. It is but slightly soluble in ether. It forms definite\\ncombinations with the acids. When boiled with concentrated\\npotassa, it disengages methylamine.\\nHeated with baryta water, it breaks up into carbon dioxide\\nand caffeidine, C 7 H 12 N 4 0, a base soluble in water, and which\\nyields by prolonged boiling with water sarcosin and other\\nproducts.\\nBy the action of chlorine water or of nitric acid, caffeine\\nforms methylamine, cyanogen chloride, and an acid, C 12 H 12 N0 7\\nwhich Bochleder has named amalic acid. The latter is tetra-\\nmethyl-alloxantin, C 8 (CH 3 4 N 4 7 and the reaction indicates\\na relation between caffeine and the uric acid group.\\nWhen caffeine is boiled for a few minutes with fuming nitric\\nacid, the yellow liquid evaporated to dryness, and the residue\\nmoistened with ammonia, a purple color is produced, analogous\\nto that of murexide.\\nSUBSTITUTES FOB NATUBAL ALKALOIDS.\\nAmong the more important medicinal properties of several\\nof the natural alkaloids are those of relieving pain and of\\nlowering the temperature of the body, the analgesic and\\nantipyretic effects. The use of the alkaloids possessing these\\nproperties in the most marked degree is often objectionable\\non account of other actions on the animal economy. Organic\\nchemistry has placed a large number of compounds at the\\nservice of the physician, and several of these are extensively\\nused as substitutes for natural alkaloids. We have space to\\nmention only a few.\\nParacetphenetidine, C 6 H 4 .NH(C 2 H 3 0)-OC 2 H 5 The\\nethyl ethers of the amidophenols, e.g., C 6 H 4 .NH 2 .OC 2 H 5 are\\ncalled phenetidi7ies, and the acetyl compound formed by the\\nreplacement of one of the hydrogen atoms of the NH 2 group\\nin paraphenetidine by the group acetyl is perhaps the most\\n2h yy 65", "height": "4779", "width": "2881", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0777.jp2"}, "776": {"fulltext": "770 ELEMENTS OP MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nimportant of the antipyretics. It is a white crystalline pow-\\nder, almost insoluble in cold water, more soluble in hot water,\\nand freely soluble in alcohol and in ether. It is employed\\nin medicine under the name phenacetin.\\nPhenyldimethylpyrazolon, or antipyrine, is a derivative\\nof acetoacetic ether. By the reaction of phenylhydrazine\\nand ethylacetoacetate, phenylmethylpyrazolon is formed,\\nhaving the composition\\n^CO-CEP\\nC6H5N i\\nN=C-CH3\\nIf methylphenylhydrazine be substituted for the phenyl-\\nhydrazine, phenyldimethylpyrazolon results.\\n^CO CH\\nC 6H5N II\\n^N(CH3)-C-CH 3\\nThis is the medicinal antipyrine. It forms monoclinic crys-\\ntals, easily soluble in water, alcohol, and chloroform, almost\\ninsoluble in ether. It melts at 113\u00c2\u00b0, and cannot be distilled\\nwithout decomposition.\\nr TJ2 CH 2\\nHydroxymethyltetrahydroquinoline, C6hs.oh i\\nN (CH. CH*\\na derivative of orthoamidophenol, has been used as an anti-\\npyretic under the name kairine, and\\nCH 2 CH 2\\nMethoxytetrahydroquinoline, C6H3(och 3 i has\\nJNJH \u00e2\u0080\u0094Gil\\nbeen recommended for the same purpose, being called thalline.\\nNeither of these appear to have any advantages over phena-\\ncetin and antipyrine, and, moreover, their employment is not\\nwithout danger by reason of special actions they exert on\\ncertain nerve-centres.\\nALBUMINOID MATTERS-PROTEIDS.\\nThe albuminoid matters are complex organic substances,\\ncontaining carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, associated\\nwith a small proportion of sulphur. Their composition and\\nproperties generally are represented by those of the coagu-\\nlable matter which exists in white of egg and in the serum\\nof blood, and which is called albumen. They are closely\\nrelated to the epidermic productions and insoluble substances", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0778.jp2"}, "777": {"fulltext": "ALBUMINOID MATTERS. 771\\nwhich are converted into gelatin or chondrin by boiling,\\nalthough differing from these latter in chemical composition\\nand in many properties. These compounds appear to be the\\nclosest approximation of unorganized matter to organized\\nmatter that is the living cell, and they have therefore been\\ncalled proteids.\\nThe following reactions serve to characterize albuminoid\\nsubstances\\nIn contact with water containing one or two thousandths\\nof hydrochloric acid most insoluble albuminoid matters swell\\nup and are finally converted into a transparent jelly, which is\\npartially soluble in water.\\nConcentrated hydrochloric acid dissolves albuminoid sub-\\nstances by the aid of heat, assuming a deep violet or blue\\ncolor.\\nConcentrated nitric acid colors them yellow.\\nAlbuminoid substances are precipitated from neutral or\\nslightly alkaline aqueous solutions by alcohol, tannin, phenol,\\nand the salts of heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and\\ncopper. The copper precipitate is soluble in strong potassium\\nhydroxide solution, the liquid assuming a rich violet color.\\nA solution of mercuric nitrate in dilute nitric acid is\\ncolored red when boiled with albuminoid substances (Jllllons\\nreagent.\\nThe albuminoid substances are levo-rotatory, the optical\\nactivity varying in wide limits.\\nThe insoluble albuminoid bodies, such as coagulated albu-\\nmen, fibrin, and casein, dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat\\nin potassium hydroxide, to which they yield a portion of\\ntheir sulphur. The alkaline liquid, supersaturated with acetic\\nacid, precipitates the dissolved matter in flakes.\\nThe molecular composition of these bodies is very com-\\nplex, as will presently be seen when we consider the com-\\npounds into which they can be split up. and their molecular\\nweights are consequently very great. Their centesimal com-\\nposition is comprised within the following limits\\nCarbon 50.0 to 53.5\\nHydrogen 6.6 6.9\\nNitrogen 16.8 15.6\\nOxygen 26.1 22A\\nSulphur 0.5 1.6\\n100.0 100.0", "height": "4787", "width": "2898", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0779.jp2"}, "778": {"fulltext": "772 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nConcentrated and boiling solutions of the alkalies decompose\\nall albuminoid substances, the principal products of the decom-\\nposition being carbon dioxide, formic acid, glycocoll, and its\\nhomologue leucine, C 6 H 13 N0 2 as well as a nitrogenized sub-\\nstance known as tyrosine and containing C 9 H n N0 3 The other\\ndecomposition products will be indicated when treating of\\nalbumen.\\nLeucine and tyrosine are also formed when albuminoid sub-\\nstances are long boiled with dilute sulphuric acid. At the same\\ntime, aspartic acid, and glutamic acid, C 5 H 9 N0 4 which is the\\nacid amide of normal pyrotartaric acid, is formed.\\nC3H6 C0 2 H C 3 H 5 (NH 2 \u00c2\u00a3g 2 H\\nPyrotartaric acid. Glutamic acid.\\nBy the action of energetic oxidizing agents, such as chromic\\nacid, or manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid, albuminoid\\nbodies produce various products of oxidation and decomposi-\\ntion, among which we may note particularly (1), the volatile\\nacids of the series, C n H 2n 2 from formic acid to caproic acid\\ninclusive (2), the corresponding aldehydes (3), the nitriles\\n(hydrocyanic ethers), propionitrile (ethyl cyanide), and valero-\\nnitrile (butyl cyanide) (4), benzoic acid and benzalde-\\nhyde.\\nBy subjecting albumen and its analogues to the action of\\nan aqueous solution of barium hydrate at a temperature of 140\\nor 150\u00c2\u00b0, Schiitzenberger observed that these bodies decompose,\\nby hydration, into ammonia, carbon dioxide, oxalic, sulphurous,\\nand acetic acids (the latter three bodies in very small propor-\\ntion), and into other products, which are mostly crystalliza-\\nble. These products are tyrosine and the acid amides of the\\nfatty series C n H 2n+1 N0 2 from amidobutyric acid, C 4 H 7 (NH 2 )0 2\\nto amid-oenanthic acid, C 7 H 13 (NH 2 )0 2 inclusive. With these\\nproducts are others which are also crystal lizable, but contain\\nless hydrogen lastly, more highly oxidized amides are formed\\nin the same reaction, such as malamic, diamidocitric, aspartic,\\nand glutamic acids.\\nFrom these results, it may be inferred that albumen and its\\nanalogues contain the elements of urea, tyrosine, acid amides\\nof the fatty series, and more oxidized amides analogous to as-\\npartic acid, all of these bodies being combined together, with\\nelimination of water. The presence of a certain proportion of", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0780.jp2"}, "779": {"fulltext": "ALBUMENS. 773\\na dextrin if orm body in the products of the decomposition of\\nalbumen permits the supposition that the complex molecule\\nof the latter body contains also an amide of cellulose or an\\namylaceous body.\\nIt can now be understood that an exact chemical classifi-\\ncation of the proteids is not yet possible. They may, how-\\never, be conveniently arranged as follows\\n1. True albumens, soluble in pure water and coagulable\\nby heat. Egg albumen and serum albumen are types of this\\nvariety. There are analogous vegetable albumens.\\n2. Globulins, insoluble in water but soluble in solutions\\nof neutral salts, such as sodium chloride, magnesium sul-\\nphate the solutions are coagulable by heat. Examples are\\nvitellin, the albumen of yolk of egg^ cryosine, serum globu-\\nlin, fibrinogen. There appear to be no exactly correspond-\\ning vegetable substances.\\n3. Fibrins, insoluble in water, swell up in solutions of\\nneutral salts and in dilute acids coagulated by boiling water,\\nblood fibrin is the best type, and gluten fibrin is an analogue\\nof vegetable origin.\\n4. Coagulated albumens, insoluble in water, and only\\nslightly swelled by saline solutions and dilute acids. These\\nsubstances are not colored by iodine.\\n5. Amyloid, insoluble, colored red, brown, or violet by\\niodine. This substance appears to be a pathological modi-\\nfication of albuminoids, and cannot be prepared artificially\\nfrom other varieties.\\n6. Acid albumens, insoluble in water, saline solutions\\nor alcohol, but dissolved by dilute acids and alkalies a small\\nquantity of calcium carbonate suspended in water prevents\\ntheir solution.\\n7. Alkali albumens, very slightly soluble in water, saline\\nsolutions, and hot alcohol soluble in water holding suspended\\ncalcium carbonate, in which they replace the carbonic acid.\\n8. Albumoses, apparently transition products between the\\npreceding bodies and the next class soluble in dilute solu-\\ntions of common salt.\\n9. Peptones, very soluble in water, not coagulable by\\nheat, and not precipitated by acids or salts.\\n10. True proteids, capable of being broken up into an\\nalbuminoid body with some other substance such as hemo-\\nglobin, oxyhemoglobin, casein, chondrin, nuclein.\\n65*", "height": "4789", "width": "2908", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0781.jp2"}, "780": {"fulltext": "774 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\n11. Albumoids, insoluble matters, in general not dissolved\\nby the digestive juices these occur in the skin and in the\\nstrong integuments.\\n12. Gelatinoids, soluble in hot water without alteration\\ngelatin is the type.\\n13. Spongy matters, such as compose sponge.\\nWe will briefly consider the more important of these\\nbodies.\\nTRUE ALBUMENS.\\nSoluble albumen exists in solution in white of egg^ and in\\nother liquids of the animal economy. The coagulable prin-\\nciple of the serum of blood is a liquid analogous to the\\nalbumen of white of egg, and has been called serin.\\nWhen a filtered solution of white of egg is evaporated at a\\nlow temperature or in a vacuum, the soluble albumen at length\\ndries to a transparent, yellowish mass, having a gummy appear-\\nance. In this state it is not pure it remains combined with\\na trace of alkali and mixed with a small quantity of salts.\\nWhen treated with water, it again dissolves. When it is per-\\nfectly dry 5 it may be heated to even 100\u00c2\u00b0 without losing all of\\nits water. The greater part, if not all, of the salts which exist\\nin white of egg with the albumen may be removed by dialysis\\n(Graham).\\nWhen a solution of white of egg or of the serum of blood\\nis heated, the liquid begins to be clouded at 70\u00c2\u00b0, and coagulates\\nat about 73\u00c2\u00b0, sometimes in flakes, sometimes in a white mass,\\naccording to the concentration of the solution heat converts\\nalbumen into the insoluble variety.\\nWhen white of egg is diluted with eight or nine times its\\nvolume of water and the carbonic acid gas which is dissolved\\nor combined with the albumen is carefully expelled at a low\\ntemperature, a solution is obtained which is not coagulable by\\nheat. The lost property may, however, be restored by passing\\ncarbon dioxide through the liquid.\\nIf strong alcohol be added to a solution of albumen, a white\\ncoagulum of insoluble coagulated albumen is produced.\\nAction of Acids on Albumen. Sulphuric, hydrochloric,\\nand nitric acids precipitate albumen in thick flakes, which\\nretain a certain quantity of acid the latter may be removed\\nby prolonged washings with water, the residue constituting\\nan acid albumen.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0782.jp2"}, "781": {"fulltext": "ACTION OP SALTS ON ALBUMEN. 775\\nThe action of nitric acid upon albumen is often used for the\\ndetection of that substance in pathological urine. A still more\\nsensitive reagent is metaphosphoric acid, which precipitates the\\nsmallest traces of albumen contained in a solution.\\nOrdinary phosphoric acid, acetic acid, and lactic acid, do not\\nprecipitate solutions of albumen.\\nAction of Alkalies on Albumen. When white of egg is\\nbeaten up with a few drops of a very concentrated solution of\\npotassium hydrate, it sets in a few minutes in a soft, trans-\\nparent, semi-solid mass, from which the excess of potassa may\\nbe removed by washing with cold water. The residue is albu-\\nminate of potassa, from which all of the excess of potassa\\nmay be removed by prolonged washings. The gelatinous\\nalbuminate of potassa dissolves in boiling water. Acetic\\nacid precipitates from the solution an alkali albumen, which\\nmay be freed from salts by dialysis.\\nCoagulated albumen dissolves in the alkalies and alkaline\\ncarbonates, forming albuminates.\\nAlbumen combines with calcium hydrate, as with potassa\\na mixture of white of egg and slaked lime constitutes a very\\nhard cement.\\nAction of the Salts on Albumen. Many salts precipitate\\nsolutions of albumen. Acetate and subacetate of lead form\\ndense precipitates of albuminate of lead. Cupric sulphate\\nproduces a blue precipitate. Corrosive sublimate yields a\\nwhite precipitate, even in very dilute solutions of albumen.\\nThe insolubility of this precipitate explains the use of albu-\\nmen as an antidote to corrosive sublimate.\\nSolutions of albumen are not precipitated by solutions of\\nsodium chloride or sodium sulphate, but when acetic acid is\\nadded to the mixture a precipitate forms. Reciprocally, a\\nsolution of albumen to which acetic acid has been added is\\nprecipitated by solutions of sodium chloride and sodium\\nsulphate (Panum). In this case an acid albumen is formed.\\nIn general, the properties of ovalbumen and those of serum\\nalbumen are very similar the latter, however, resists the\\naction of acids much more than the former, while it is more\\nreadily modified by the action of alkalies.", "height": "4760", "width": "2899", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0783.jp2"}, "782": {"fulltext": "776 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nGLOBULIN\u00e2\u0080\u0094 FIBRIN.\\nBerzelius gave the name globulin to the coagulable albu-\\nminoid that can be obtained from red blood-corpuscles, and\\nwhich is probably a decomposition product of hemoglobin.\\nIt resembles albumen in many properties, but coagulates\\ncompletely only at 93\u00c2\u00b0. It is not precipitated by either\\nacetic acid or by alkalies, but is thrown down when a current\\nof carbon dioxide is passed through its solution.\\nWhen recently-drawn blood is left to itself, it coagulates\\nspontaneously in a few minutes, and soon separates into a\\nyellow liquid called the serum, and a red coagulum, which is\\nthe clot. The clot contains the red corpuscles, imprisoned in\\nan insoluble albuminoid matter. This matter is fibrin it is\\nformed by the reaction of two globulins which exist in solu-\\ntion in the liquid portion of blood, which is called plasma.\\nOne of these substances is called fibrinogen, the other is\\nserum globulin, sometimes called fibrinoplastin, or paraglob-\\nulin. These two bodies have been isolated when they are\\nmixed in presence of water and a certain proportion of\\nsodium chloride, the whole dissolves at first and the liquid\\nsoon coagulates spontaneously the coagulum is fibrin (Hoppe-\\nSeyler).\\nFibrin may be obtained in fibrous masses by beating fresh\\nblood. The latter does not coagulate in this case, but the\\ncoagulable constituent attaches itself in red flakes to the rods\\nwith which the blood is agitated. By washing these flakes\\nin running water, they are freed from the adhering red cor-\\npuscles, and obtained in white or grayish elastic masses of a\\nfibrous appearance. This substance is entirely insoluble in\\npure water, but dissolves in slightly alkaline solutions, and,\\nby the aid of a gentle heat} even in solutions of certain salts\\nwhich have an alkaline reaction. It decomposes hydrogen\\ndioxide into oxygen and water.\\nWhen left to itself during the heat of summer, it putrefies\\nvery rapidly, and is converted into a blackish liquid, which\\ncontains albumen. Leucine, and butyric and valeric acids\\nare formed at the time.\\nWhen treated with concentrated hydrochloric acid, fibrin\\ndissolves, forming a blue solution. When still moist fibrin is\\nintroduced into water containing one or two thousandths of", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0784.jp2"}, "783": {"fulltext": "ACID ALBUMENS SYNTONIN. 777\\nconcentrated hydrochloric acid, it swells and becomes trans-\\nparent, forming a jelly. After some time it dissolves in the\\nliquid, although with difficulty, and the solution then contains\\nan acid albumen, syntonin.\\nDilute sodium chloride solutions dissolve fibrin. When\\nsuch a solution is dialyzed, most of the salt passes into the\\nexterior liquid, and there remains in the dialyzer a limpid\\nsolution of the two globulins, coagulable by heat, and pre-\\nsenting many of the properties of e^ albumen (A. Gautier).\\nMyosin. Kiihne designated by this name the albuminoid\\nmatter existing in solution in the sheaths of the muscular\\nfibres (sarcolemma), and which has the property of coagu-\\nlating spontaneously after death, thus producing cadaveric\\nrigidity.\\nMyosin is insoluble in water as well as in a saturated solu-\\ntion of common salt, but it dissolves in a solution containing\\nten per cent, of salt. It may be extracted from the muscles\\nby the following process the flesh is chopped up, and decolor-\\nized by washing with water it is then triturated with pul-\\nverized common salt, and enough water is added to produce a\\n10 per cent, solution of salt. After digestion for a few hours\\nin the cold, the liquid is filtered and brought into contact with\\nrock salt as the latter dissolves, it precipitates the myosin in\\nflakes.\\nRecently-precipitated myosin dissolves in a ten per cent,\\nsolution of salt, but it loses this property by desiccation. Very\\ndilute hydrochloric acid dissolves it, and soon transforms it\\ninto syntonin.\\nACID ALBUMENS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 SYNTONIN.\\nSyntonin is the type of acid albumens it may be prepared\\nfrom muscular tissue. The latter is hashed, washed with\\nwater, and suspended in a large quantity of water containing\\none-thousandth of hydrochloric acid. The particles of meat\\nswell and dissolve abundantly in the liquid, which is then\\npressed through a cloth, filtered, and exactly neutralized with\\nsodium carbonate. The syntonin is precipitated in gelatinous,\\ncolorless flakes, which collect and dry upon the filter in elastic\\nfilms.\\nSyntonin dissolves in water slightly acidulated with hydro-\\nchloric acid. It also dissolves in lime-water, and in a one\\nper cent, solution of sodium carbonate.", "height": "4789", "width": "2855", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0785.jp2"}, "784": {"fulltext": "778 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nPEPTONES\u00e2\u0080\u0094 PEPSIN.\\nThe gastric juice contains a ferment called pepsin, which\\nis capable under certain conditions of profoundly modifying\\nall the proteids. The change appears to be an hydrolysis,\\nand by it the albuminoids are rendered soluble in water the\\nsolutions are dialyzable and non-coagulable by heat; they\\nare converted into peptones. In this condition they are ready\\nfor absorption into the animal system. Pepsin displays its\\ngreatest activity at about 35\u00c2\u00b0, and in dilute hydrochloric acid\\nsolution a given quantity of the ferment is capable of pep-\\ntonizing an apparently unlimited quantity of albumen, pro-\\nvided the peptone formed be removed from the liquid as\\nrapidly as it is produced. Whether the peptones are as\\nnumerous as the albuminoids from which they are derived\\nis as yet undecided it is certain, however, that there are\\nseveral varieties, and that after absorption into the body they\\nagain become true albuminoids.\\nThe pancreatic juice contains a ferment similar to pepsin,\\ncalled trypsin.\\nTRUE PROTEIDS\u00e2\u0080\u0094 HEMOGLOBIN.\\nThis name is given to the crystalline matter which may be\\nextracted from red blood-corpuscles, and which was first called\\nhematocrystalline.\\nPreparation. Clotted blood is broken up and triturated\\nwith its own volume of water until it is entirely reduced. It\\nis then passed through a cloth, and the liquid is frozen, or\\nagitated with small quantities of ether until the corpuscles are\\ndissolved. The thawed liquid, or that which has been treated\\nwith ether, deposits a coagulum which imprisons all of the\\nunbroken corpuscles. The liquid is filtered, rendered slightly\\nacid by acetic acid, and alcohol is added as long as the pre-\\ncipitate first formed continues to dissolve. When cooled to 0\u00c2\u00b0\\nfor several hours, the red liquid sets in a mass of crystals\\nthese are collected on a filter, pressed, and washed with dilute\\nalcohol and water, both at 0\u00c2\u00b0. They are purified by dissolving\\nthem in water at 40\u00c2\u00b0 and evaporating the solution in a vacuum,\\nor by adding alcohol and cooling the liquid to 0\u00c2\u00b0.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0786.jp2"}, "785": {"fulltext": "HEMOGLOBIN.\\n779\\nComposition. Hemoglobin so prepared has about the same\\ncomposition as albuminoid bodies, but contains a little iron.\\nAccording to Hoppe-Seyler, its composition is\\nCarbon 54.18\\nHydrogen 7.2\\nNitrogen 16.2\\nOxygen 21.5\\nIron 0.42\\nSulphur 0.7\\nProperties. Hemoglobin forms crystals which differ accord-\\ning to the blood from which they have been obtained. They\\ngenerally belong to the type\\nof the right rhombic prism.\\nThose from human blood pre-\\nsent, under the microscope, the\\nforms indicated in Fig. 136.\\nThey are red, and doubly re-\\nfracting. They contain water\\nof crystallization.\\nThey dissolve in water, and\\nmore readily in slightly alkaline\\nsolutions.\\nThe red solution of hemo-\\nglobin (oxyhemoglobin) has\\nan important optical property.\\nWhen light which has trav-\\nersed a dilute solution of hemo-\\nglobin is decomposed by a\\nprism, the spectrum so formed shows two black bands (absorp-\\ntion bands) between Fraunhofer s lines D and E (Stokes).\\nThe crystals of hemoglobin contain oxygen which is weakly\\ncombined, and which may be removed by exposing the crys-\\ntals in a vacuum (Hoppe-Seyler). Oxygenated hemoglobin is\\nknown as oxyhemoglobin, and hemoglobin deprived of oxygen\\nreabsorbs that gas when brought into contact with it It is\\ncurious that carbon monoxide will expel the oxygen from hemo-\\nglobin, at the same time replacing it (CI. Bernard). The com-\\nbination of hemoglobin and carbon monoxide is soluble in\\nwater.\\nThe solution of oxyhemoglobin yields its oxygen to certain\\nreducing agents, such as hydrogen sulphide. Reduced hemo-\\nglobin gives an absorption spectrum containing one single band,\\nFig. 136.", "height": "4764", "width": "2889", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0787.jp2"}, "786": {"fulltext": "780 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nsituated in a position between the two absorption-bands of\\noxyhemoglobin.\\nHemoglobin decomposes hydrogen dioxide. It is very un-\\nstable, and if the crystals be dried at a temperature above 100\u00c2\u00b0\\nthey rapidly become altered. The aqueous solution decom-\\nposes spontaneously in a few hours at 15\u00c2\u00b0, or temperatures\\nabove that point. The acids, even the weak ones, favor this\\ndecomposition, which is manifested by a change of color, the\\nfine red tint of the hemoglobin being replaced by a brown. In\\nthese cases, hemoglobin decomposes into an albuminoid matter\\n(globulin), and a ferruginous pigment called hematin. At the\\nsame time, small quantities of fatty acids are set free (Hoppe-\\nSeyler).\\nHematin. This substance has received different names.\\nLecanu, who first studied it, named it hematosin. When prop-\\nerly purified, it forms a blackish-blue, amorphous powder, which\\nis quite stable, since it resists a temperature of 180\u00c2\u00b0. It con-\\ntains carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and iron. When\\nincinerated, it leaves 12.8 per cent, of oxide of iron.\\nIt is insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, and chloroform. It\\ndissolves in the alkalies, in ammonia, and in the acids, and is\\nreadily soluble in ammoniacal alcohol and in alcohol containing\\nhydrochloric acid. These solutions are reddish-brown. With\\nhydrochloric acid, hematin forms a compound which crystallizes\\nin rhomboidal laminae the crystals are characteristic and may\\nbe recognized by means of the microscope (hydrochloride of\\nhematin).\\nHematoidin. This body is doubtless a product of the\\ndecomposition of hemoglobin. Virchow found it in orange-\\ncolored crystals in the remains of old hemorrhages of the brain.\\nIt is also found in blood which has been exposed to air, and in\\nextravasated blood in the Graefian follicles. It may easily be\\nobtained from the yellow bodies contained in the ovaries of the\\ncow, by triturating them with glass, and digesting for a few\\ndays with chloroform. After evaporation of the yellow chloro-\\nform solution, the residue is treated with ether to dissolve out\\nthe fat.\\nHematoidin crystallizes in small, orange-red, transparent\\nprisms. It is insoluble in water and alcohol, slightly soluble\\nin ether it is soluble in chloroform, which it colors golden-\\nyellow. It presents certain analogies with bilirubin (page\\n786).", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0788.jp2"}, "787": {"fulltext": "CASEIN GELATIN. 781\\nCASEIN.\\nWhen an acid is added to milk, a thick precipitate of\\ncasein is at once formed. The lactic acid which forms in\\nmilk by the fermentation of the milk-sugar produces the\\nsame precipitation. The milk is then said to curdle.\\nCasein dissolves in alkaline liquids and even in certain\\nalkaline salts, such as carbonate and phosphate of sodium.\\nIt exists in this state in milk, which is alkaline when fresh.\\nWhen this solution of alkaline albuminate, to which the\\nname soluble casein has been given, is evaporated, it becomes\\ncovered with a pellicle. Acetic acid precipitates it in flakes,\\ncombining with the alkali. It is also coagulated by the\\ngastric juice, by the action of the ferment known as pepsin.\\nThis ferment exists in rennet which is prepared from the\\nfourth stomach of the calf, and which serves to coagulate\\nskimmed milk in the preparation of cheese. Indeed, casein,\\nmore or less altered by putrefaction, is the basis of the different\\nkinds of cheese.\\nGELATIN.\\nThe bones contain a cartilaginous substance, which may be\\nisolated by dissolving out the mineral salts, which consist of\\ncalcium carbonate and phosphate, with hydrochloric acid.\\nThere remains a semi-transparent, elastic substance, which re-\\ntains the form of the bone. This substance, which has been\\ncalled ossein, or collagene, is insoluble in cold water, but by\\nprolonged boiling, or more rapidly by digestion with water\\nheated to a few degrees above 100\u00c2\u00b0, it dissolves and forms a\\nsolution, which sets in a transparent jelly on cooling. The\\nbody formed by this transformation dissolves slightly in cold\\nwater, and abundantly in boiling water, and the hot solution\\nforms a jelly on cooling. Hence the name gelatin.\\nOther tissues of the animal economy may be converted into\\ngelatin by boiling with water. It is so with the cellular tissue,\\nthe skin, the scales, and swimming-bladder of fishes. The\\nswimming-bladder of the sturgeon, known in commerce as fish-\\nglue, furnishes very pure gelatin by boiling with water.\\nThe substances which may T^e converted into gelatin possess\\nvery nearly the same composition as gelatin itself; hence no-\\nthing precise is known concerning the nature of the change\\nproduced in them by the action of boiling water.\\n66", "height": "4789", "width": "2888", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0789.jp2"}, "788": {"fulltext": "782 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nDry gelatin occurs in transparent sheets, which are sonorous,\\nand of which the color varies from yellowish to brown, accord-\\ning to their thickness and purity.\\nThe aqueous solution is precipitated in white flakes by alco-\\nhol. The acids do not precipitate it, with the exception of\\ntannic acid, with which it forms a thick coagulum, a combina-\\ntion of tannin and gelatin. This action of tannin on gelatinous\\nmatters is applied in the manufacture of leather, which is ob-\\ntained by leaving fresh or green skins, previously swelled by\\nsoaking in water, in contact with tan, that is, coarsely-ground\\noak-bark, which is well known to contain tannin.\\nWhen chlorine-water is added to a solution of gelatin, a\\nwhite cloud is formed which an excess of chlorine converts\\ninto a white, flocculent precipitate.\\nSolutions of gelatin are precipitated by platinic chloride\\nand by corrosive sublimate, but not by alum or the salts of lead,\\ncopper, silver, etc. When boiled with dilute sulphuric acid,\\ngelatin is converted into leucine and a substance to which\\nBraconnot gave the name sugar of gelatin, and which is gly-\\ncocol.\\nChondrin. When the cartilages of the short ribs are boiled\\nfor a very long time with water, they dissolve, forming a liquid\\nwhich sets in a jelly on cooling. This gelatinous matter is\\nchondrin. It is distinguished from gelatin by the property of\\nits aqueous solution to form precipitates with all the acids, and\\nwith a great number of metallic salts. Alum forms in it an\\nabundant, flocculent precipitate.\\nThe substances which have just been summarily described,\\nand others which form the liquids and tissues of the animal\\neconomy, undergo various transformations in the organism.\\nThey are derived from the vegetable kingdom, which alone can\\nelaborate such complex matters. They pass with the aliments\\ninto the animal organisms, which assimilate them, and this work\\nof assimilation does not profoundly modify the nitrogenized\\nmatters. But once fixed in the tissues, they do not remain\\nthere indefinitely, for there is a continual change and renewal\\nof the whole economy. They become unfitted for the require-\\nments of life, and disappear in their turn, eliminated by that\\ncontinual oxidation which makes of the body a permanent", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0790.jp2"}, "789": {"fulltext": "PRODUCTS OF DISASSIMILATION. 783\\nhearth of slow combustion. A notable portion of the oxygen\\nwhich enters the lungs at each inhalation penetrates into the\\nblood, and is converted in the capillary system and the intrica-\\ncies of the tissues into carbon dioxide. This gas, which returns\\nto the lungs with the venous blood, is exhaled at each exhala-\\ntion. Expired air contains 4 to 5 per cent, of carbon dioxide.\\nThe carbon dioxide eliminates the greater portion of the\\ncarbon contained in the organic bodies burned during the phe-\\nnomenon of respiration. The hydrogen of these bodies is\\neliminated in the form of water. But what becomes of their\\nnitrogen In man, and a great number of the higher animals,\\nit is eliminated in the urea contained in the urine. Such are\\nthe principal features of this grand function of respiration, the\\nsource of heat in all animals.\\nBut how is this slow oxidation which constitutes the object\\nof respiration, as first shown by Lavoisier, accomplished Are\\nthe organic matters ready to be oxidized and consumed at once,\\nor does the oxidation take place in successive phases, so that\\nthere are a certain number of intermediate terms between the\\ncomplex products which must disappear and the final products\\nof their oxidation All facts lead to the adoption of the latter\\nconclusion. Indeed, there are found in the tissues and liquids\\nof the economy a great number of bodies having compositions\\nmore or less complex, and which are the products, and, as it\\nwere, the testimony of a successive simplification, of disas-\\nsimilation, as it is called.\\nBut it must not be supposed that all of the reactions which\\ntake place in the economy are phenomena of oxidation. Be-\\nfore being definitely oxidized and rejected from the body, the\\ningested organic matters and those which form our humors and\\ntissues, may undergo various transformations and sometimes\\nmolecular complications. Thus, when benzoic acid is taken\\ninternally hippuric acid is found in the urine (Wohler and\\nKeller). Analysis has shown the presence in the animal\\neconomy of a multitude of more or less complex organic\\ncompounds, nitrogenized and non-nitrogenized, having defi-\\nnite compositions, and which are the products of varied re-\\nactions. Such reactions take place in the blood and in the\\ntissues, principally in glandular organs, such as the liver. As\\nit would be impossible to consider all of these products of\\ndisassimilation, we can only briefly notice the more important.", "height": "4788", "width": "2882", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0791.jp2"}, "790": {"fulltext": "784 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nLECITHINE.\\nGobley gave this name to a phosphorized fatty matter he\\nobtained from yolk of egg, and which had been previously\\nobtained from brain-tissue by Vauquelin. It exists in the\\nbrain and in the nerves.\\nLecithine forms a homogeneous, translucent mass, which,\\nas well as all its compounds, is very alterable. It decomposes\\nrapidly when the alcoholic solution of its hydrochloride is\\nboiled with baryta-water oleate and palmitate of barium\\nare precipitated, phosphoglycerate of barium is formed, and\\nneurine remains in solution (Liebreich).\\nStrecker represents this interesting decomposition by the\\nequation\\nC42 H 84NP0 9 3H 2 C 3 H9P0 6 C^H^NO 2 C 18 H 34 2 C 16 H 32 0*\\nLecithine. Phospho- Neurine. Oleic Palmitic\\nglyceric acid. acid. acid.\\nNeurine is an oxygenized base of which the constitution is\\nknown. It is the hydrate of trimethyl-hydroxethylene-ammo-\\nnium.\\n(CW.OH)M NOH\\n(CH 3 3 J iN,U\u00c2\u00b11\\nThe chloride of this ammoniated base is formed by synthesis\\nby the action of ethylene chlorohydrate on trimethylamine (A.\\nWurtz).\\nC 2 H*j^ H (CH 3 3 N (C2I JcH?) 3 NC1\\nTrimethyl-hydroxethylene-\\nammonium chloride.\\nNeurine is identical with a base which Strecker obtained\\nfrom the bile and designated as choline.\\nCHOLESTERIN.\\nC 26 H* 4\\nThis body is largely diffused in the organism. It exists in\\nthe bile, and is the principal constituent of most biliary cal-\\nculi. It is found also in small quantity in the serum of blood,\\nin the brain, in yolk of egg, pus, the liquid of hydrocele, etc.\\nIts solubility in alcohol and especially in ether, and the\\nfacility with which it crystallizes from its solutions, permits", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0792.jp2"}, "791": {"fulltext": "GLYCOCHOLIC ACID. 785\\nits easy isolation, and it may readily be prepared by extracting\\nbiliary calculi with ether, or with boiling alcohol, and allowing\\nthe solution to evaporate. Cholesterin ordinarily deposits in\\nthin and brilliant, rhombic plates. It melts at 145\u00c2\u00b0, and can\\nbe sublimed, out of contact with air, at 360\u00c2\u00b0.\\nIt forms neutral compounds with acids, analogous to the\\nethers it seems to be a monatomic alcohol.\\nThe principal organic constituents of the bile are two com-\\nplex acids, both nitrogenized, and one of which contains sul-\\nphur. These are glycocholic and taurocholic acids. They are\\nnot contained in the bile of all animals, and are generally ex-\\ntracted from that of the ox. They enter into the composition\\nof human bile, which contains in addition coloring matters\\nof which the most important is bilirubin. We will briefly\\ndescribe these bodies.\\nGLYCOCHOLIC ACID.\\nThis body exists in the bile in the form of sodium glycocho-\\nlate, which salt may be obtained in crystals from ox s bile.\\nThe latter is decolorized by animal charcoal, filtered, the\\nliquid evaporated, and the residue perfectly dried and dissolved\\nin absolute alcohol the solution is introduced into a flask, and\\nether is cautiously added so that the two liquids may not mix,\\nbut form two layers. The latter gradually mingle and the\\nsodium glycocholate deposits in crystals (Plattner).\\nWhen dilute sulphuric acid is added to a solution of this\\nsalt, a cloud is formed, and glycocholic acid is soon deposited\\nin fine needles.\\nThis acid is only slightly soluble in water and ether, but dis-\\nsolves in alcohol. It is dextrogyrate (Hoppe-Seyler). By the\\naction of hydrochloric acid, it is decomposed into cholalic acid\\nand glycocoll (Strecker).\\nC 26 H 43 N0 6 ff c 24 H 40 O 5 C 2 H 5 N0 2\\nGlycocholic acid. Cholalic acid. Glycocoll.\\nCholalic Acid deposits from its ethereal solution in color-\\nless prisms, containing two molecules of water of crystalli-\\nzation.\\nzz 66*", "height": "4792", "width": "2876", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0793.jp2"}, "792": {"fulltext": "786 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nTAUKOCHOLIC ACID.\\nC 26 H*5\u00c2\u00a3TSO*\\nThe sodium salt of this acid remains dissolved in the ethe-\\nreal solution from which sodium glycocholate has deposited.\\nIt has not yet been obtained crystallized. It is dextrogyrate.\\nWhen boiled with dilute acids, or with alkalies, it breaks up\\ninto cholalic acid and taurine (Strecker).\\nC 26 H 45 NS0 7 IPO C 24 H 40 O 5 C 2 H 7 NS0 3\\nTaurocholic acid. Cholalic acid. Taurine.\\nThe presence of biliary acids may be detected in a liquid,\\nsuch as urine, by Pettenkofer s reaction a little powdered\\nsugar is dissolved in the liquid, and concentrated sulphuric\\nacid is added with continual agitation, carefully avoiding an\\nelevation of temperature. The presence of glycocholic or\\ntaurocholic acid causes the production of a rich purple color.\\nBILIARY PIGMENTS.\\nBilirubin, C 16 H 18 N 2 3 exists in human bile and in biliary\\ncalculi, and may be extracted from the latter. They are\\ncrushed, and exhausted, first with ether, which removes the\\ncholesterin, then with boiling water, and finally with chlo-\\nroform. The coloring matter remains in the residue as\\na calcareous combination this is decomposed by adding\\nhydrochloric acid, evaporating to dryness, and exhausting\\nthe dried residue with chloroform. After evaporation, the\\nchloroform solution leaves a residue which contains, inde-\\npendently of bilirubin, three other biliary pigments which we\\nwill only mention biliprasin, bilifuscin, and bilihumin. Alco-\\nhol dissolves the bilifuscin from this residue, and the new\\nresidue is exhausted with chloroform, which takes up the bili-\\nrubin, which alcohol precipitates in orange-colored flakes from\\nthe chloroform solution.\\nBilirubin is obtained in small, dark-red crystals by evapora-\\ntion of its solution in chloroform. It is insoluble in water, and\\nvery slightly soluble in ether and alcohol, but dissolves in chlo-\\nroform, benzene, and carbon disulphide. It is very soluble in\\nthe alkalies, forming an orange-red solution, which becomes\\npure yellow on addition of water, and from which hydrochloric\\nacid precipitates bilirubin. The ammoniacal solution of bili-", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0794.jp2"}, "793": {"fulltext": "BILIARY PIGMENTS. 787\\nrubin gives precipitates with calcium chloride, barium chlo-\\nride, and lead acetate.\\nBiliverdin, C 16 H 18 N 2 4 When a solution of bilirubin in\\nsodium hydrate is agitated with air, it absorbs oxygen and\\nbecomes green. Hydrochloric acid precipitates biliverdin\\nfrom the solution.\\nIt is a bright-green powder, insoluble in water, ether, and\\nchloroform, but soluble in alcohol. It contains one more\\natom of oxygen than bilirubin.\\nWe may add that other coloring matters have also been\\nderived from bile. They are bilifuscin, C 16 H 20 N 2 O 4 and\\nbiliprasin, C 16 H 22 N 2 6\\nBiliary pigments are found in certain pathological urines,\\nand may be detected by Gmelin s reaction. The urine is\\nplaced in a test-glass and strong nitric acid containing nitrous\\nacid in solution is carefully added, so that it may not mix\\nwith but underlie the urine. Richly colored zones appear at\\nthe union of the two liquids, passing from green to blue,\\nviolet, and red. The green color is characteristic, the others\\nbeing also produced by albumen and other substances.\\nAmong the products of disassimilation we may also mention\\nLeucine, C 6 H 13 N0 2 which belongs to the homologous series\\nof glycocoll, and is found in many organs, especially in the\\npancreas, the salivary glands, the spleen, and the liver (page\\n604).\\nTyrosine, C 9 H n N0 3 a body crystallizing in fine needles, may\\nbe obtained from the pancreas and the spleen (page 712).\\nIt is known also that leucine and tyrosine may be obtained\\ndirectly by the action of alkalies upon complex nitrogenized\\nmatters (page 772).\\nHippnric Acid, C 9 H 9 N0 3 the origin of which has already\\nbeen indicated (page 707).\\nUric Acid, C 5 H 4 N 4 3 which exists in small quantity in\\nhuman urine, and which constitutes a large proportion of\\nthe urine of birds and reptiles (page 624).\\nAllantoin, C 4 H 6 N 4 3 a product of the oxidation of uric\\nacid, which Vauquelin and Buniva formerly extracted from\\nthe amniotic liquor of the cow, and which has also been\\nfound in the urine of young calves (page 628).\\nVarious other products are related to uric acid. They are\\nXanthine, C 5 H 4 N 4 2 a yellow matter, which Proust discov-\\nered in certain rare calculi (xanthic calculi), and which has", "height": "4799", "width": "2865", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0795.jp2"}, "794": {"fulltext": "788 ELEMENTS OF MODERN CHEMISTRY.\\nalso been found in small quantity in the muscles, pancreas, liver,\\nand urine.\\nHypoxanthine or sarcine, C 5 H 4 N 4 0, a white, amorphous sub-\\nstance which Scherer obtained from the spleen, and of which\\nStrecker has noticed the existence in muscular tissue. Hypo-\\nxanthine forms a crystallizable combination with hydrochloric\\nacid. It presents interesting relations of composition with xan-\\nthine and uric acid.\\nUric acid C 5 HW0 3\\nXanthine C 5 H 4 N 4 2\\nHypoxanthine C 5 H*N*0\\nWhen hypoxanthine is boiled with nitric acid, it is converted\\ninto a nitrogenized body. By the action of reducing agents,\\nsuch as ferrous sulphate, this nitrogenized body is converted\\ninto guanine, C 5 H 5 N 5 0. The latter body was first obtained\\nfrom guano. It has been found in the tissue of the pancreas.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0796.jp2"}, "795": {"fulltext": "MEASURES OE WEIGHT.\\nfi.P ATVG\\nOUNCES TROY\\nPOUNDS\\nVtX\\\\ Al-N o.\\n480 GRAINS.\\nAVOIRDUPOIS.\\n1 Milligramme\\n0.01543\\n0.000032\\n0.0000022\\n1 Centigramme\\n0.15432\\n0.000321\\n0.0000220\\n1 Decigramme\\n1.54323\\n0.003215\\n0.0002204\\n1 Gramme\\n15.43234\\n0.032150\\n0.0022046\\n1 Decagramme\\n154.32349\\n0.321507\\n0.0220462\\n1 Hectogramme\\n1543.23488\\n3.215072\\n0.2204621\\n1 Kilogramme\\n15432.34880\\n32.150726\\n2.2046212\\n1 Grain 0.064799 grammes.\\n1 Oz. Troy 31.103496\\n1 Lb. Avoirdupois 0.453495 kilogrammes.\\n1 Cubic Centimetre of water at 4\u00c2\u00b0 C. weighs 1 gramme.\\nTo convert Centigrade degrees into Fahrenheit degrees, multiply by 9 and\\ndivide by 5; add 32\u00c2\u00b0.\\nTo convert Fahrenheit degrees into Centigrade degrees, subtract 32\u00c2\u00b0, then\\nmultiply by 5 and divide by 9.\\n1 Metre 39.370708 inches.\\n1 Centimetre 0.39370\\n1 Millimetre 0.03937\\nllnch\\n2.539954 centimetres.\\nMOHS S SCALE OF HARDNESS.\\n1. Talc.\\n2. Gypsum.\\n3. Calcite.\\n4. Fluor spar.\\n5. Apatite.\\n6. Feldspar.\\n7. Quartz.\\n8. Topaz.\\n9. Corundum.\\n10. Diamond.\\n789", "height": "4797", "width": "2873", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0797.jp2"}, "796": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0798.jp2"}, "797": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\nAbstrich, 346.\\nAcetal, 555, 583.\\nAcetaldoxime, 554.\\nAcetamide, 559.\\nAcetanilide, 684.\\nAcetates, 548.\\nAcetic anhyride, 552.\\nAcetoacetic ether, 551.\\nAcetone, 557.\\nAcetonitrile, 492.\\nAcetophenone, 707.\\nAcetyl chloride, 555.\\nAcetylene, 576.\\nAcid, 52.\\nacetic, 545.\\nacetoacetic, 551.\\naconitic, 623.\\nacrylic, 529, 566.\\nalloxanic, 626.\\namalic, 769.\\namidacetic, 602.\\namidopropionic, 604.\\namidosuccinic, 613.\\nanisic, 711.\\nanthranilic, 733.\\nantimonic, 197.\\narsenic, 192.\\narsenious, 190.\\naspartic, 614.\\natropic, 757.\\nbarbituric, 627.\\nbenzenesulphonic, 676.\\nbenzoic, 705.\\nboric, 203.\\nbromic, 140.\\nbutyric, 562.\\ncampholic, 725.\\ncamphoric, 728.\\ncaproic, 565.\\ncarbamic, 477.\\ncarbolic, 677.\\ncarbonic, 219.\\nin air, 78.\\ncerotic, 528, 566.\\nAcid, chlorethylsulphonic, 585.\\nchloric, 135.\\nchlorous, 133.\\ncholalic, 785.\\nchromic, 412.\\ncinchomeronic, 752, 762.\\ncinchoninic, 762.\\ncinnamic, 731.\\ncitraconic, 624.\\ncitric, 621.\\ncrotonic, 567.\\ncyanic, 474.\\ncyanuric, 472, 475.\\ndextrotartaric, 616.\\ndialuric, 627.\\ndibromosuccinic, 611.\\ndichloracetic, 553.\\ndigallic, 660.\\ndihydroxypropionic, 601.\\ndilactic, 599.\\ndioxysuccinic, 614.\\nditartaric, 617.\\ndithionic, 106, 119.\\nelaidic, 567.\\nethylnitrolic, 510.\\nethylphosphinic, 537.\\nethylsulphonic, 512.\\nethylsulphuric, 511.\\nformic, 543.\\nfumaric, 612.\\ngalactonic, 661.\\ngallic, 713, 660.\\ngluconic, 661.\\nglutamic, 772.\\nglutaric, 621.\\nglyceric, 601.\\nglycocholic, 785.\\nglycollic, 595.\\nglyoxylic, 596.\\ngummic, 654.\\nhippuric, 707.\\nhydantoic, 630.\\nhydracrylic, 597, 601.\\nhydrazoic, 160.\\n791", "height": "4789", "width": "2775", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0799.jp2"}, "798": {"fulltext": "792\\nINDEX.\\nAcid, hydriodic, 142.\\nhydrobromic, 138.\\nhydrochloric, 126.\\nhydrocinnamic, 732.\\nhydrocyanic, 465.\\nhydrofluoric, 147.\\nhydrofluosilicic, 208.\\nhydrosulphurous, 106, 110,\\nhypobromous, 189.\\nhypochlorous, 132.\\nhypophosphorus, 181.\\nhyposulphuric, 106, 119.\\nhyposulphurous, 106, 110.\\nindigodisulphonic, 733.\\nindigomonosulphonic, 733,\\nindigotic, 710.\\niodic, 144.\\niodopropionic, 562.\\nisatic, 736.\\nisethionic, 584.\\nisobutyric, 563.\\nisocrotonic, 567.\\nisocyanic, 474.\\nisonicotonic, 750.\\nisophthalic, 916.\\nisosuccinic, 612.\\nisovaleric, 564.\\nitaconic, 624.\\nlactic, 597.\\nlactobionic, 644.\\nlactonic, 661.\\nleucic, 605.\\nlevolactic, 600.\\nmaleic, 612.\\nmalic, 612.\\nmalonic, 609.\\nmanganic, 406.\\nmannonic, 661.\\nmannosaccharic, 661.\\nmargaric^ 565.\\nmeconic, 763.\\nmelissic, 566.\\nmellitic, 665.\\nmesaconic, 624.\\nmesotartaric, 620.\\nmesoxalic, 626.\\nmesoxaluric, 627.\\nmetaboric, 204.\\nmetagummic, 654.\\nmetantimonic, 199.\\nmetaphosphoric, 185.\\nmetavanadic, 371.\\nmethylethylacetic, 564.\\nmethylnitrolic, 494.\\nmethylparoxybenzoic, 712.\\nAcid, methylsuccinic, 621.\\nmetoxybenzoic, 711.\\nmolybdic, 414.\\nmonobromsuccinic, 611.\\nmonochloroacetic, 551.\\nmucic, 644, 661.\\nnaphthalenedisulphonic, 740.\\nnaphthalenesulphonic, 740.\\nnicotinic, 750.\\nniobic, 362.\\nnitric, 167.\\nin air, 80.\\nnitrocinnamic, 731.\\nnitrohydrochloric, 170.\\nnitrosalicylic, 710.\\nnitrotartaric, 617.\\nnitrous, 164.\\noleic, 567.\\nopianic, 767.\\northarsenic, 192.\\northophosphoric, 183.\\northoxybenzoic, 709.\\noxalic, 605.\\noxamic, 609,\\noxybenzoic, 709-711.\\noxymalonic, 610.\\npalmitic, 566.\\nparabanic, 629.\\nparalactic, 597, 599.\\nparatartaric, 619.\\nparoxy ben zoic, 711.\\npentathionic, 107.\\nperbromic, 140.\\nperchloric, 135.\\nperchromic, 97.\\nperiodic, 145.\\npermanganic, 407.\\npersulphuric, 106, 120.\\nphenic, 677.\\nphenolsulphonic, 682.\\nphenylacrylic, 731.\\nphenylisocrotonic, 740.\\nphenylpropionic, 732.\\nphenylsulphuric, 680.\\nphloretic, 659.\\nphosphoric, 183.\\nphosphorous, 182.\\nphthalic, 715.\\npicolinic, 750.\\npicramic, 682.\\npicric, 681.\\npropionic, J561.\\nprussic, 465.\\npurpuric, 628.\\npyrantimonic, 199.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0800.jp2"}, "799": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n793\\nAcid, pyridine carboxylic, 750.\\npyridine dicarboxylic, 750.\\npyrogallic, 713.\\npyromucic, 662, 746.\\npyre-phosphoric, 184.\\npyrosulphuric, 118.\\npyrotartaric, 617, 621.\\npyruvic, 617, 620.\\nquinic, 758.\\nricinoleic-sulphonic, 744.\\nrosolic, 692.\\nruberythric, 743.\\nsaccharic, 643, 661.\\nsaccharinic, 638.\\nsalicylic, 709.\\nsilicic, 209.\\nstannic, 418.\\nstearic, 566.\\nsuccinic, 610.\\nsulphindigotic, 733.\\nsulphocarbonic, 225.\\nsulphovinic, 511.\\nsulphuric, 106, 11 1.\\nconstitution of, 115.\\nfuming, 118.\\ntest for, 118.\\nsulphurous, 106.\\nsulphydric, 102.\\ntannic, 659.\\ntantalic, 372.\\ntartaric, 614.\\ninactive, 619.\\ntartronic, 610, 617.\\ntaurocholic, 786.\\nterephthalic, 716.\\ntetraboric, 204.\\ntetrathionic, 107.\\nthiocyanic, 482.\\nthiophenesulphonic, 746.\\nthiosulphuric, 106, 119.\\ntricarballylic, 623.\\ntrichloracetic, 552.\\ntrimethylacetic, 564.\\ntrithionic, 607.\\ntropic, 757.\\ntungstic, 415.\\nuric, 624.\\nvaleric, 564.\\nAcids, 31, 52.\\ndiatomic, 461.\\nfatty, 541, 559.\\nsynthesis of, 541.\\nketonic, 620.\\nmetallic, 257.\\nmonobasic, 451.\\n2i\\nAcids, polyatomic, 594.\\nAconitine, 768.\\nAcraldehyde, 566.\\nAcridine, 752.\\nAcrolein, 529, 566.\\nAdipocere, 565.\\nAffinity, 21.\\nAir, 73.\\nanalysis, 74-79.\\ncomposition of, 73.\\ndew-point, 85.\\nAlabaster, 328.\\nAlanine, 604.\\nAlbite, 384.\\nAlbumen, 774.\\nAlbuminoid matters, 770.\\nAlbumoids, 774.\\nAlbumoses, 773.\\nAlcohol radicals, 458.\\nAlcohol, allyl, 528.\\namy], 524.\\nactive, 526.\\nfermentation, 524.\\nnormal, 524.\\ntertiary, 527.\\nbenzyl, 702.\\nbutyl, 522.\\nfermentation, 522.\\nnormal, 523.\\nsecondary, 523.\\ntertiary, 523.\\ncetyl, 528.\\ncinnamic, 731.\\nethyl, 498.\\nheptyl, 527.\\nhexyl, 527.\\nisopropyl, 522.\\nmethyl, 485.\\noctyl, 527.\\npropyl, 522.\\nAlcohols, diatomic, 462, 577.\\nmonatomic, 450, 483, 549.\\npolyatomic, 460, 633.\\nprimary, secondary, tertiary,\\n521.\\nAldehyde, acetic, 553.\\npolymerides of, 555.\\nanisic, 711.\\ncinnamic, 730.\\ncrotonic, 554, 567.\\nformic, 545.\\nsalicylic, 708.\\nAldehydes, 453.\\nAldehydine, 750.\\nAldol, 554.\\n67", "height": "4794", "width": "2936", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0801.jp2"}, "800": {"fulltext": "794\\nINDEX.\\nAliphatic series, 662.\\nAlizarin, 743.\\nAlkaloids, 752.\\nAllantoin, 628.\\nAlloxan, 626.\\nAlloxantin, 628.\\nAlloys, 57, 248.\\ntable of, 249.\\nAllyl alcohol, 528.\\nbromide, 573.\\niodide, 529.\\nsulphide, 529.\\nsulphocyanate, 529.\\ntribromide, 529.\\nAllylene, 576.\\nAlum, 382.\\nAluminite, 383.\\nAluminium, 380.\\nchloride, 381.\\noxide, 381.\\nsilicates, 384.\\nsulphate, 382.\\nAmalgams, 57.\\nAmblygonite, 315.\\nAmelide, 472.\\nAmides, 454.\\nAmidoazobenzene, 688.\\nAmidobenzene, 683.\\nAmidonaphthalene, 739.\\nAmidothiophene, 746.\\nAmines, 455, 530.\\nnitroso, 531.\\nAmmonia, 149.\\naction of CI and I, 154.\\naction of potassium, 155.\\nalum, 383.\\ncombustion of, 153.\\ncomposition, 151.\\nin air, 79.\\nin gas liquor, 157.\\nliquefaction, 150.\\n-water, 151.\\nAmmonias, compound, 455, 530.\\nAmmonium acetate, 550.\\namalgam, 155.\\ncarbamate, 159.\\ncarbonate, 158.\\nchloride, 156.\\nformate, 544.\\nisocyanate, 475.\\nmolybdate, 414.\\nnitrate, 158.\\noxalate, 608.\\noxalurate, 629.\\npurpurate, 628.\\nAmmonium sulphate, 159.\\nsulphide, 157.\\nsulphocyanate, 482.\\nsulphydrate, 157.\\ntheory of, 156.\\nAmpere s theory, 40.\\nAmygdalin, 657.\\nAmyl alcohols, 524.\\nchloride, 526.\\niodide, 526.\\nnitrite, 526.\\noxide, 526.\\nAmylenes, 574.\\nbromides, 575.\\npolymerides of, 575.\\nAmyloid, 656, 773.\\nAnatase, 421.\\nAnhydrite, 328.\\nAnil, 695.\\nAnilides, 684.\\nAniline, 683.\\ncolors, 691.\\nhydrochloride, 684.\\noxalate, 684.\\nsalts, 684.\\nAnisic aldehyde, 712.\\ncompounds, 711.\\nAnisol, 680.\\nAnorthite, 384.\\nAnthracene, 741.\\nAnthracite, 212.\\nAnthrapurpurin, 745.\\nAnthraquinone, 742.\\nAntifebrin, 684.\\nAntimonio-potassium tartrate, 618.\\nAntimony, 195.\\nantimonate, 198.\\noxide, 197.\\npentachloride, 197.\\npentasulphide, 200.\\npentoxide, 199.\\ntrichloride, 196.\\ntrioxide, 198.\\ntrisulphide, 199.\\nAntipyrine, 676, 770.\\nApomorphine, 765.\\nAposepedine, 604.\\nAquamarine, 333.\\nAqua-regia, 170.\\nArabinose, 636, 654.\\nArbutin 657.\\nArgentite, 320.\\nArgon, 77.\\nin air, 73.\\nArgyrodite, 422.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0802.jp2"}, "801": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n795\\nAromatic compounds, 662.\\nisomerism of, 665.\\nArragonite, 327.\\nArrhenius s theory, 276.\\nArsenic, 186.\\nchloride, 189.\\ndisulphide, 193.\\nfluoride, 189.\\npentasulphide, 194.\\npentoxide, 192.\\ntests for, 190.\\ntrioxide, 189.\\ntrisulphide, 193.\\nArsine, 188.\\nArsines, 456.\\nAseptol, 683.\\nAsparagin, 613.\\nAssay, dry, 322.\\nwet, 323.\\nAssimilation, 782.\\nAtmospheric air, 73.\\nAtomic heats, 44.\\ntheory, 37.\\nweights, 49.\\ndetermination of, 41-47.\\nAtomicity, theory of, 232-234, 291.\\nAtoms, 23, 36.\\nAtropine, 755.\\nAuric chloride, 375.\\nAurin, 692.\\nAurous chloride, 375.\\nAustralene, 720.\\nAvogadro s law, 42.\\nAzobenzene, 663, 675.\\nAzoxybenzene, 675.\\nAzure blue, 401.\\nAzurite, 361.\\nBarium, 331.\\ncarbonate, 333.\\nchloride, 332.\\ndioxide, 332.\\nhydrate, 332.\\nnitrate, 332.\\noxide, 331.\\nsulphate, 333.\\nsulphide, 332.\\ntests, 333.\\nBassorin, 654.\\nBeer, 649.\\nBenzalchloride, 700.\\nBenzalazine, 704.\\nBenzaldehyde, 703.\\nBenzamide, 705, 707.\\nBenzene, 671.\\nBenzene addition compounds, 672.\\nazoderivatives, 674.\\nazoxy-, 675.\\nconstitution of, 667.\\ndibromo-, 673.\\ndichloro-, 673.\\ndinitro-, 674.\\nhexachloro-, 673.\\nhydrazo-, 675.\\nmonobromo-, 673.\\nmonochloro-, 673.\\nnitro-, 674.\\nsubstitution compounds, 672.\\nsulphone, 677.\\nBenzidine, 675.\\nBenzil, 705.\\nBenzine, 520.\\nBenzoin, 704.\\nBenzonitrile, 677.\\nBenzophenone, 707.\\nBenzoyl chloride, 705.\\nhydride, 703.\\nBenzotrichloride, 700.\\nBenzyl alcohol, 702.\\nchloride, 699, 703.\\nBenzylamine, 703.\\nBerthollet s laws, 277.\\nBeryl, 333.\\nBeryllium, 333.\\nBessemer process, 395.\\nBilirubin, 786.\\nBiliverdin, 787.\\nBinary compounds, 50.\\nBismuth, 377.\\nchloride, 378.\\nnitrate, 379.\\noxide, 378.\\ntests, 379.\\nBituminous coal, 212.\\nBiuret, 4S1.\\nBleaching, chlorine, 125.\\n-liquids, 133.\\n-powder, 123, 328.\\nsulphur dioxide, 110.\\nBlende. 337.\\nBlue vitriol, 359.\\nBoiling-points, determination of,\\n445.\\nBone-oil, 747.\\nBorax, 313.\\nBoron, 201.\\nchloride, 202.\\ncrystallized, 202.\\nfluoride, 203.\\noxide, 203.", "height": "4795", "width": "2844", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0803.jp2"}, "802": {"fulltext": "796\\nINDEX.\\nBoro-potassium tartrate, 619.\\nBrauite, 405.\\nBromine, 137.\\noxides, 139.\\nBromobenzenes, 673.\\nBromoform, 490.\\nBromopicrin, 492.\\nBronze, 361.\\nBrookite, 421.\\nBrucine, 762.\\nBunsen burner, 231.\\nButaldehyde, 563.\\nButane, 498, 519.\\nButyl alcohols, 522.\\nButylenes, 573.\\nButyrone, 563.\\nCacodyl, 496.\\nCadaverine, 584.\\nCadmics, 342.\\nCadmium, 342.\\niodide, 342.\\noxide, 342.\\nsulphate, 343.\\nsulphide, 342.\\nCaesium, 315.\\nCaffeidine, 769.\\nCaffeine, 768.\\nCalamine, 337.\\nCalcite, 327.\\nCalcium, 324.\\nbutyrate, 563.\\ncarbide, 326.\\ncarbonate, 327.\\nchloride, 326.\\n-freezing mixture, 271.\\nhydrate, 325.\\nhypochlorite, 329.\\nlactate, 600.\\nnitrate, 327.\\noxide, 325.\\nsaccharate, 643.\\nsulphate, 328.\\ntests, 330.\\nCalomel, 366.\\nCamphenes, 659.\\nCamphor, 724.\\nartificial, 722.\\nBorneo, 726.\\nmint, 726.\\nthyme, 718.\\nCamphorone, 728.\\nCamphoroxime, 725.\\nCamphors, 718.\\nCandles, 592.\\nCaoutchouc, 723.\\nCaramel, 643.\\nCarbamide, 474, 477.\\nCarbimide, 475.\\nCarbinol, 522.\\nCarbon, 210.\\ncompounds, 429.\\nclassification of, 435.\\nsaturated, 430.\\ndioxide, 219.\\nin air, 77, 79.\\nliquefaction, 222.\\ndisulphide, 225.\\nestimation of, 436.\\nmonoxide, 217.\\ncompounds of, 473.\\noxysulphide, 226.\\nsesquichloride, 571.\\ntetrachloride, 489, 492.\\nCarbonates, 287.\\ntests for, 289.\\nCarbonyl chloride, 219.\\nCarborundum, 216.\\nCarbylamines, 493, 514.\\nCarvacrol, 718.\\nCasein, 781.\\nCassiterite, 416, 418.\\nCatechol, 693.\\nCedrene, 723.\\nCelestine, 331.\\nCelluloid, 657.\\nCelluloses, 635, 654.\\nCement, 326.\\ncopper, 355.\\nCerite, 385.\\nCerium, 385.\\nCerusite, 352.\\nCeryl alcohol, 528.\\nCetyl alcohol, 528.\\nChalk, 327.\\nChalkosine, 354.\\nCharcoal, 212.\\nabsorbent properties of, 214.\\nanimal, 214.\\nreduction by, 215.\\nwood, 212.\\nChemical energy, 240.\\nChloral, 556.\\nChloranile, 695.\\nChlorethylene, 570.\\nChlorhydrins, 587.\\nChlorides, 258.\\nmon atomic, 448.\\nof acid radicals, 454.\\nof sulphur, 136.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0804.jp2"}, "803": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n797\\nChlorine, 122.\\nanalogies, with Br and I, 145,\\nbleaching by, 125.\\ndisinfection by, 125.\\ngroup, analogies of, 145.\\nliquefaction, 124.\\nmanufacture of, 123.\\noxides, 131.\\nperoxide, 134.\\nChlorobenzenes, 673.\\nChloroform, 489.\\nChloropicrin, 491.\\nChlorous anhydride, 133.\\nCholesterin, 784.\\nCholine, 784.\\nChondrin, 782.\\nChromates, 412.\\nChrome alum, 412.\\niron, 410.\\nyellow, 353.\\nChromium, 410.\\nchlorides, 413.\\noxides, 411.\\noxy chloride, 413.\\nCinchona bark, 758.\\nCinchonicine, 758.\\nCinchonidine, 758.\\nCinchonine, 761.\\nCineol, 726.\\nCinnabar, 362, 365.\\nCinnamic alcohol, 731.\\naldehyde, 730.\\nClay, 385.\\nCleveite, 410.\\nCoal, 212.\\nCobalt, 401.\\nchloride, 402.\\nglance, 401.\\noxides, 401.\\nsulphate, 402.\\ntests, 402.\\nCocaine, 757.\\nCodeine, 766.\\nCoefficient of solubility, 67.\\nCohesion, 21, 25.\\nCoke, 212.\\nColcothar, 397.\\nCollidines, 750.\\nCollodion, 657.\\nColumbite, 37]\\nCombination, 18, 23.\\nlaws of, 33, 37.\\nCombustion, 68.\\nslow, 68.\\nConhydrine, 754.\\nConine, 753.\\nCopper, 354.\\nacetates, 549.\\nalloys, 358, 361.\\natomicity of, 370.\\ncarbonates, 361.\\nchlorides, 359.\\nformate, 544.\\nglance, 358.\\noxides, 358.\\npyrites, 354.\\nsulphates, 360.\\nsulphides, 358.\\ntests, 362.\\nCoralline red, 692.\\nCorrosive sublimate, 367.\\nCorundum, 381.\\nCotarnine, 767.\\nCreatine, 632.\\nCreatinine, 632.\\nCresols, 700.\\nCritical temperature, 61.\\nCrocoite, 410.\\nCrotonaldehyde, 567.\\nCryolite, 312.\\nCrystallization, water of, 270.\\nCubebene, 723.\\nCumene, 717.\\nCuminol, 717.\\nCupellation, 318, 322.\\nCyamelide, 474.\\nCyanamide, 471.\\nCyanides, 467.\\nCyanobenzene, 677.\\nCyanogen, 463.\\nbromide, 471.\\nchlorides, 470.\\ncompounds, 462.\\niodide, 471.\\nCymene, 717.\\nDalton s laws, 33, 36.\\nDambonite, 729.\\nDaturine, 756.\\nDecomposition, 23, 27, 30.\\nDefinite proportions, law of, 31\\nDew-point, 85.\\nDextrin, 651.\\nDiacetyl, 557.\\nDiamines, 461.\\nDiamond, 211.\\ncombustion of, 220.\\nDiastase, 649, 652.\\nDiazoacids, 605.\\nDiazoamidobenzene, 687.\\n67*", "height": "4797", "width": "2935", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0805.jp2"}, "804": {"fulltext": "798\\nINDEX.\\nDiazobenzene compounds, 686.\\nDiazocompounds, 664.\\nDibenzoyl, 705.\\nDichlorethane, 507.\\nDichlorether, 505.\\nDichlorethylene, 570.\\nDichlorhydrins, 588.\\nDidymium, 385.\\nDiethyl, 498.\\nDiethylamine, 535.\\nDiethylphosphine, 536.\\nDihydrocymene, 723.\\nDiketones, 454.\\nDimethyl, 498.\\nDimethylacetal, 583.\\nDimethylamine, 534.\\nDimethyl-aniline, 685.\\nDimethylarsine, 496.\\nDimethylbenzenes, 714.\\nDimethylethylenes, 573.\\nDimorphism, 100.\\nDinitrobenzenes, 674.\\nDioxindol, 737.\\nDioxybenzenes, 692.\\nDiphenyl, 672, 673.\\nDiphenylamine, 685.\\nblue, 686.\\nDiphenylketone, 707.\\nDipyridine, 749.\\nDissociation, 86.\\nDisulphones, 582.\\nDobereiner s lamp, 500.\\nDolomite, 336.\\nDuctility, 245.\\nDulcitol, 634.\\nDutch liquid, 570.\\nEcgonine, 758.\\nEdisonite, 421.\\nEfflorescence, 270.\\nEkasilicon, 422.\\nElaidin, 592.\\nElectrolysis, 274.\\nof water, 80.\\nlaws of, 276.\\nElementary analysis, 436.\\nElements, 20, 23.\\ntable of, 49.\\nEmerald, 333.\\nEmery, 381.\\nEmulsin, 658.\\nEndothermic compounds, 242.\\nEosin, 716.\\nEpichlorhydrin, 589.\\nEpsom salts, 336.\\nEquivalence, 234.\\nErbium. 388.\\nErythritol, 633.\\nEsculin, 657.\\nEthane, 498.\\nEther, 502.\\nacetoacetic, 551.\\nKay s, 489.\\ncenanthylic, 648.\\npelargonic, 648.\\nEtherification, theory of, 503.\\nEthers, compound, 452, 498.\\ncyanuric, 517.\\nnitrous, 510.\\nphosphoric, 514.\\nsimple, 497.\\nEthyl acetate, 550.\\nacetoacetate, 551.\\nborate, 514.\\nbromide, 507.\\ncarbamate, 515.\\ncarbonate, 515.\\ncarbylamine, 509.\\nchloride, 506.\\nchlorocarbonate, 516.\\ncynnate, 508.\\ncyanide, 508.\\ncyan urate, 517.\\ndiazoacetate, 605.\\nhydroxide, 498.\\niodide, 506.\\nisocyanate, 516.\\nmalonate, 609.\\nnitrate, 511.\\nnitrite, 509.\\northocarbonate, 515.\\noxalate, 608.\\noxide, 502.\\nphosphates, 514.\\nsilicates, 514.\\nsulphates, 512.\\nsulphide, 505.\\nsulphite, 512.\\nsulphurous chloride, 513.\\nsulphydrate, 505.\\nEthylallyl, 575.\\nEthylamine, 534.\\nhydrochloride, 534.\\nEthylates, 501.\\nEthylene, 568.\\nacetates, 580.\\nbromhydrate, 580.\\nbromide, 570.\\nchlorhydrate, 579.\\nchloride, 570.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0806.jp2"}, "805": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n799\\nEthylene chloro-derivatives, 570.\\ndiamines, 584.\\nhydrate, 578.\\niodide, 570.\\nnitrates, 580.\\noxide, 581.\\nbases from, 582.\\nEthylethylene, 574.\\nEthylhydrazine, 532.\\nEthylidene chloride, 554.\\ncyanide, 612.\\nglycol, 582.\\nEthyl-phenyl oxide, 680.\\nEthylphosphines, 536.\\nEthylvinyl, 574.\\nEudiometric synthesis, 82.\\nEuxenite, 371, 389, 409.\\nExothermic compounds, 242.\\nFaraday s law, 276.\\nFats, natural, 590.\\nFatty series, 662.\\nFeldspar, 384.\\nFenchene, 722.\\nFenchone, 726.\\nFenchoneoxime, 726.\\nFergusonite, 371.\\nFermentation, 646.\\nacetic, 547.\\nalcoholic, 646.\\nbutyric, 647.\\nlactic, 597, 647.\\nviscous, 648.\\nFerric acetate, 550.\\nchloride, 398.\\nferrocyanide, 469.\\noxide, 397.\\nsulphate, 400.\\nFerricyanides, 469.\\nFerrocyanides, 468.\\nFerro-potassium tartrate, 619.\\nFerrosoferric oxide, 397.\\nFerrous carbonate, 400.\\nchloride, 398.\\nferricyanide, 470.\\nlactate, 600.\\noxide, 396.\\nsulphate, 399.\\nFibrins, 773, 776.\\nFire, 68.\\n-damp, 484.\\nFlame, 68, 228.\\nFlavopurpurin, 745.\\nFluorescein, 715.\\nFluorine, 146.\\nFormaldehyde, 545.\\nFormates, 544.\\nFormonitrile, 466, 544.\\nFormose, 545.\\nFormula, chemical, 48.\\nFormulae, constitutional, empirical,\\nrational, 452.\\nFreezing mixture, 271.\\nii^ozing-points, determination of,\\n444.\\nFructose, 639.\\nFuchsine, 689.\\nFulminates, 495.\\nFurfurane, 745.\\nFurfurol, 745.\\nFusel oil, 525.\\nFusible metal, 248.\\nGadolinite, 388.\\nGalactose, 639.\\nGalena, 343, 349.\\nGallium, 386.\\nGalvanized iron, 339.\\nGarnet, 384.\\nGarnierite, 403.\\nGases, molecular volume of, 42.\\nGasoline, 520.\\nGay-Lussac s laws, 37.\\nGelatin, 781.\\nGelatinoids, 774.\\nGermanium, 422.\\nGerman silver, 361.\\nGilding, 376.\\nGlass, 210.\\netching on, 147.\\nsoluble, 209.\\nGlauber s salt, 309.\\nGlobulins, 773, 776.\\nGlucinum, 333.\\nchloride, 334.\\noxide, 334.\\nGlucosan, 638.\\nGlucose, 637.\\ntests for, 638.\\nGlucosides, 657.\\nGluten, 650.\\nGlycerides, 590.\\nGlycerol, 586.\\nethers of, 587, 590.\\nGlycide, 589.\\nGlycine, 602.\\nGlycocoll, 602.\\nGlycocyamidine, 631.\\nGlycocyamine, 631.\\nGlycogen, 653.", "height": "4767", "width": "2846", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0807.jp2"}, "806": {"fulltext": "800\\nINDEX.\\nGlycol, 578.\\nethers of, 579.\\nGlycollide, 595.\\nGlycols, 460, 577.\\npropylene, 586.\\nGlycolyl urea, 630.\\nGlyoxal, 596.\\nGlyoxime, 596.\\nGoethite, 397.\\nGold, 373.\\nassay, 376.\\nchlorides, 376.\\noxides, 375.\\nGoulard s solution, 549.\\nGraphite, 211.\\nGuaiacol, 693.\\nGuanidine, 472.\\nderivatives of, 631.\\nGuanine, 788.\\nGum arabic, 654.\\ntragacanth, 654.\\nGums, 653.\\nGun-cotton, 656.\\nGunpowder, 302.\\nnitro, 657.\\nGutta-percha, 723.\\nGypsum, 328.\\nHardness, scale of, 789.\\nHausmannite, 405.\\nHeavy spar, 333.\\nHelium, 410.\\nHematin, 780.\\nHematite, 390.\\nHematoidin, 780.\\nHemimellithene, 717.\\nHemoglobin, 778.\\nHexachlorethane, 507.\\nHexahydrobenzene, 672.\\nHexamethylbenzene, 664.\\nHolmium, 389.\\nHomologous bodies, 435.\\nHorn silver, 320 c\\nHydantoin, 630.\\nHydrates, 52, 53.\\nHydrazine, 160.\\nHydrazines, 532.\\naromatic, 676.\\nHydrazobenzene, 675.\\nHydrocarbons, OH 2n 2 517.\\nOH**, 571.\\nC n H2a-2, 575.\\nformation of, 433.\\nstructure, 434.\\nHydrocinchonine, 761.\\nHydrogen, 58.\\nabsorption by palladium, 61, 64.\\nantimonide, 196.\\narsenide, 188.\\ncarbide in air, 80.\\nchemical properties, 61.\\ndioxide, 95.\\nestimation of, 436.\\nliquefaction, 60.\\nocclusion of, 61.\\npersulphide, 105.\\nphosphide, 175.\\nphysical properties, 60.\\npreparation, 59.\\nsilicide, 205.\\nsulphide, 102.\\nHydrogenium, 61.\\nHydroquinone, 693.\\nHydroxides, 53, 87.\\nHydroxyethylene amines, 582.\\nHydroxyl, 116.\\nHydroxylamine, 159.\\nHyoscine, 756.\\nHyoscyamine, 756.\\nHypnone, 707.\\nHypochlorous anhydride, 132.\\nllypoxanthine, 788.\\nIdocrase, 384.\\nIgasurine, 762.\\nIndican, 733.\\nIndiglucin, 733.\\nIndigo, 732.\\ncarmine, 733.\\nsyntheses of, 734.\\nwhite, 735.\\nIndium, 387.\\nIndol, 737.\\nIndophenin, 736.\\nIndoxyl, 734.\\nInk, 401, 660.\\nsympathetic, 402.\\nInosite, 729.\\nInulin, 653.\\nIodine, 140.\\noxides, 144.\\ntest for, 142.\\nIodoform, 490.\\nIodol, 747.\\nIridium, 428.\\nIron, 389.\\ncarbonate, 400.\\ncast, 394.\\nchlorides, 398.\\nlactate, 600.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0808.jp2"}, "807": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n801\\nIron oxides, 396.\\npassive, 169, 394.\\nsoft, 393.\\nsulphates, 399.\\nsulphides, 398.\\ntests, 400, 401.\\nIsatin, 736.\\nIsethionamide, 585.\\nIsomaltose, 645.\\nIsomerism, 445.\\nof position, 668.\\nof the benzene derivatives, 665.\\nIsomorphism, 47, 267.\\nIsoprene, 720, 723.\\nIsopropyl alcohol, 522.\\niodide, 522.\\nIsopropylbenzene, 717.\\nIsopropylethylene, 575.\\nIsoquinoline, 751.\\nIsuret, 480.\\nJet, 212.\\nKairine, 770.\\nKaolin, 384.\\nKay s ether, 489.\\nKerosene, 520.\\nKetones, 453.\\nKieserite, 336.\\nKupfernickel, 403.\\nLabradorite, 384.\\nLactamide, 600.\\nLactates, 600.\\nLactose, 644.\\nLamp-black, 213.\\nLanthanum, 385.\\nLead, 343.\\nacetates, 549.\\nargentiferous, 345.\\natomicity of, 343.\\ncarbonate, 352.\\nchloride, 350\\nchromate, 353.\\ndioxide, 348,\\nformate, 544.\\niodide, 350.\\nmonoxide, 347.\\nnitrate, 351.\\nred oxide, 348.\\nsulphate, 351.\\nsulphide, 349.\\ntests, 353.\\nwhite, 353.\\nLecithine, 582, 784.\\nLepidolite, 315.\\nLeucine, 565, 604.\\nLeucite, 384.\\nLeucoline, 750.\\nLeucorosaniline, 690.\\nLevulosan, 640.\\nLevulose, 639.\\nLignite, 212.\\nLime, 325.\\nchlorinated, 328.\\nhydraulic, 325,\\nLiquation, 248.\\nLitharge, 346, 347.\\nLithium, 315.\\nLithographic stone, 327.\\nLunar caustic, 322.\\nLutidines, 750.\\nLyons blue, 691.\\nMagenta, 689.\\nMagnesite, 336.\\nMagnesium, 334.\\ncarbonate, 336.\\nchloride, 336.\\ncitrate, 622.\\noxide, 335.\\nsulphate, 337.\\ntests, 337.\\nMagnetite, 397.\\nMalachite, 361.\\ngreen, 685, 700.\\nMalamide, 613.\\nMalleability, 245.\\nMalonyl urea, 627.\\nMaltose, 645.\\nManganese, 405.\\ncarbonate, 408.\\ndioxide, 406.\\noxides, 405.\\nsteel, 405.\\nsulphate, 407.\\ntests, 408.\\nMannitan, 634.\\nMannitol, 634.\\nMannose, 636.\\nMarble, 327.\\nMarcasite, 398.\\nMarl, 384.\\nMarsh gas, 484.\\nMarsh s apparatus, 191.\\nMassicot, 347.\\nMatches, 175.\\nMeconine, 767.\\nMelamine, 472.\\nMelezitose, 646.", "height": "4794", "width": "2936", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0809.jp2"}, "808": {"fulltext": "802\\nINDEX.\\nMelitose, 645.\\nMelting-points, determination of,\\n444.\\nMendel ejefFs periodic theory, 294.\\nMenthene, 727.\\nMenthol, 726.\\nMercaptan, 505.\\nMercur-ethyl, 539.\\nMercuric chloride, 367.\\niodide, 368.\\nMercur-methyl, 539.\\nMercurous chloride, 366.\\niodide, 368.\\nMercury, 362.\\natomicity of, 370.\\ncyanide, 467.\\nfulminate, 495.\\nnitrates, 369.\\noxides, 364.\\nsulphates, 369.\\nsulphide, 364.\\ntests, 370.\\nMesitylene, 716.\\nMesoxalyl-urea, 626.\\nMetacetone, 644.\\nMetaldehyde, 555.\\nMetallic carbonates, 287.\\nchlorides, 258.\\nhydrates, 250, 256.\\nnitrates, 283.\\noxides, 250.\\nchemical properties of, 253,\\nclassification of, 251.\\nsulphates, 285.\\nsulphides, 257.\\nMetals, 243.\\nclassification of, 289, 296.\\ndiatomic, 290.\\ngeneral properties of, 243.\\nmonatomic, 290.\\nnatural state and extraction,\\n247.\\ntetratomic, 293.\\nMetamerism, 445.\\nMetastyrolene, 730.\\nMetaxylene, 714.\\nMethane, 484.\\nMethylacetylene, 576.\\nMethylal, 488.\\nMethylamine, 533.\\nhydrochloride, 533.\\nMethylaniline, 685.\\nMethylarsines, 497.\\nMethylbenzene, 697.\\nMethyl bromide, 487.\\nMethyl carbylamine, 493.\\nchloride, 487.\\ncompounds, 483.\\ncyanide, 492.\\ncyanurate, 517.\\nhydroxide, 485.\\niodide, 487.\\nnitrate, 493.\\nnitrite, 493.\\noxalate, 486, 608.\\noxide, 487.\\nsalicylate, 710.\\nMethylchloracetol, 558.\\nMethylene chloride, 488.\\ndiacetate, 489.\\ndiethylate, 488.\\niodide, 488.\\nMethylethyl oxide, 502.\\nMethylglycocoll, 603.\\nMethylmorphine, 766.\\nMethylphenyl ketone, 707.\\nMethylphenyl oxide, 680.\\nMica, 384.\\nMillerite, 403.\\nMillon s reagent, 771.\\nMineral waters, 92.\\nMinium, 348.\\nMolecular structures, 237.\\nweights, determination of, 42,\\n440.\\nMolecules, 21.\\nMolybdenite, 414.\\nMolybdenum, 414.\\nMonazite, 385, 423.\\nMonochlorether, 505.\\nMonochlorhydrin, 587.\\nMorphine, 764.\\nMortar, 326.\\nMucilages, 653.\\nMurexide, 625, 628.\\nMycose, 645.\\nMyosin, 777.\\nNaphtha, 520.\\nNaphthalene, 671, 738.\\nNaphthols, 740.\\nNaphthylamines, 741.\\nNarceine, 764.\\nNarcotine, 767.\\nNeurine, 582, 784.\\nNeodymium, 385.\\nNickel, 403.\\nchloride, 404.\\nglance, 403.\\noxides, 403.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0810.jp2"}, "809": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n803\\nNickel plating, 403.\\nsteel, 403.\\nsulphate, 404.\\ntests, 404.\\nNicotine, 754.\\nNight green, 691.\\nNiobium, 371.\\nchlorides, 372.\\noxides, 372.\\nNitrates, 283.\\ntests for, 284.\\nNitric anhydride, 167.\\noxide, 163.\\nNitrobenzene, 674.\\nNitroethane, 509.\\nNitroferro cyan ides, 470.\\nNitroform, 491.\\nNitrogen, 148.\\nchloride, 154.\\nestimation of, 439.\\ngroup of elements, 200.\\nhydrogen, compounds of, 149.\\nin air, 73-77.\\niodide, 155.\\nmonoxide, 161.\\noxides, 160.\\npentoxide, 167.\\nperoxide, 165.\\ntrioxide, 164.\\nNitroglycerin, 590.\\nNitromethane, 493.\\nNitronaphthalene, 738.\\nNitrophenols, 680.\\nNitro-powders, 657.\\nNitroso-amines, 685.\\nNitrosodimethylaniline, 685.\\nNitrosomethylaniline, 685.\\nNitrosophenol, 681.\\nNitrosyl-chloride, 171.\\nNitrothiophene, 746.\\nNitrotoluenes, 700.\\nNitryl, chloride and bromide, 166.\\nNomenclature, 47.\\nNornarcotine, 767.\\nNotation, 47-57.\\nOcclusion, 61.\\n(Enanthic ether, 648.\\nOils, essential, 718.\\nfatty and drying, 592.\\nOlein, 591.\\nOolitic iron, 389.\\nOpium, 763.\\nOrangeite, 423.\\nOrcein, 701.\\nOrcinol, 701.\\nOrgano-metallic compounds, 456,\\n539.\\nOrpiment, 193.\\nOrthite, 389.\\nOrthoxylene, 714.\\nOsmium, 428.\\nOxalates, 606.\\nOxalyl-urea, 629.\\nOxamide, 608.\\nOxides, 50, 251.\\nacid, 251.\\nantimonic, 199.\\nantimonous, 198.\\narsenic, 192.\\narsenious, 189.\\nbasic, 251.\\nboric, 204.\\nchlorocarbonic, 219.\\nchlorous, 133.\\ncupric, 358.\\ncuprous, 357.\\nferric, 397.\\nferroso-ferric, 397.\\nferrous, 396.\\nhypochlorous, 132.\\nmanganic, 405.\\nman^anoso-manganic, 405.\\nmercuric, 364.\\nmercurous, 364.\\nmetallic, 250.\\nclassification of, 251.\\nmolybdic, 414.\\nniobic, 372.\\nnitric, 163.\\nnitrous, 161.\\npersulphuric, 120.\\nphosphoric, 183.\\nplumbic, 347.\\nplumboso-plumbic, 348.\\nsaline, 251.\\nsilicic, 208.\\nsingular, 251.\\nstannic, 418.\\nstannous, 418.\\nsulphuric, 110.\\nsulphurous, 107.\\ntantalic, 372.\\nvanadic, 370.\\nOxindol, 737.\\nOxygen, 64.\\nin air, 73.\\nliquefaction, 67.\\nmanufacture, 66.\\npreparation, 65.", "height": "4778", "width": "2920", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0811.jp2"}, "810": {"fulltext": "804\\nINDEX.\\nOxygen properties, 66.\\nOxyhemoglobin, 779.\\nOxyhydrogen blowpipe, 69.\\nOxyphenols, 693.\\nOzone, 69.\\ncomposition, 72.\\nformation, 70.\\nin air, 80.\\nproperties, 71.\\ntests for, 69.\\nPalladium, 427.\\nPalmitin, 591.\\nPapaverine, 764.\\nParacetphenetidine, 769.\\nParacyanogen, 463.\\nParaffin, 520.\\nParaldehyde, 555.\\nPararosaniline, 690.\\nParaxylene, 714.\\nParchment paper, 656.\\nParis violet, 691.\\nPectic matters, 662.\\nPelargonic ether, 648.\\nPentachlorethane, 507.\\nPentamethylene diamine, 584,\\nPentenes, 574.\\nPepsin, 778.\\nPeptones, 773.\\nPerchloraldehyde, 505.\\nPerchlorether, 505.\\nPerkins s reaction, 731.\\nPerseitol, 635.\\nPetroleum, 520.\\nether, 520.\\nPhellandrene, 723.\\nPhenacetin, 770.\\nPhenanthrene, 742.\\nPhenetidines, 769.\\nPhenetol, 680.\\nPhenol, 677.\\nethers of, 680.\\nPhenols, 664.\\nPhenyl cyanide, 677.\\nnitro-, 680.\\nnitroso-, 680.\\noxide, 680.\\nPhenylacetylene, 732.\\nPhenylamine, 683.\\nPhenylhydrazine, 554, 676.\\nPhenylhydrazones, 554.\\nPhenyllactosazone, 645.\\nPhenylmaltosazone. 645.\\nPhenylmethane, 697.\\nPhloretin, 659.\\nPhloridzin, 659.\\nPhloroglucinol, 696.\\nPhosgene gas, 219.\\nPhosphine, 179.\\nPhosphines, 456.\\nPhosphonium, 177.\\nPhosphoric anhydride, 183.\\nethers, 514.\\nPhosphorus, 171.\\namorphous, 173.\\nbromide, 179.\\niodide, 180.\\noxides, 180.\\noxychloride, 179.\\npentachloride, 178.\\npentoxide, 183.\\npoisonous propeities, 174,\\nsulphides, 186.\\nsulphochloride, 179.\\ntrichloride, 178.\\nPhthaleins, 715.\\nPhthalic anhydride, 715.\\nPicolines, 750.\\nPinacolin, 558.\\nPinacone, 558, 578.\\nPiperidine, 748, 750.\\nPiperine, 755.\\nPitchblende, 409.\\nPlaster of Paris, 328.\\nPlatinum, 424.\\nblack, 62, 425.\\nchlorides, 426.\\nsponge, 425.\\nPlumbago, 211.\\nPolymerism, 445.\\nPopulin, 658.\\nPorcelain, 384.\\nPotash, caustic, 288.\\nPotassamide, 155.\\nPotassium, 297.\\nacetate, 548.\\nacid carbonate, 305.\\nacid sulphate, 303.\\namide, 155.\\nbromide, 301.\\ncarbonate, 304.\\nchlorate, 303.\\nchloride, 300.\\nchromate, 412.\\ncyanate, 475.\\ncyanide, 467.\\ndichromate, 412.\\nethylate, 501.\\nferricyanide, 469.\\nferrocyanide, 468.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0812.jp2"}, "811": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n805\\nPotassium hydrate, 298.\\niodide, 300.\\nisocyanate, 474.\\nmanganate, 406.\\nmethylate, 486.\\nnitrate, 301.\\noxalates, 607, 608.\\noxides, 298.\\nperchlorate, 304.\\npermanganate, 407.\\npicrate, 682.\\nsulphate, 303.\\nsulphides, 299.\\nsulphocyanate, 482.\\ntartrates, 618.\\ntests, 305.\\nthiocyanate, 482.\\nPottery, 384.\\nlead glazing, 349.\\nPraseodymium, 385.\\nPropenyl tribromide, 589.\\ntrinitrate, 590.\\nProprionitrile, 508.\\nPropyl alcohol, 522.\\niodide, 522.\\nPropylene glycols, 586.\\nPropylenes, 573.\\nPropylethylene, 575.\\nProteids, 770.\\nPrussian blue, 401, 469.\\nPseudocumene, 717.\\nPurple of Cassius, 376.\\nPurpurin, 744.\\nPutrescine, 584.\\nPyridic bases, 747.\\nPyridine, 749.\\nPyrite, 398.\\nPyrocatechin, 693.\\nPyrochlorite, 371.\\nPyrogallol, 713.\\nPyrolusite, 406.\\nPyroxylin, 656.\\nPyrrol, 747.\\nPyrrolidine, 747.\\nPyrroline, 747.\\nQuercite, 729.\\nQuercitrin, 657.\\nQuinaldine, 751.\\nQuinhydrone, 694.\\nQuinicine, 758.\\nQuinidine, 758.\\nQuinine, 759.\\nQuinoline, 750.\\nQuinone, 694.\\nQuinone dioxime, 696.\\nmonoxime, 681, 696.\\nRadicals, diatomic, 460.\\nmonatomic, 448, 458.\\npolyatomic, 459.\\nRare earths, 388.\\nRaffinose, 645.\\nRealgar, 193.\\nRed precipitate, 364.\\nResorcinol, 693.\\nRespiration, 69, 783.\\nRhamnose, 636.\\nRhodium, 427.\\nRichter s laws, 265.\\nRochelle salt, 618.\\nRosaniline, 689.\\ncolors, 691.\\nRubidium, 315.\\nRuby, 381.\\nRuthenium, 427.\\nRutile, 421.\\nSaccharin, 638.\\nSaccharose, 640.\\nSafety-lamp, 229.\\nSalicin, 658.\\nSalicyl aldehyde, 708.\\nSaligeninol, 658, 708.\\nSaliretin, 658.\\nSaltpetre, 302.\\nChili, 302.\\nSalts, 53, 262.\\naction of acids, 277.\\nbases, 279.\\nelectricity, 274.\\nheat, 273.\\nmetals, 276.\\nsalts, 280, 282.\\nwater, 268.\\nefflorescent, 270.\\nneutral, acid and basic, 264.\\nSamarium, 389.\\nSamarskite, 389.\\nSandmeyer s reaction, 687.\\nSaponification, 593.\\nSapphire, 381.\\nSarcine, 788.\\nSarcosine, 603, 632.\\nSatin spar, 328.\\nSaturated hydrocarbons, 517.\\nScandium, 389.\\nScheelite, 414.\\nSelenium, 121.\\nSilica, 208.\\n68", "height": "4793", "width": "2933", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0813.jp2"}, "812": {"fulltext": "806\\nINDEX.\\nSilica, soluble, 210.\\nSilicon, 204.\\nchloride, 206.\\ncrystallized, 205.\\nfluoride, 207.\\noxide, 208.\\nSilicon-ethyl, 538.\\nSilver, 317.\\nacetate, 550.\\nassay, 322.\\nchloride, 320.\\ncupellation, 318.\\nfulminate, 495.\\nfulminating, 320.\\niodide, 321.\\nmetallurgy of, 317.\\nnitrate, 321.\\noxide, 320.\\nPatio process, 318.\\nspitting of, 319.\\nsulphide, 320.\\ntests, 322.\\nWashoe process, 318.\\nSilvering, 322.\\nSkatol, 738.\\nSlow combustion, 68.\\nSmalt, 401.\\nSmaltite, 401.\\nSmithsonite, 337.\\nSoap, 593.\\nSodio-potassium tartrate, 616.\\nSodium, 306.\\nacetate, 549.\\nacid carbonate, 313.\\nacid sulphate, 310.\\nborate, 313.\\ncarbonate, 310.\\nchloride, 308.\\ndioxide, 307.\\nethylate, 501.\\nhydracrylate, 601.\\nhydrate, 307.\\nhydrazoate, 160.\\nhydros ulphite, 110.\\nhyposulphite, 110.\\nmanufacture of, 306.\\nCastner s process, 307.\\nDeville s process, 306.\\nNetto s process, 307.\\nnitroferrocyanide, 470.\\noxides, 307.\\nphosphates, 313.\\nsulphate, 309.\\nsulphide, 308.\\nsulphydrate, 308.\\nSodium tests, 314.\\nthiosulphate, 119.\\ntungstate, 415.\\nuranate, 409.\\nSolubility, coefficient of, 67.\\nSolution, 89, 268.\\nsaturated, 269.\\nSorbinose, 640.\\nSorbitol, 634.\\nSpathic iron, 390, 400.\\nSpecific heat, 44.\\nSpectrum analysis, 315.\\nSpermaceti, 528.\\nSperrylite, 424.\\nSphalerite, 337.\\nSpiegeleisen, 394.\\nSpodumene, 315.\\nStannethyls, 540.\\nStannodiethyl, 540.\\nStannotetrethyl, 541.\\nStarch, 650.\\nsoluble, 652.\\nmononitrate, 652.\\nStarches, 635.\\nStassfurth salt, 305.\\nStearin, 591.\\ncandles, 592.\\nStearoptenes, 718.\\nSteel, 394.\\nStereoisomerism, 614.\\nStibine, 196.\\nStibines, 456.\\nStolzite, 414.\\nStrontianite, 331.\\nStrontium, 330.\\ncarbonate, 331.\\nchloride, 331.\\nnitrate, 331.\\nsaccharate, 644.\\nStrychnine, 762.\\nStyracin, 731.\\nStyroline, 730.\\nSuccinic anhydride, 611.\\nSuccinyl chloride, 611.\\nSugar, cane, 640.\\nfruit, 639.\\ngrape, 637.\\ninverted, 643.\\nmilk, 644.\\nSugars, 635.\\nSugar of lead, 549.\\nSulphates, 285.\\ntests for, 287.\\nSulphides, metallic, 257.\\nSulphobenzide, 677.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0814.jp2"}, "813": {"fulltext": "INDEX.\\n807\\nSulphocarbamide, 473.\\nSulphonal, 582.\\nSulphonic acids, 664.\\nSulpho-urea, 482, 483.\\nSulphur, 98.\\nanalogies with oxygen, 102.\\nchlorides, 136.\\ndimorphism of, 100.\\ndioxide, 106, 107.\\noxygen acids, 106.\\nperoxide, 106, 120.\\nsesquioxide, 106, 107.\\nsoft, 100.\\ntrioxide, 106, 110.\\nSulphuric anhydride, 111.\\nSulphurous anhydride, 107.\\nSulphuryl chloride, 110, 116.\\nSupersaturation, 271.\\nSynaptase, 658.\\nSyntonin, 777.\\nTannin, 659.\\nTantalite, 371.\\nTantalum, 371.\\nchloride, 372.\\noxide, 372.\\nTartar-emetic, 618.\\nTartaric anhydride, 617.\\nTartrates, 618.\\nTartronyl-urea, 627.\\nTaurine, 585.\\nTautomerism, 697.\\nTellurium, 121.\\nTerebene, 721.\\nTerpenes, 718.\\nTerpin, 721.\\nhydrate, 721.\\nTerpinene, 723.\\nTerpinolene, 723.\\nTetrachlorethane, 507.\\nTetrachlorether, 505.\\nTetrachlorethylene, 571.\\nTetramethylammonium, 534.\\nTetramethylene diamine, 584.\\nTetrethylammonium, 535.\\nThalline, 770.\\nThallium, 354.\\nThebaine, 764.\\nTheine, 768.\\nTheobromine, 768.\\nThermo-chemistry, 240.\\nThiophene, 672, 746.\\nThiophtene, 746.\\nThiotolene, 746.\\nThioxene, 746.\\nThorite, 389.\\nThorium, 423.\\nThulium, 389.\\nThymol, 718.\\nTin, 416.\\ndichloride, 419.\\noxides, 418.\\nsulphides, 419.\\ntests, 421.\\ntetrachloride, 420.\\nTinctures, 500.\\nTinplate, 417.\\nTitanium, 421.\\ndioxide, 421.\\nToluene, 697.\\nchloro- 699.\\nnitro- 700.\\nToluidines, 701.\\nTopaz, 381.\\nTrehalose, 645.\\nTribenzylamine, 703.\\nTribromhydrin, 589.\\nTrichloraldehyde, 556.\\nTrichlorethane, 507.\\nTrichlorhydrin, 588.\\nTriethylamine, 535.\\nTriethylphosphine, 537.\\nTrimethylamine, 534.\\nTrimethylbenzenes, 716.\\nTrimethylcarbinol, 523.\\nTrimethylene, 571.\\nTrimethylethylene, 572.\\nTrimethylrosaniline, 691.\\nTrinitroacetonitrile, 493.\\nTrinitroglycerol, 590.\\nTrinitrophenol, 681.\\nTrioxymethylene, 545.\\nTriphenylrosaniline, 691.\\nTriphyline, 315.\\nTropaeolines, 689.\\nTrypsin, 778.\\nTungsten, 415.\\nTungstic oxide, 415.\\nTurnbull s blue, 470.\\nTurpentine, 720.\\nTurpeth mineral, 370.\\nType metal, 196.\\nchemical, 88.\\nTyrosine, 712, 772.\\nUranite, 409.\\nUranium, 409.\\nchlorides, 410.\\noxides, 409.\\nyellow, 409.", "height": "4763", "width": "2890", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0815.jp2"}, "814": {"fulltext": "808\\nINDEX.\\nUranyl nitrate, 410.\\nUrea, 477.\\nUreas, compound, 481.\\nUreides, 626.\\nUrethane, 515, 516.\\nVanadinite, 370.\\nVanadium, 370.\\nbronze, 371.\\nVerdigris, 550.\\nVermilion, 365.\\nVinegar, 545.\\nVitriol, blue, 360.\\ngreen, 399.\\nwhite, 340.\\nWater, 80.\\nanalysis, 81.\\ncharcoal filter for, 215.\\ndissociation, 86.\\nhard, 90.\\nin air, 78.\\nmaximum density, 85.\\nmineral, 92.\\nacidulous or gaseous, 92.\\nalkaline, 93.\\nchalybeate, 93.\\nsaline, 94.\\nsulphatic, 94.\\nsulphur, 95.\\nnatural state of, 89.\\nof crystallization, 270.\\nproperties of, 85, 86.\\nreactions of, 87.\\nsoft, 90.\\nsolvent properties of, 89.\\nsynthesis of, 82.\\nWax, 528.\\nWelsbach light, 423, 424.\\nWhite vitriol, 340.\\nlead. 352.\\nprecipitate, 367.\\nWillemite, 337.\\nWine, 648.\\nWitherite, 333.\\nWolfram, 414.\\nWood-spirit, 485.\\nWurtzite, 340.\\nXanthine, 787.\\nXylenes, 714.\\nXyloidin, 652.\\nXylose, 636, 654.\\nYeast, 590.\\nYtterbium, 389.\\nYttria, 388.\\nYttrium, 389.\\nYttrotantalite, 371.\\nZeolites, 384.\\nZinc, 337.\\nchloride, 340.\\nhydracrylate, 601.\\nlactate, 600.\\noxide, 339.\\nsulphate, 340.\\nsulphide, 340.\\ntests, 341.\\n-ethyl, 539.\\n-methyl, 539.\\nZircon, 422.\\nZirconium, 422.\\nTHE END.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0816.jp2"}, "815": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4783", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0817.jp2"}, "816": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0818.jp2"}, "817": {"fulltext": "Thomas s Medical Dictionary.\\nA Complete Pronouncing Medical Dictionary. Em-\\nbracing the Terminology of Medicine and the kindred Sciences,\\nwith their Signification, Etymology, and Pronunciation. With an\\nAppendix, comprising an Explanation of the Latin Terms and\\nPhrases Occurring in Medicine, Anatomy, Pharmacy, etc. to-\\ngether with the Necessary Directions for writing Latin Prescrip-\\ntions, etc., etc. By Joseph Thomas, M.D., LL.D., Author of\\nthe System of Pronunciation in Lippincott s Pronouncing Gazet-\\nteer of the World and Pronouncing Dictionary of Biography\\nand Mythology. On the basis of Thomas s Comprehensive\\nPronouncing Medical Dictionary.\\nImperial 8vo. 844 pages. Extra cloth, $3.00; sheep, $3.50.\\nI have examined it with especial reference to the materia medica and\\ntherapeutics, and find it greatly in advance of anything of the kind we have\\nhad for a number of years. In fact, a need existed for just such a book,\\nand I will certainly recommend it to my class as the best of its kind. Its un-\\nquestioned merits wi?i soon supplant all others. Prof. J. A. McCorkle,\\nLong Island College Hospital Brooklyn, N. Y.\\nIt is just the book for a medical or any other student, and it should be in\\nthe office of every physician. This dictionary supplies a place that has never\\nbeen filled. I have looked it through and find all the new words that I have\\nsought. Prof. A. F. Patton, College 0/ Physicians and Surgeons, Boston,\\nMass.\\nNo better testimonial to the value of the work can be given than the\\nfollowing from Dr. J. Gibbon Hunt, the distinguished microscopist To me\\nthe work is invaluable. I am astonished at its fulness of all recent words which\\nthe modern advance of medical science has introduced. Of course I cannot\\nconceive the learning and great labor which could edit such a complete,\\nthorough, and admirable volume/ We can add nothing further save that the\\nbook should be in the hands of every physician and every student in the land.\\nSt. Joseph Medical Herald.\\nFor sale by all Booksellers, or will be sent by the Publishers, free oj\\nexpense, on receipt of the price.\\nJ. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY\\n715-717 MARKET STREET,\\nPHILADELPHIA, PA.", "height": "4777", "width": "2909", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0819.jp2"}, "818": {"fulltext": "United States Dispensatory.\\nThe 17th edition of this indispensable guide and authority has\\nbeen carefully and thoroughly revised upon the basis of the New\\nPharmacopoeia by the editors, H. C. Wood, M.D., LL.D., Joseph\\nP. Remington, Ph.M., F.C.S., and Samuel P. Sadtler, Ph.D.,\\nF.C.S.\\nAll the New Remedies have been ably considered, both from\\nthe stand-point of the physician and that of the practical pharma-\\ncist. Matter really obselete has been replaced by that which is now\\nnecessary, while none of the valuable features which have given\\nsuch deserved popularity to former editions have been sacrificed.\\nCloth extra, $7.00; best leather, raised bands, $8.00; half\\nRussia, raised bands, $9.00. For facility of reference,\\nDenison s Patent Index will be inserted for 50 cents addi-\\ntional to these prices.\\nThe work is recognized by the government of the United States as the\\nstandard work of reference, and is endorsed and universally used by colleges\\nof medicine and pharmacy and State examining boards.\\nThe work is well worthy of appreciation on the part of all interested in\\nthe progress of medicine and pharmacy, and we bespeak for it not merely a\\nplace upon the bookshelf of every pharmacist, but a careful perusal, as em-\\nbracing much that is important in the way of current information, and as con-\\ntaining valuable matter as a work of ready and convenient reference.\\nDruggists Journal.\\nThe book is bound to have an enormous sale, as it is a positive necessity\\nto all who wish a complete compendium of drugs and medicines. Minne-\\napolis Medical Journal.\\nThis is undoubtedly the most important edition of this voluminous and\\nindispensable work yet issued not because it is the latest, but because it has\\ngathered within its capacious limits everything that is new in materia medica\\nor therapeutics, chemistry, and pharmaceutical research. Philadelphia\\nClinical Record.\\nWe commend this work as a most valuable addition not only to pharma-\\nceutical literature, but to the medical profession as almost invaluable. Its\\nliterature, its chemistry, and its pharmacy are fully up to any similar work here\\nor abroad of its kind, and the high standard of excellence in the past is only\\nenhanced by the thoroughly reliable and trustworthy work of the present\\nedition. Pharmaceutical Record.\\nFor sale by all Booksellers, or will be sent by the Publishers free of\\nexpense, on receipt of the price.\\nJ. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY,\\n715-717 MARKET STREET,\\nPHILADELPHIA, PA.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0820.jp2"}, "819": {"fulltext": "Practical Lessons in Nursing.\\n1 2 mo. Extra Cloth, $1.00 each.\\nI. The Nursing and Care of the Ner=\\nvous and the Insane.\\nBy Chas. K. Mii,i,S, M.D., Professor of Diseases of the Mind\\nand Nervous System in the Philadelphia Polyclinic and\\nCollege for Graduates in Medicine Neurologist to the\\nPhiladelphia Hospital, etc.\\nThe book is a valuable one, and should be read by every nurse as\\nwell as by physicians who realize the importance of extra-rnedical in-\\nfluences and agencies in the cure of disease. N. Y. Medical Digest.\\nII. Maternity; Infancy; Childhood.\\nThe Hygiene of Pregnane} the Nursing and Weaning of In-\\nfants the Care of Children in Health and Disease. Adapted\\nEspecially to the Use of Mothers or Those Intrusted with\\nthe Bringing up of Infants and Children, and Training\\nSchools for Nurses, as an Aid to the Teaching of the Nurs-\\ning of Women and Children. By John M. Keating, M.D.\\nThe first part of this book is intended for mothers, giving them\\njust that sound, practical advice they so much need, the observance of\\nwhich must result in healthier women and offspring. For her own sake\\nand for the sake of her child, we wish every mother had a cop}- of this\\nbook Practice, Rich m ond.\\nIII. Outlines for the Management of\\nDiet;\\nOr, The Regulation of Food to the Requirements of Health\\nand the Treatment of Disease. By E. T. Bruex, M.D.\\nPlvysicians cannot be cooks, but have a right to expect nurses to\\nknow how to prepare the proper food as well as druggists should know\\nhow to compound medicines. For this reason the little book will serve a\\nvaluable purpose and cannot be recommended too highly. Cincinnati\\nLancet-Clinic.\\nIf not obtainable at your Bookseller s, send direct to the Publishers,\\nwho will forward the books, free of postage, promptly on receipt of the\\nprice.\\nJ. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY, Publishers,\\n715 and 717 Market St., Philadelphia.", "height": "4772", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0821.jp2"}, "820": {"fulltext": "Practical Lessons in Nursing.\\ni2mo. Extra Cloth, $1.00 each.\\nIV. Fever Nursing.\\nDesigned for the Use of Professional and Other Nurses, and\\nespecially as a Text-Book for Nurses in Training. By J. C.\\nWilson, A.M., M.D., Visiting Physician to the Philadel-\\nphia Hospital and to the Hospital of the Jefferson College\\nFellow of the College of Physicians, Philadelphia Mem-\\nber of the American Association of Physicians, etc.\\nSuch books as constitute this series are invaluable in the training of\\nnurses, and should be added to the reading course for nurses in all our\\nhospitals. Dr. Wilson s treatise keeps the series up to the high standard\\nof its predecessors. Indianapolis Medical Journal.\\nV. Diseases and Injuries of the Ear:\\nTheir Prevention and Cure. By Chari.es H. Burnett, A.M.,\\nM.D., Aural Surgeon to the Presbyterian Hospital, and one\\nof the Consulting Aurists to the Pennsylvania Institution\\nfor the Deaf and Dumb, Philadelphia Lecturer on Otology,\\nWomen s Medical College of Pennsylvania, etc.\\nThe instructions contained in these books are applicable to almost\\nany form of disease, excepting surgical cases. They can be recommended\\nin the strongest terms to nurses and to physicians, and are well written\\nand very handsomely printed. Philadelphia Medical and Surgical Re-\\nporter.\\nVI. Hand=Book of Obstetric Nursing.\\nBy Francis W. N. Haui/Tain, M.D., F.R.C.P. Ed., and James\\nH. Ferguson, M. D. F. R. C. P. Ed. M. R. C. S. Eng. Second\\nEdition. Revised and Enlarged. With 33 Wood Engrav-\\nings.\\nThis series of Practical Lessons in Nursing should be in the library\\nof every physician, and should be given by him to the nurse as a means of\\ncarrying his patient through successfully, and save him many words and\\nvaluable time in explaining to the person in charge just what to do and\\nwhat to avoid. There are now five of these little works, and the price is\\nwithin the reach of all. St. Louis Medical Brief.\\nIf not obtainable at your Bookseller s, send direct to the Publishers,\\nwho will forward the books, free of postage, promptly on receipt of the\\nprice.\\nJ. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY, Publishers,\\n715 and 717 Market St., Philadelphia.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0822.jp2"}, "821": {"fulltext": "Thoroughly up to date.\\nThe jy ew\\nChambers s\\nEncyclopaedia.\\nComplete in ten volumes,\\nNO literary man, no literary home, no library, can afford to be\\nwithout it. It is twenty years later than any similar work,\\nand consequently embraces a large amount of recent informa-\\ntion found in no other encyclopaedia.\\nThe leading men of letters, scientists, statesmen, artists, authors,\\nand clergy have contributed to the work, and the editors have\\nmanifested great care and judgment in the preparation, condensa-\\ntion, and arrangement of the large variety of topics, which are\\ntreated in alphabetical order.\\nThe illustrations, specially engraved, are of superior excellence,\\nwhile the maps have been prepared according to the latest geo-\\ngraphical surveys, and represent all the countries on the globe,\\nincluding maps of all the States and Territories of this country.\\nNumerous articles on American topics, written by A?nerican\\nauthors, are inserted.\\nNothing is lacking to make the work a popular, concise, and\\nreliable encyclopcedia of universal knowledge.\\nPrinting and binding are all that the most fastidious book-lover\\nmight require.\\nIf you would like to see a specimen page of the text, or the\\ncharacter of the illustrations and articles, send your name and\\naddress to the publishers.\\nPrice, in Cloth binding, $30.00; Sheep, $40.00;\\nhalf florocco, $45.00.\\nJ. B. Lippincott Company,\\n715 and 717 Market St., Philadelphia.", "height": "4794", "width": "2931", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0823.jp2"}, "822": {"fulltext": "Lippincott s\\nGazetteer of the World.\\nEDITION OF 1893, REVISED, WITH THE\\nLATEST CENSUS RETURNS.\\nA Complete Pronouncing Gazetteer or Geographical Dictionary\\nof the World, containing Notices of over 125,000 Places, with\\nrecent and authentic information respecting the Countries,\\nIslands, Rivers, Mountains Cities, Towns, etc., in every portion\\nof the Globe. Originally edited by Joseph Thomas, M.D\\nLL.D. One imperial octavo volume of nearly three thousand\\npages. Amplified by a series of Statistical Tables showing\\nI. The area and aggregate population and the population per\\nsquare mile, according to the most recent census returns or as\\nestimated by the best authorities of the natural and political\\ndivisions of the world.\\n2. The growth or decline of the principal cities of the world,\\nas represented by the number of their inhabitants at different\\nperiods.\\n3. The area and population and population per square mile of\\nthe different States and Territories of the American Union at the\\ndates of the several census returns, from 1790 to 1890 inclusive.\\n4. -The area and comparative population of the counties of the\\nseveral States and Territories in 1880 and 1890, and their population\\nper square mile, according to the census returns of 1890.\\n5. The growth or decline of the cities, towns, boroughs, villages,\\nand other minor civil divisions of the States and Territories during\\nthe decade from 1870 to 1880, and from 1880 to 1890, as exhibited\\nby the census returns of those years.\\nSheep binding, $12.00 half Russia, $15.00 2 vols., Sheep,\\n$15.00; 2 vols., half Russia, $18.00. Patent Index, 75\\ncents additional.\\nFor Sale by all Booksellers, or will be sent by the Publishers, free of\\nexpense, on receipt of the price.\\nJ. B. Lippincott Company,\\n715 and 717 Market St., Philadelphia.", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0824.jp2"}, "823": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4765", "width": "2923", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0825.jp2"}, "824": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0826.jp2"}, "825": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4743", "width": "2790", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0827.jp2"}, "826": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4776", "width": "2975", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0828.jp2"}, "827": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4737", "width": "2839", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0829.jp2"}, "828": {"fulltext": "", "height": "4851", "width": "3097", "jp2-path": "elementsofmoder00wurt_0830.jp2"}}